Safety at Work 6 E Part 13 ppsx

The appropriate fire safety signs should be used to indicate the location of fire-fighting equipment and fire alarm call points which should be onfire escape routes.. The factors to be t

4.2.7 Fixed fire-fighting equipment

Fixed fire-fighting equipment is permanently fixed in a building and isdesigned to work automatically in the event of a fire Essentially itcomprises a system of fixed pipes with discharge heads or points for theextinguishing medium at predetermined positions The positioning of thedischarge heads is determined by the type of building, its contents, thefire risk and the type of extinguishant and is normally to standardsdeveloped by fire insurers Once installed and commissioned fixed fire-fighting equipment must be kept in a state of instant readiness Sprinklersystems have the advantage that only the discharge heads in theimmediate vicinity of the fire rupture, thus limiting the extent of waterdamage to areas in the immediate vicinity of the outbreak In older wetsystems that drew their water supply from ponds and rivers, the systemwas kept pressurised by air pressure above the water in a storage tank.This provided an immediate supply of water to a fractured head whichcontinued until the main pumps cut in The flow of water actuated ahydraulic alarm gong

In modern sprinkler systems (shown diagrammatically in Figure 4.2.10)

water is supplied at pressure from the town mains which charges apressure tank When a sprinkler head ruptures, the loss of water pressure

Figure 4.2.10 Diagram of the layout of a typical sprinkler system (Manual of

Firemanship Courtesy the Controller, Stationery Office)

in the supply pipe triggers the alarm valve The alarm is actuated by thealarm valve either by diverting part of the water flow to a hydraulic gong

or by actuating an electrical alarm The pressure tank acts as a buffer toabsorb any water hammer effects and to provide a temporary watersupply if the mains flow is interrupted

Gas systems contain an extinguishant gas at high pressure suppliedfrom gas cylinders

Fixed fire fighting systems have the advantages that they can:

1 detect the fire;

2 raise the alarm;

3 attack the fire; and

4 prevent the fire from spreading;

even when the building is not occupied The most common type of fixedinstallation uses water as the extinguishant However, in situations wherewater could present a hazard or do unacceptable damage an alternativeextinguishant can be used The different types of systems are describedbelow

4.2.7.1 Sprinkler systems

Water sprinkler systems were first developed in the mid-19th century andthe original designs used a discharge head sealed by a fusible solderedstrut These have been superceded by glass bulb sprinkler heads which,

by selecting particular bulbs, can be made to rupture at a range oftemperatures

The main type of sprinkler systems currently in use are:

wet – where all pipes are permanently filled with water;

dry – where the pipes above the main control valve is filled with

compressed air that holds back a pressurised water supply

On the actuation of a sprinkler head the compressed air isreleased allowing water to enter the pipes and dischargethrough the broken head onto the fire;

alternate – are used in areas where the installation is liable to freeze

The system is normally wet but is temporarily drainedduring winter and converted to a dry system;

pre-action – systems are normally dry but are linked to an automatic fire

detection system On actuation of the detection systemwater enters the supply pipes and the system becomes awet one, but water does not discharge until a sprinklerhead breaks

In the UK, sprinkler systems are installed in accordance with the LossPrevention Council (LPC) Rules13which incorporate Part 2 of BS 530610.Further requirements are contained in Part 1 of BS EN 1225914 During

2002 the Fire Protection Association (FPA) produced a new set of

Sprinkler Rules based on the contents of the new BS EN standard TheLPC Rules together with the Comit´e Europ´een des Assurances (CEA)Rules15are now being considered with a view to producing a Europeanstandard for sprinkler installations This may become a requirement of

the Construction Products Directive, Interpretative Document for Safety in

Case of Fire16

In the USA the National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) has revisedits sprinkler rules and produced the new NFPA 13 Sprinkler Code17.4.2.7.1.1 Sprinklers in the protection of buildings

Fire prevention arrangements in buildings include a requirement to

‘compartmentise’ the building with at least one hour fire separationbetween compartments In buildings fitted with sprinklers an ApprovedDocument B18allows some relaxations of this requirement For example,office, shop, commercial, assembly, recreation, industrial, storage andother non-residential premises a 30 minute reduction in the fire separation

is allowed Other requirements of this document include the fitting ofsprinklers in all buildings over 30 metres high and sprinkler protection inall new single storey buildings having a retail floor area of 2000 m2 ormore

