Freshwater Bivalve Ecotoxoicology - Chapter 1 pps

Gregory Cope Department of Environmental and Molecular Toxicology North Carolina State University Raleigh, North Carolina Gainesville, FloridaBrandon A.. Fish & Wildlife Service Virginia

Mindy Yeager Armstead

Potesta & Associates, Inc

Charleston, West Virginia

Virginia Polytechnic Institute

and State University

Blacksburg, Virginia

W Gregory Cope

Department of Environmental

and Molecular Toxicology

North Carolina State University

Raleigh, North Carolina

Gainesville, FloridaBrandon A LockeBiology DepartmentVirginia Polytechnic Instituteand State UniversityBlacksburg, VirginiaMike Lydy

Department of ZoologyFisheries & Illinois Agriculture CenterSouthern Illinois University

Carbondale, IllinoisRichard J NevesDepartment of Fisheries & Wildlife SciencesVirginia Polytechnic Institute

and State UniversityBlacksburg, Virginia

Teresa J NewtonU.S Geological SurveyBiological Resources DivisionUpper Midwest Environmental Sciences CenterLaCrosse, Wisconsin

Andy RobertsU.S Fish and Wildlife ServiceEcological Services

Columbia, Missouri

D Shane RuesslerU.S Geological SurveyGainesville, FloridaMichael H SalazarApplied BiomonitoringKirkland, WashingtonSandra M SalazarApplied BiomonitoringKirkland, Washington

John J Schmerfeld

U.S Fish & Wildlife Service

Virginia Field Office

Gloucester, Virginia

Damian Shea

Department of Environmental

and Molecular Toxicology

North Carolina State University

Raleigh, North Carolina

David J Soucek

Illinois Natural History Survey

Center for Economic Entomology

Champaign, Illinois

Waverly A Thorsen

Department of Environmental

and Molecular Toxicology

North Carolina State University

Raleigh, North Carolina

Theodore W Valenti

Biology Department

Virginia Polytechnic Institute

and State University

Blacksburg, Virginia

John H Van HasselEnvironmental Services DivisionAmerican Electric PowerColumbus, Ohio

Ning WangColumbia EnvironmentalResearch CenterU.S Geological SurveyColumbia, Missouri

G Thomas WattersDepartment of Evolution,Ecology, and Organismal BiologyThe Ohio State University

Columbus, OhioJessica L YeagerPotesta & Associates, Inc

Charleston, West Virginia

Table of Contents

Preface xv

Acknowledgments xvii

Editors xix

Contributors xxi

Chapter 1 Freshwater Bivalve Ecotoxicology 1

John H Van Hassel and Jerry L Farris Scope of Freshwater Bivalve Ecotoxicology 1

Need for a Freshwater Bivalve Ecotoxicology Book 7

Importance of Research on Freshwater Bivalves 10

Roots of Bivalve Ecotoxicology 10

A Need for Fresh Paradigms 11

Freshwater Bivalves as Ideal Biomonitors 11

Freshwater Bivalves as the Most Sensitive Species 12

Biomarkers as Surrogates for Traditional Response Measures 13

Unionids as Drivers of Bivalve Research 13

References 14

Chapter 2 A Review of the Use of Unionid Mussels as Biological Indicators of Ecosystem Health 19

John H Van Hassel and Jerry L Farris Introduction 19

Review of Unionid Mussel Biomonitoring Literature 20

Monitoring of Mussel Populations 20

Collection Techniques 20

Structural/Functional Indices 23

Contaminant Body Burdens 25

Laboratory Testing of Freshwater Mussels 29

Effectiveness of Mussel Biomonitoring 32

Mussels as Sentinels of Environmental Perturbations 32

Mussels as Indicators of Ecological Integrity 35

References 37

Chapter 3 A Brief Look at Freshwater Mussel (Unionacea) Biology 51

G Thomas Watters A Brief History 51

Ecology 52

Reproduction 53

Reproductive Strategies 56

Reproductive Patterns 58

Parting Comments 59

References 59

Chapter 4 Propagation and Culture of Freshwater Mussels 65

Cristi D Bishop, Robert Hudson, and Jerry L Farris Introduction 65

Bivalve Life History: Understanding Early Life Stage Limitations 66

The Need for Artificial Propagation 66

Fish Host Techniques (in Vivo) 67

Dependence on Fish Hosts—An Obligate Trait? 69

Independence from Fish Hosts 71

Artificial Media Culture (in Vitro) 71

History 71

Culture Media Techniques 72

Modification of the Media 72

Success of the in Vitro Cultured Juveniles 75

Shipping Mussels and Glochidia 78

Adult Holding 79

Physiological Transformation—Phases and Comparative Sensitivities of Development 79

Fitness Beyond the “Drop Zone” 81

Juvenile Culture: In-River Holding 82

Juvenile Culture: Hatchery Conditions 82

Restoring Declining Populations: Case Studies 83

Pigeon River, Tennessee 83

Shoal Creek, Alabama and Tennessee 85

Leading Creek, Ohio 85

Middle Fork Little Red River, Arkansas 85

Clinch, Powell, Holston, and Cumberland Rivers, Virginia 85

Clinch River 85

Powell River 86

Holston River 86

Cumberland River 86

Hiwassee River, Tennessee 86

Federal Hatchery Goals 87

Mammoth Spring NFH, Arkansas 87

Propagation 87

Lost Valley SFH, Missouri 87

Warm Springs NFH, Georgia 87

Refugia 87

Propagation 88

White Sulphur Springs NFH, West Virginia 88

Refugia 88

Propagation 88

Genoa NFH, Wisconsin 88

Propagation 88

Critical Uses of Early—Lifestage Unionids for Monitoring 89

References 90

Chapter 5 Laboratory Toxocity Testing with Freshwater Mussels 95

Christopher G Ingersoll, Nicola J Kernaghan, Timothy S Gross, Cristi D Bishop, Ning Wang, and Andy Roberts Introduction 95

Aquatic Toxicity Testing with Glochidia, Juvenile, and Adult Life Stages of Freshwater Mussels 95

Methods for Conducting Acute Water-Only Toxicity Tests with Glochidia of Freshwater Mussels 95

Review of Methods 95

Issues Regarding Use of Methods 99

Methods for Conducting Water-Only Toxicity Tests with Juvenile Freshwater Mussels 104

Review of Methods 104

Issues Regarding the Use of Methods 109

Methods for Conducting Water-Only Toxicity Tests with Adult Freshwater Mussels 110

Review of Methods 110

Issues Regarding the Use of the Methods 110

Methods for Conducting Sediment Toxicity Tests with Freshwater Mussels 113

Review of Methods 113

Issues Regarding Use of Methods 116

Methods for Conducting Host Fish Exposure Toxicity Tests with Freshwater Mussels 117

Review of Methods 117

Issues Regarding the Use of Methods 118

Would Glochidia, While Still in Marsupium of the Adult Female Mussel, Be Exposed to Waterborne Contaminants? 118

Methods for Conducting Toxicity Tests Using Corbicula fluminea as Surrogate Species 119

Review of Methods 119

Aqueous Toxicity Testing 119

Sediment Toxicity Testing 123

Overview of Conditions Used to Conduct Toxicity Tests with Corbicula 123

Issues Regarding the Use of the Methods 126

Conclusions and Recommendations 128

References 129

Chapter 6 In Situ Toxicity Testing of Unionids 135

Mindy Yeager Armstead and Jessica L Yeager Introduction 135

Benefits of in Situ Testing 136

Limitations of in Situ Testing 137

In Situ Methods 137

In Situ Testing with Freshwater Mussels 138

Adult Unionid Mussel in Situ Testing 139

Juvenile Unionid in Situ Testing 141

Kentucky Lake Study 141

Clinch River Study 142

St Croix Riverway Study 144

In Situ Testing with Nonunionid Bivalves 144

Freshwater Clams 145

Nonnative Taxa 146

Conclusions 146

References 147

Chapter 7 Unionid Mussel Sensitivity to Environmental Contaminants 151

Anne Keller, Mike Lydy, and D Shane Ruessler Introduction 151

Metal Toxicity 152

Acute Toxicity of Metals 152

Sublethal Toxicity of Metals 157

Organic Chemical Toxicity 158

Acute Toxicity of Organic Contaminants 158

Sublethal Effects of Organic Contaminants 160

Other Pollutants 162

Summary 162

References 163

Chapter 8 Toxicokinetics of Environmental Contaminants in Freshwater Bivalves 169