4.2.7.1.2 Sprinklers for life safety

Traditionally sprinkler systems were installed to protect buildings andcontents rather than save life However, in 1979 a fire occurred in a retailstore in Manchester in which 10 people died One of the recommenda-tions from the investigation into the cause of the fire was that if sprinklershad been installed the life loss may have been reduced or eliminated Atthat time, while sprinklers had been well proven in the protection ofbuilding structures, there was no evidence that their installation had anyeffect on life safety Research, subsequently undertaken into the role ofsprinklers in saving life, has resulted in official recognition of a fireengineering approach to fire prevention in buildings This allows asprinkler system to be part of the overall fire safety measures in buildings

to which the public have access as well as in workplaces

4.2.7.2 Drencher or deluge system

These systems are usually employed to protect high risk installationssuch as above ground storage tanks for highly flammable liquids or

chemicals A common arrangement, shown in Figure 4.2.11, is for the

system to comprise a series of open drencher discharge heads arranged in

a pattern to ensure that all parts of the installation are drenched A secondsystem of conventional dry sprinkler heads is interspersed with thedrencher heads The conventional system is pressurised by air which alsoretains the main drencher water valve in the closed position In the event

of a fire, a conventional sprinkler head will rupture releasing the airpressure and allowing the main drencher valve to open resulting in theinstallation being drenched

4.2.7.3 Water mist systems

A development to replace halon systems has been water mist systems

in which a system of open discharge heads is used The system isactuated by smoke detectors located within the area to be protected.Operation of one detector raises the alarm and it requires a seconddetector to be actuated before the water is released into the dischargepipework Water for the system is stored in cylinders at high pressureand the discharge heads are designed to produce a fine water mist.Water mist systems use significantly less water than a sprinkler systemand extinguish fires by:

Figure 4.2.11 Diagram of a typical drencher (deluge) system (Manual of Firemanship.

Courtesy the Controller, Stationery Office)

1 cooling – fine droplets of water create large cooling surface area Airentrained in the fire plume assists in the penetration of water dropletsinto the fire;

2 radiant heat suppression – high density of water mist and watervaporisation create a condition for high heat absorption and provide ascreen to reduce radiant heat transfer;

3 oxygen level reduction – when water droplets vaporise, they expandabout 1700 times and displace the air with its oxygen, thus inhibitinggrowth of the fire at the flame base

4.2.7.4 Foam systems

There are several different types of foam systems which can either use atraditional sprinkler pipework system employing a proportional-tank

mechanical foam installation, shown in Figure 4.2.12, in the supply line to

the sprinkler heads or have their own alarm system and discharge

pipework incorporating a pre-mix foam installation, shown in Figure

4.2.13.

Installations using high expansion foam are used to protect largeareas such as aircraft hangars In these installations a number of foamgenerators, each producing foam with expansion ratios of between 200and 1200 to 1, can be connected together For areas containing oil or

Figure 4.2.12 Diagram of a proportional-tank mechanical foam installation (Manual of

Firemanship Courtesy the Controller, Stationery Office)

flammable liquids, foam inlets are provided on the exterior of thebuilding to which the fire brigade can connect their foam-makingbranch pipe Fixed piping transports the foam to the area beingprotected.

4.2.7.5 Dry powder systems

A dry powder system comprises a container in which the powder isstored and which is connected to pipework leading to discharge nozzles

in the protected area On actuation of the system the powder isfluidised in the expellant gas (an inert gas such as nitrogen or carbondioxide) and is conveyed to the nozzles These systems are suitable forfires involving flammable liquids, electrical equipment or where waterdamage must be kept to a minimum They are not suitable in situationswhere there is likely to be a heat sink such that re-ignition could occur.Standards which cover dry powder systems are contained in BS EN12416–2:200119

Figure 4.2.13 Diagram of a pre-mixed foam installation (Manual of Firemanship.

Courtesy the Controller, Stationery Office)

4.2.7.6 Gas systems

Gas systems are used to protect sensitive equipment such as computersuites and electrical equipment and also areas where water damage is notacceptable, such as archive stores The gases used depend on theapplication but fall into three main categories:

Figure 4.2.14 Diagram of battery of CO2cylinders supplying a small gas installation(Manual of Firemanship Courtesy the Controller, Stationery Office)

1 inert gases such as argon, carbon dioxide and nitrogen;

2 chemically produced gases;

3 halon gases which are now strictly controlled and the only permitteduse is in specialist military and aerospace applications

The gas, at high pressure, is stored in cylinders (Figure 4.2.14) which are

usually located outside the area being protected Actuation of the system

is by automatic fire detectors Because the gases present a health hazardwhen installed in a workplace area, discharge is initiated in two stages Apre-discharge alarm is sounded when the first detector operates allowingany staff present to evacuate the area Gas discharge occurs only when thesecond detector is actuated

BS ISO 1452020 series of standards covers gas fire-extinguishingsystems with each part dealing with a different extinguishant Generalrequirements can be found in part 1 of this series

4.2.8 Fire safety signs

The posting of fire safety signs has been a legislative requirement formany years Their primary purpose is to ensure that the occupants andusers of buildings are aware, not only, of escape routes and exits but also

of any hazards and dangers that may be present

4.2.8.1 Current legislation

The EU identified the need to have a unified system of signs andsymbols that could be recognised throughout the Union and introducedthe Safety Signs Directive21 that has been implemented in the UK inRegulations22 which require the provision and maintenance of appro-priate signs to:

1 warn workers of any risk to their health and safety;

2 indicate safe exit routes;

3 identify the location of fire-fighting equipment

The signs specified in these Regulations also satisfy the requirements forfire safety signs required by other legislation (such as the Fire PrecautionsAct 1971, The Fire Precautions (Workplace) Regulations 1997 (asamended))

The signs required by these Regulations are pictograms of specifiedshapes, colours and patterns that give the appropriate information Thepictograms may be supported by a written caption but written notices ontheir own are not acceptable as fire safety signs The object of usingpictograms is to make them understandable to all regardless ofknowledge of the local language Thus, the words FIRE EXIT on theirown are not permitted but the words FIRE EXIT used in conjunction with

a pictogram is allowed To prevent confusion with other safety signs, all

safety signs relating to fire alarm and fire-fighting equipment are square

or rectangular in shape with a white pictogram on a red background Thesigns used on fire escape routes are the same as emergency exit signs, i.e.square or rectangular with a white pictogram on a green background.Typical examples are shown on the inside covers of this book

The appropriate fire safety signs should be used to indicate the location

of fire-fighting equipment and fire alarm call points which should be onfire escape routes If equipment and call points are located together theycan be mounted on a panel to form a Fire Point In crowded and irregularshaped work areas high level signs can make the location of fire exitroutes and fire-fighting equipment easier to identify

4.2.9 Means of escape in case of fire

The principle aim in establishing a means of escape in case of fire is toprovide a safe escape route that everyone who may be on the premisescan follow by their unaided efforts regardless of where the fire occurs.When designing escape routes consideration must be given to the abilitiesand needs not only of the fit but also of the old, the young, the infirm andthe disabled

The factors to be taken into consideration when assessing means ofescape include:

1 an assessment of the fire risk;

2 the construction and surface finish of walls, floors and ceilings inworkplaces and on escape routes;

3 the likely maximum number of occupants in the building;

4 the ability of the occupants to respond to the fire alarm and make theirway to safety;

5 the distance of travel to a place of safety;

6 the degree of fire protection provided by escape corridors andstaircases;

7 the provision of information and guidance such as exit, directionalsigns, emergency lighting, etc

Certain types of equipment that are not officially recognised as means ofescape include:

1 lifts (except for a specially designed lift for evacuation of disabledpersons);

2 portable ladders and throw-out ladders;

3 manipulative apparatus and appliances such as fold-down ladders,chutes, self-rescue and lowering devices

4.2.9.1 Assessment of the fire risk

When assessing the risk to the occupants of a premises from fire and thesafety of the means of escape, account must be taken of the type and

materials of construction of the building, the type and condition of thecontents and particularly its flammability, the likely rapidity of spread ofsmoke and flames and the use to which the building is being put Fire riskassessments are dealt with in detail in section 4.2.13.

4.2.9.2 Construction and surface finish of walls, floors and ceilings

The construction and surface finish of escape routes are important factors

in the degree of protection provided in the event of a fire In general, thefire resistance of escape routes should be at least 30 minutes but in highrisk buildings a higher standard of protection may be necessary.Regulations23require that circulation spaces and escape routes should beClass O (the highest standard), rooms (except small rooms) Class 1 and

small rooms and small areas other than rooms Class 3 (see also Table

4.2.4) These latter two classifications are determined by reference to

criteria given in a standard24

These documents also cover the fire resistance of walls, floors anddoors Additional information is given in a guide25

4.2.9.4 Ability of occupants to respond

Account must be taken of the types of occupants likely to be in an area orpremises and of the proportion who may experience difficulties inresponding to the sounding of an alarm People in wheelchairs or whowalk with sticks or crutches have an obvious disability and may wellneed physical assistance to evacuate the building, while people with poorsight or those suffering from hearing loss have a less obvious disabilitybut may still need assistance in an emergency Elderly people or youngchildren will also need special consideration In hospitals and other carepremises the patients who are bedridden will be totally reliant onassistance to escape

Guidance on the means of escape provisions for disabled people isgiven in Part M of the Building Regulations23 and also in a Code ofPractice26 The concept of refuges and the use of evacuations lifts arecovered but the most important aspect is the need for the effectivemanagement of any evacuation All premises that are likely to containpeople who are not able to respond immediately or quickly to a fireevacuation should have an emergency plan that makes special provisions

to ensure that these people are catered for The special provision couldinclude reduced distances of travel or upgraded means of escape.