Waverly A Thorsen, W Gregory Cope, and Damian Shea Introduction 169

Uptake and Elimination 170

Bioconcentration 170

Bioaccumulation 173

Metabolism and Biotransformation 174

Bioavailability and Biotic Ligand Models 174

Hydrophobic Organic Contaminants 175

Uptake 175

Bioconcentration 185

Elimination 187

Attainment of Steady-State 192

Bioaccumulation and Bioavailability 192

Implications and Potential for HOC Toxicity 193

Metals 194

Uptake 194

Toxic, Nonessential Metals 195

Cadmium 195

Uptake and Accumulation 195

Steady-State and Bioconcentration 199

Elimination 200

Mercury 200

Uptake and Accumulation 200

Elimination 201

Lead 201

Uptake and Accumulation 201

Elimination 202

Silver 202

Uptake and Accumulation 202

Elimination 202

Nickel 202

Tin 203

Uptake and Accumulation 203

Elimination 203

Metal Mixtures and Effects on Toxicokinetics 204

Platinum Group Metals 204

Essential Elements 205

Zinc, Calcium, Copper: Environmental Interactions 205

Bioavailability 205

Metal Detoxification Mechanisms 206

Implications and Potential for Metal Toxicity 206

References 207

Chapter 9 Linking Bioaccumulation and Biological Effects to Chemicals in Water and Sediment: A Conceptual Framework for Freshwater Bivalve Ecotoxicology 215

Michael H Salazar and Sandra M Salazar Introduction 215

Historical Perspective 215

Existing Models 216

Need for a Focused Conceptual Framework 217

Bioaccumulation Model 218

Bioaccumulation Links 218

Tissue Residue Effects 220

Developing Tissue Residue Guidelines—Data Application 220

Copper as a Case Study 221

CBRs for Freshwater Bivalves 223

Copper CBRs for Marine Bivalves 223

Using Caged Bivalves to Establish Tissue Residue Effects Relationships 223

Changes in the Relationships among Exposure, Dose, and Response 225

Caged Bivalve Model 227

Space and Time, Site-Specific Conditions, Natural Factors 231

Gradient Design 232

Conceptual Bivalve Model 233

Bivalves as Indicators of Exposure 234

Bivalves as Indicators of Effects 234

Biomarkers as Indicators of Exposure and Effects 236

Refining, Integrating, and Harmonizing the Models 237

Ecological Risk Assessment as an Umbrella Model 237

The Exposure–Dose–Response Model 238

Links between Tissue Residues and Effects 239

Asking the Right Questions 240

Examining Available Exposure–Dose–Response Data through a Different Lens 241

Using Synoptic Data for Interpreting Results 241

Using All Available Data 242

Environmental Significance 243

The Importance of Mechanistic Studies and Results from Different Species 244

Dietary and Waterborne Metal Exposure in Elliptio and Mytilus 244

Comparison of Effects on Elliptio, Musculium, and Mytilus 244

Comparison of Sub-Cellular Partitioning in Pyganodon and Perca 245

Integration of Unionids into a Comprehensive Monitoring Strategy 246

Integrating Bivalve Ecotoxicology, Statistics, and Caging Studies 247

Potential Pitfalls 248

Summary and Conclusions 249

Recommendations for Future Research 250

References 250

Chapter 10 Biomarker Responses of Unionid Mussels to Environmental Contaminants 257