4.2.9.5 The distance of travel

Guidance on acceptable distances of travel is contained in the variousdocuments dealing with fire safety where the recommendations are based

Table 4.2.3 Travel distances for various types of premises

Type of premises or part of premises Maximum travel distance1

In one direction (m)

in more than one direction (m)

Residential

b) from bedroom door to exit from floor 9 35

Assembly and recreational

a) buildings used primarily by the disabled 9 18

d) all other assembly or recreational premises 18 45Industrial

Plant rooms, in the building and on the roof top

b) escape route not in open air (overall distance) 18 45c) escape route in open air (overall distance) 60 100

Notes:

1 Where the layout of furniture, equipment and fixtures is not known, the travel distance should

be assumed to be 1.5 times the direct distance of the remotest position a person is likely to be from the fire exit.

2 In hospitals and health care premises the recommendations of the Department of Health’s

‘Firecode’ should be followed.

3 Where a covered shopping complex has only one exit the more restrictive conditions of BS 5588: Part 10 26 apply.

on the risk categorisation of the building (see section 4.2.13.2) and data onthe speed at which escaping persons can travel These recommendations

are summarised in Table 4.2.3 In designing escape routes for new

buildings, because the final layout of furniture and other obstructions isnot known, the travel distance is calculated at 1.5 times the direct distancefrom the remotest location of a person to the nearest fire exit

4.2.9.6 Protection of escape routes

Escape routes from work areas must be constructed to provide protectionfrom the fire – both smoke and flames – and arranged so that smokeseepage is kept to a minimum All doors on escape routes should open inthe direction of travel and be self-closing They should be provided with

a viewing window of Georgean wired or similar protective glass Smokedoors should be fitted with seals to reduce the seepage of smoke

4.2.9.7 Fire escape signage

All fire exit doors should be identified as such by a standard sign andadditional signs, that can be seen from all parts of the occupied area,should be posted to identify emergency escape routes and doors.Directional signs should be used over the full length of the escape route.The final door to the place of safety should be identified on both sides andthe area beyond it kept clear of all obstructions to allow a free and rapidegress

4.2.10 Fire engineering

Fire engineering is the logical application of proven principles based onthe current state of knowledge of materials, structures, behaviour and theassessment of fire risks to the prevention of loss of life and property due

to fire

4.2.10.1 Fire engineering in building design

In line with other legislation, that concerning fires has moved from theprescriptive to the proscriptive using a risk based assessment todetermine the precautionary action needed This change reflects advances

in technology and building methods and allows the provision of a totalfire safety package to be based on a fire engineered solution This isparticularly suitable for large and complex buildings since it allowsflexibility in the application of fire safety principles while maintaining therequired level of fire safety For an engineered solution to be acceptablethe following aspects need to be assessed:

1 the risk of a fire occurring in the first place;

2 the likely severity of a fire based on the fire load of the building and itscontents;

3 the structural resistance of the building to the spread of fire andsmoke;

4 the potential risk to people in and around the building if a fireoccurred

To achieve a satisfactory standard in respect of the above aspects, thefollowing factors need to be considered in the building design:

(a) adequate arrangements for preventing fires;

(b) quick and effective warning of the outbreak of a fire;

(c) use of active fire extinguishing systems (e.g sprinklers);

(d) effective control over smoke movement;

(e) facilities to assist the brigade in fighting a fire (e.g fire-fightingstaircases, rising mains);

(f) training of staff in fire safety procedures and fire evacuation;(g) continuing control of the building under other fire safetylegislation

In order to achieve and prove a satisfactory engineered solution, featuressuch as zone modelling, virtual reality simulations, computational fluiddynamics, risk analysis, fire threat factors and statistical analysis need to

be employed These are specialist techniques and guidance on them isgiven in two standards27,28

A new British Standard29is being prepared to reflect recent changes infire safety practice and procedures, in particular fire risk assessment Thisstandard has been produced to assist architects and designers who do notwant to adhere to the prescriptive guidance found in the ApprovedDocuments to the Building Regulations, Scottish Technical Standards andmost Home Office Guidance, nor get involved with the complexities of afire engineered solution

4.2.10.2 Fire loading

The fire loading of a building is an empirical value given to indicate thepotential gross heat output of the contents if they were completely burnt.The fire loading is becoming an important factor in the calculations forthe fire engineered solution needed to ensure protection of a buildingfrom the effects of a fire There is an inverse relationship between the fireloading density (gross heat output per unit area of floor) and structuralfailure in a building, i.e the higher the fire loading density the quickerwill structural failure occur

The concept of fire loading has its main application in the design ofthose buildings that come outside the scope of the Building Regulationsand, particularly, in those buildings and premises subject to the COMAHRegulations

4.2.11 Fire protection measures

Fire protection measures in buildings are those features in the design anduse that play a role in controlling the spread of fire and allowing theoccupants to escape They can be considered to operate in two separateways – active and passive

4.2.11.1 Active fire protection measures

Active measures are those that react to the presence of fire or theproducts of combustion and initiate actions aimed at extinguishing thefire and ensuring the escape of the building’s occupants Thesemeasures may have been installed as a result of the fire risk assessmentcarried out under the 1997 Regulations or they may have been amandatory requirement of the fire authority as a condition for the issue

of a fire certificate Typical active fire protection measures are sidered below

con-4.2.11.1.1 Fire detection and alarm systems

Automatic fire detection and alarm systems can range from a simplesingle smoke detector in a small office or home to a sophisticated zonedsystem for a large office or works complex Such sophisticated systems,based on a central control board, can identify the location of a fire, givedifferential warnings to adjacent areas and be linked automatically to thelocal fire brigade They have the advantage that they give protection evenwhen the premises are unoccupied

Between these two extremes are the manually operated system,whether by break glass electric alarm points or mechanically operated,which rely on someone detecting the outbreak and taking the appropriateaction to raise the alarm Whichever system is used it is essential that thealarm can be heard in all areas to which the occupants have access,including toilets, remote stores, etc

4.2.11.1.2 Emergency lighting

In buildings occupied during the hours of darkness or where the fireescape route passes through areas that do not have natural lighting,emergency lighting should be provided It must be additional to thenormal artificial lighting and come into operation in the event ofthe failure of the mains supply It is usually operated from batterieseither within the light fitting or at a central location The level ofillumination provided must be sufficient to allow the persons escaping

to see their way safely along the whole of the escape routes to the exitdoors and a place of safety It should illuminate fire safety signs andmay also provide lighting at fire extinguishers and fire alarm callpoints

4.2.11.1.3 Smoke extraction systems and fire dampers

To prevent the build-up of smoke in larger buildings, separate smokeextraction systems may be installed They work independently of thenormal ventilation system and are connected direct with the outside ofthe building Their most common application is in below-ground areas.Operation of the smoke extraction system is triggered by the fire alarmwhich would also shut down the normal ventilating system to reduce thechance of smoke being distributed around the building In normalventilating as well as smoke extraction systems the air is carried in ductsand where these pass through fire break walls between fire compartmentsthey should be fitted with fire dampers which can be actuated either from

a central control or by a fusible link arrangement

4.2.11.1.4 Automatic fire extinguishing systems

Automatic fire extinguishing systems such as sprinklers, drenchers or gassystems operate when the heat of the fire in the region of a detector headreaches predetermined levels and cause the seal in the detector head tofracture releasing the extinguishant These systems can incorporate afacility to raise the alarm

4.2.11.1.5 Active fire protection and smoke stop doors

Pedestrian and vehicular movement between fire compartments should

be through fire resisting doors which, ideally, should be kept closedexcept when allowing passage of people or vehicles If the volume oftraffic is high the fire doors can be held open during normal workinghours provided they are arranged to close automatically in the event of afire, either by magnetic catches linked to the alarm system such that thedoors are released when the alarm is actuated or by fusible links Firedoors form part of the compartmentation of a building

4.2.11.1.6 Staff training and emergency planning

The aim of a fire alarm system is to give warning of a fire and allow thebuilding’s occupants to escape To obtain the greatest benefit from thiswarning, employees should be trained and practised in evacuationprocedures including assembly and roll call The training of staff isdoubly important in buildings to which the public have access Particularemphasis in the training needs to be put on directing members of thepublic to the nearest escape route and ensuring the various areas havebeen completely evacuated An emergency plan should be drawn updetailing actions and procedures in the event of a fire and the need toevacuate the building Fire drills should be carried out regularly to ensurethe evacuation procedures are understood and remembered

4.2.11.1.7 Housekeeping

Piles of rubbish and debris in the workplace are one of the most commoncauses of fires and high standards of housekeeping are an important

feature of fire prevention Horizontal surfaces in overhead areas, such asstructural beams and trusses and attic spaces, allow large amounts ofdust to collect Dust shaken down from roof trusses is a major factor inthe severity of dust explosions in factories, while flames running acrossthe surface of dust can result in a very rapid spread of fire to unexpectedareas This latter feature was one of the causes of the spread of fire in StGeorge’s Chapel at Windsor Castle in 1992.