Teresa J Newton and W Gregory Cope Introduction 257

Biomarker Concept 259

Biotransformation Enzymes 260

Oxidative Stress 263

Amino Acids and Proteins 265

Hematological 267

Immunological 267

Reproductive and Endocrine 267

Neuromuscular 268

Genotoxic 269

Physiological and Morphological 270

Histopathology 270

Osmotic and Ion Regulation 270

Digestive Processes 271

Condition Indices 271

Energetics 273

Valve Activity 275

Growth 276

Summary and Recommendations 278

References 280

Chapter 11 Case Study: Comparison of Asian Clam (Corbicula fluminea) in Situ Testing to Several Nontarget Test Organism Responses to Biocidal Dosing at a Nuclear Power Plant 285

Donald S Cherry and David J Soucek Introduction 285

Materials and Methods 286

Sampling Sites 286

Biocide Description 286

Laboratory Toxicity Testing with Standard Test Organisms 287

Experimental Stream Experiments 287

In Situ Toxicity Testing 288

Benthic Macroinvertebrate Monitoring 289

Statistical Analysis 289

Results 290

Effluent Chronic Toxicity 290

Chironomus Sediment Toxicity 290

Chironomus Testing in Experimental Streams 291

Laboratory Experimental Stream Toxicity with Snails, Mayflies, Fish, and Clams 292

Corbicula Growth in Situ 293

Benthic Macroinvertebrate Monitoring 294

Efficacy of Biocide 295

In Situ 162-Day Asian Clam Test in 1992 297

Sampling/Toxicity Testing Efficiency 300

Discussion 301

Bivalves as Indicator Species 302

Acknowledgments 305

References 305

Chapter 12 Case Study: Discrimination of Factors Affecting Unionid Mussel Distribution in the Clinch River, Virginia, U.S.A 311

John H Van Hassel Introduction 311

Methods 312

Sampling Locations 312

Water Chemistry 314

Sediment Chemistry 314

Faunal Surveys 315

Tissue Measurements 315

Toxicity Testing 315

Data Analysis 316

Results 316

Sampling Locations 316

Water Chemistry 317

Sediment Chemistry 317

Faunal Surveys 320

Tissue Measurements 320

Toxicity Testing 322

Discussion 322

Acknowledgments 330

References 331

Chapter 13 Case Study: Impact of Partially Treated Mine Water on an Ohio River (U.S.A.) Mussel Bed—Use of Multiple Lines of Evidence in Impact Analysis 335

Heidi L Dunn, Jerry L Farris, and John H Van Hassel Introduction 335

Methods 336

Sampling Locations 336

Water Chemistry 337

Sediment Chemistry 338

Mussel Surveys 338

Toxicity Testing 339

Data Analysis 340

Results 340

Water Chemistry 340

Sediment Chemistry 341

Mussel Surveys 341

Toxicity Testing 344

Discussion 345

Acknowledgments 348

References 348

Chapter 14 Case Study: Sensitivity of Mussel Glochidia and Regulatory Test Organisms to Mercury and a Reference Toxicant 351

Theodore W Valenti, Donald S Cherry, Richard J Neves, Brandon A Locke, and John J Schmerfeld Introduction 351

Study Goals 353

Methods 354

Test Organisms 354

Preparation of Mercury Test Solutions 354

Toxicity Tests 354

Reference Toxicant Tests 355

Water Chemistry and Mercury Analysis 355

Data Analysis 355

Results 355

Control Survivorship 355

Mercury Salt Results 356

Methylmercuric Chloride 356

Reference Toxicant Results 361

Standard Regulatory Test Organisms 361

Water Chemistry and Mercury Concentrations 361

Discussion 361

Mercury Tests 361

Sodium Chloride Glochidia Reference Test 364

Acknowledgments 365

References 365

Bivalves constitute one of the largest groups, in terms of biomass, of filter-feeding organisms in manyfreshwater ecosystems Freshwater bivalves have been used in an increasingly diverse array ofecotoxicological applications over the past 30 years Among the four families of freshwater bivalves,there are sharply differing reasons for their use in ecotoxicological research The Corbiculidae,Dreissenidae and, to a lesser extent, the Sphaeriidae, have fulfilled the traditional role ofecotoxicological research organisms These three bivalve families have supported a large percentage