4.2.11.2 Passive fire protection measures

Passive measures relate to the ability of a building to withstand the effects

of fire and also to prevent the spread of fire These measures are usuallypart of the structure of the building and can result from a requirement ofthe Building Regulations or they may be a mandatory requirement of thefire authority before they will issue a fire certificate

4.2.11.2.1 Fire compartments

The spread of fires can be effectively prevented if the building is dividedinto discrete isolatable areas or fire compartments This effectivelydivides the building into ‘boxes’ of fire resisting construction with theaim of preventing the spread of fire into other compartments andcontaining the heat and smoke within the compartment of origin Thesize and fire resistance of each compartment should comply with therecommendations of the Building Regulations These take account of thetype and quantities of materials and their flammability characteristicsand of any fixed fire fighting measures such as sprinklers which areinstalled Some openings between compartments, such as doors, stair-ways etc., are necessary for the movement of people and vehicles but eachopening must be protected by a door of fire resisting construction thatcloses automatically in the event of a fire to maintain the integrity of thecompartment

4.2.11.2.2 Passive fire protection and smoke stop doors

Fire and smoke stop doors in corridors are installed to prevent the spread

of smoke and fire throughout a building They should be fitted withsmoke seals or intumescent strips at their edges to fill the small gaps thatare necessary to allow the doors to open properly Fire and smoke doorsshould be self-closing If fire doors are held open to facilitate the flow oftraffic, the retaining device must be such that it automatically releases thedoor in the event of a fire Fire and smoke stop doors must not be wedgedopen since this will annul their effectiveness and greatly increases the risk

of fire spreading throughout the building It is important that theautomatic closing equipment on fire doors is maintained in good workingcondition

4.2.11.2.3 Wall linings

Fire can spread very rapidly along the linings of walls and it is importantthat the materials of the fire escape route wall and ceiling linings preventthis Escape routes must be constructed of materials that have the lowestrates of surface spread of flame The permitted materials for lining wallsand ceilings in different work and access areas are determined by the

requirements of the Building Regulations, examples are given in Table

4.2.4.

4.2.11.2.4 Building structural stability

The stability of a building is determined by the architect and the structuralengineer at the design stage when a number of features may beincorporated into the structure to ensure it is not subjected to hightemperatures in the event of a fire These features can include liningstructural parts with a suitable fire resistant covering Where used, it isessential that the lining is kept intact and any damage repaired as soon aspossible While steel is an immensely strong material, it rapidly loses itsstrength when subjected to high temperatures For this reason the steelstructure of a building should be encased in a suitable insulating material.The incident on 11 September 2001 which led to the collapse of the twintowers of the World Trade Center in New York is an example of structuralsteel losing its strength when subjected to high temperatures, on thisoccasion caused by the ignition of aviation fuel

Class Protection area Typical materials

O Circulating spaces and escape

routes

Brickwork, blockwork, concreteceramic tiles, plaster finishes,woodwool slabs, thin vinyl andpaper coverings

1 Larger rooms and places of

assembly but not escape routes

Timber, hardboard, blockboard,chipboard, flock wallpaper, flameretardant thermosetting plastics

3 Small rooms (i.e < 30 m2) Timber, hardboard, blockboard,

chipboard, heavy flockwallpapers, thermosettingplastics, expanded polystyrene

were often enforced through the Fire Authority’s powers to issue firecertificates However, recent legislation has shifted the emphasis of theresponsibility for compliance from the Fire Authority to the employer/occupier The legislation recognises that the fire precautions should berisk based and places a duty on the employer to ensure that theprecautions he implements match the fire risk faced as determinedfrom a fire risk assessment However, ultimately the Fire Authoritystill have a responsibility for checking that the precautions taken areadequate.

4.2.12.1 The Fire Services Act 1947

This Act30 is concerned with the setting up of suitable fire-fightingorganisations in local authorities’ areas It places a number of obligations

on fire authorities including the requirements to:

1 establish a fire brigade and equip it;

2 train staff in fire-fighting and rescue;

3 make arrangements for dealing with emergency calls and for ing members of the brigade;

summon-4 obtain information about buildings in their area;

5 take effective steps to mitigate damage resulting from fire-fighting;

6 make arrangements for giving advice on fire prevention, restricting thespread of fire and means of escape in case of fire;

7 ensure adequate supplies of water will be available for use in case offire

The Act allows fire brigades to:

8 use any convenient and suitable supply of water (but they may beliable to pay compensation for any damage done);

9 pay water undertakings to upgrade water supplies and to provide, fitand mark fire hydrants

The Act also gives the Fire Authority considerable powers to:

10 enter or, if necessary, break into any premises or place in which a firehas or is reasonably believed to have broken out, or any premises orplace it is necessary to enter for the purpose of extinguishing a fire or

of protecting the premises from the effects of a fire;

11 to prosecute any person who obstructs or interferes with fire fightingactivities;

12 the senior fire brigade officer who has sole charge of fire fightingoperations at the scene of a fire can close streets or stop traffic if nopolice are present;

13 prosecute anybody who gives a false alarm of a fire where thepenalties can be a fine or imprisonment for up to three months

4.2.12.2 The Fire Precautions Act 1971

The specific requirements contained in the Fire Precautions Act 197131(FPA) have been considerably modified and extended by the Fire Safetyand Safety of Places of Sport Act 198732and it is necessary to refer to thetwo Acts when considering fire safety requirements

No specific requirements in respect of fire, fire prevention, or fireprecautions are contained in the Health and Safety at Work etc Actalthough under s 78, FPA was extended to include places of work.4.2.12.2.1 Fire certificates

Section 1 of the FPA authorises the designation of those premises that arerequired to have a Fire Certificate Only two Designating Orders havebeen made in respect of:

1 hotels and boarding houses;

2 factories, offices, shops and railway premises

In the case of hotels and boarding houses, a fire certificate is required ifsleeping accommodation for more than six people, being staff or guests,

is provided above the first floor or below the ground floor For factories,offices, shops and railway premises a fire certificate is required if morethan 20 persons are at work in the building at any one time or more than

10 elsewhere than on the ground floor A fire certificate is also requiredfor factories storing or using highly flammable or explosive materialsregardless of how many people are working in the premises

Fire Authorities have the power to exempt premises from therequirement to have a fire certificate if they consider the fire risk to below and there are adequate fire safety arrangements Before issuing acertificate the fire authority may inspect the building, ask for moreinformation including plans or require remedial work to be carriedout

An application for a fire certificate must be made to the fire authority

on form FP1(Rev) For single occupancy buildings, the occupier isresponsible for making the application while in multi-occupancy build-ings it is the owner’s responsibility The responsibility for ensuringcompliance with the conditions of a Fire Certificate rests with the personmaking the application

Once the application for a fire certificate has been made and prior to aninspection or the issue of a fire certificate the occupier must:

1 ensure that the existing means of escape are kept clear and useable atall times;

2 maintain all existing fire fighting equipment in good working order;

3 train all staff in the actions to be taken in the event of a fire

When the fire authority are satisfied that the fire safety arrangements are

of an adequate standard in a building, they will issue a fire certificatewhich will detail:

(a) the use or uses to which the premises may be put;

(b) the means of escape in case of fire, usually indicated on a plan of thebuilding;

(c) the measures for ensuring that the means of escape can be safely andeffectively used at all times, covering fire doors, emergency lightingand fire exit signs;

(d) the means for fighting fires for use by persons in the building (fireextinguishers and hose reels);

(e) the means for giving warning in case of fire;

(f) in the case of a factory, particulars of the quantities of any highlyflammable or explosive materials that may be stored or used in orunder the premises

The fire certificate may also impose requirements to:

(i) maintain the means of escape and keep the escape route free fromobstruction;

(ii) maintain in effective working order the fire fighting equipment andthe fire alarm system;

(iii) train staff in what to do in the event of a fire;

(iv) limit the number of people who may be in the premises or a part ofthe premises at any one time;

(v) keep records of the maintenance of the means of escape, the fighting equipment and the training of staff;

fire-(vi) take any other precautions considered necessary

Once a fire certificate has been issued it must be kept on the premises towhich it relates For buildings which are occupied by more than onecompany then the owner of the building should have a copy of the firecertificate for the whole building and each occupier should have a copy

of the certificate relating to their part of the premises

Any proposed alterations to the building that could affect any itemcovered by the fire certificate must be notified to the fire authority andtheir approval obtained before the work commences

4.2.12.2.2 Appeals and offences

If the owner or occupier of a building considers any requirement imposed

by the fire authority is unreasonable including the time given to carry outany work, they can appeal to a Magistrate’s or Sheriff’s court within 21days of being made aware of that requirement If an occupier or ownercontravenes any requirement of a fire certificate or puts a designatedpremises to use without a fire certificate, he will be guilty of anoffence

4.2.12.2.3 Powers of the fire authority

The powers of the Fire Authority were considerably extended by the FireSafety and Safety in Places of Sport Act 1987 to allow them to issuestatutory notices For premises that are not subject to a Fire Certificate, if

the occupier has not provided reasonable means of escape and fighting equipment, the Fire Authority can issue an Improvement Noticerequiring the matters to be put right In the case of designated premises,

fire-if the fire risk gives rise to immediate danger the Fire Authority can issue

a Prohibition Notice These Notices have the same status as those issued

by other enforcing agencies but appeal against them is to a Magistrate’s

3 require the production of and inspect the Fire Certificate;

4 require the owner, occupier or other responsible person to render anyassistance needed in the carrying out of an investigation orenquiries