of basic research on contaminant uptake, toxicokinetics, and toxicity testing The fourth freshwaterbivalve family, the Unionidae, has emerged as a critical group for consideration in the field ofecotoxicology over the past 20 years, receiving heightened scientific and regulatory focus as a result

of recently documented declines in North America’s unionid mussel fauna, with greater than 70 percent

of the 297 native species currently considered endangered, threatened, or of special concern

In the field of freshwater bivalve ecotoxicology, as in any field of scientific endeavor, there is theneed for an occasional pause, assessment, and refocus of research accomplishment andcommunication in terms of our research paradigms We hope to at least partially address this needfor reflection and consideration through this book The range of test techniques and monitoringmethods has been applied to freshwater bivalves is extensive, suggesting a wide-scale search forrelevant endpoints and specific indicators representative of this fauna Despite the oft-repeatedpromotion of unionid mussels as ideal biomonitors and sensitive indicators of environmental stress,existing knowledge concerning these organisms has not been synthesized, and a certain amount ofmisinformation regarding the usefulness of mussels as biomonitors and environmental indicatorsneeds review and clarification Three major sessions on molluscan ecotoxicology have been held atSociety of Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry (SETAC) annual meetings (1989, 1994, and1997), and a fourth session in 2003 previewed many of the chapters found in this book Seven nationalmeetings on the conservation and management of freshwater mussels have been held since 1992 Theneed to take the next logical step—a text that synthesizes the burgeoning knowledge in this field—isreadily apparent

This book offers a review, synthesis, and critical assessment of the state-of-the-art of freshwaterbivalve ecotoxicology by some of the leading scientists in the field The intent from the outset, amongthe authors collaborating on this book about freshwater bivalve ecotoxicology, was to provide acollective review of the techniques and approaches being used to assess suspected contaminant impactupon freshwater bivalves The recognized need for input from scientists in the field also challenged us

to relate current achievements in general monitoring of population responses to stressors, fundamentalconcepts of toxicology specific to burrowing bivalves, and useful insights that might offer directionand priority for resolving specific problems challenging protection and conservation efforts Authorsrepresenting a wide-ranging field of interests were invited to lend their viewpoints and expertisetoward a variety of research topics and management issues that have been shared at various meetingsthroughout the past several years Authors were then encouraged to critically analyze respectivechapters beyond simple reviews of existing research in their area of expertise We hope the resultingarray of viewpoints provides a valuable tool for those interested in freshwater bivalve ecotoxicology.Such varying perspectives among researcher experiences and concerns have been gathered in onevolume to provide a sense of both appropriate applications and developmental needs for assessmenttechniques Field and laboratory, physiological and ecological, and impact assessment andtoxicological studies are covered, and research needs within each area of study are identified.Specific case histories demonstrating the use and value of various ecotoxicological approaches areincluded Most importantly, the chapters provide a critical assessment of gaps and weaknesses in thecurrent state of our knowledge on these subjects, providing direction for future research andmanagement tools involving freshwater bivalves

The editors wish to acknowledge the valuable contributions to this book by:

† Those researchers and managers who have supported the ecotoxicology conferencesthroughout the years that contributed to the body of work on bivalves reviewed in this bookand for their ongoing participation in the developing field

† The authors, without whose expertise, time, and scientific acumen this collaboration wouldnot have been possible

† SETAC and its staff in guidance for proposal and sponsorship of this book, identification ofqualified peer reviewers, and subsequent cooperative agreements to ensure publication

We are also especially grateful for the financial support of:

† Arkansas Department of Environmental Quality

† Arkansas State University

† EA Engineering, Science, and Technology

† North Carolina State University

† Presbyterian College

† USGS Upper Midwest Environmental Sciences Center

† USGS Columbia Environmental Research Center