The Fire Authority may make a charge for the issue or amendment of aFire Certificate The charge may relate only to the amount of workinvolved in the preparation of the certificate and not any additional costsincurred if it is decided to carry out an inspection of the premises

4.2.12.3 The Fire Certificate (Special Premises) Regulations 1996

These Regulations33 apply to industrial premises where there is a highrisk from a fire involving the materials being processed, such as nuclearsites, explosives factories, etc In such cases, the Regulations transfer theresponsibility for issuing fire certificates from the Fire Authority to theHealth and Safety Executive

4.2.12.4 The Fire Precautions (Workplace) Regulations 1997

The Regulations34 were made to bring into UK law fire precautionrequirements from the EC Framework Directive35 and the WorkplaceDirective36 In doing so these Regulations were extended to includevehicles, offshore installations, tents or moveable structures as workplacepremises, but do not include those premises already covered by or thathave applied for a Fire Certificate

They place obligations on the employer or persons who have control ofpremises to meet the requirements of the regulations in respect of fire-fighting and detection equipment and alarms, training of employees infire escape procedure and to make contact with the local emergencyservices Fire escape routes and exits are to be kept clear at all times andprovided with adequate signage Fire fighting equipment and facilitiesprovided must be properly maintained and kept in effective workingorder The Regulations also amend MHSW Regulations to require the

carrying out of fire risk assessments Enforcement of these Regulations is

by the Fire Authority

4.2.12.5 Environment and Safety Information Act 1988

This Act37 requires that Prohibition Notices issued by Fire Authoritiesunder FPA or by the Health and Safety Executive under HSW shall bekept in a register and be available for inspection by the public onrequest

Where a building has been built or altered in accordance with the

Buildings Regulations a Statutory Bar applies to the Fire Authority which

prevents them from requiring additional structural or other work relating

to means of escape prior to issuing a fire certificate

The equivalent building controls in Scotland are the Building Standards(Scotland) Regulations 199038 which apply to building construction,demolition and change of use They are administered by the Regional orDistrict Council who grant a warrant if they are satisfied that the buildingoperations will conform with the Building Operations (Scotland) Regula-tions 197539 and that the completed building will comply with theRegulations They require that the building operations do not cause ahazard to passers-by The warrant is issued on completion of the work

4.2.13 Fire risk assessment

The process of carrying out a fire risk assessment is similar to that of ageneral risk assessment except that the identification of hazards isrestricted to fire matters It is the findings of a fire risk assessment thatwill determine the type and number of fire extinguishers to be provided.Under the Fire Precautions (Workplace) Regulations 1997 the findings of

a fire risk assessment must be recorded The fire risk assessment shouldcover a defined area of the workplace In small premises the defined areacould be the whole premises whereas for larger places of work thepremises should be divided into discrete sub-areas and each made thesubject of a separate fire risk assessment

A fire risk assessment involves a number of discrete stages that arelisted below and commence with the identification of fire hazards Typical

fire hazards can include the flammable nature of the material beingprocessed, the condition of the machinery, the state of housekeeping, thepresence of rubbish, oil leaks, temporary or faulty wiring, evidence ofsmoking, hot spots and hot surfaces, building structures or equipmentlayout that may impede escape, likely rapidity of spread of smoke andflames, etc Where found, each of these should be recorded with notes ofthe action proposed or taken to eliminate the hazard If the fire hazardcannot be eliminated, action should be taken to reduce its effects to aminimum Thereafter the risk from any remaining hazard should beassessed The fire risk is the likelihood that a fire will occur and theconsequences of that fire for staff in the building.

A simple strategy involving a predetermined sequence of steps willassist in ensuring that a fire risk assessment is effective Typical steps thatcan be followed are:

1 identify the fire hazards;

2 remove or eliminate the hazards where possible;

3 for each of the remaining hazards, identify the people who would be atrisk if a fire started;

4 give each remaining hazard a risk category (low, medium or high);

5 decide on the additional fire safety measures necessary to protect those

at risk;

6 implement the additional measures and check that they are effective;

7 monitor the effectiveness of the control measures and review the riskassessment at regular intervals

The records made of each fire risk assessment should be used as the basisfor monitoring the effectiveness of the measures taken

4.2.13.1 Fire risk categories

For ease of application it is convenient to categorise the fire risk in eachdefined area as either high, medium or low The criteria used for

determining the category of each area should be consistent and Table 4.2.5

lists typical factors that can be used in arriving at a category rating

4.2.13.2 Emergency plan

To support the arrangements made for dealing with a fire, a plan should

be prepared for dealing with unexpected emergencies This shouldoutline the action to be taken to cope with an emergency should one ariseand include the nomination and training of individuals to undertake keyroles When developing an emergency plan the worst case scenarioshould be considered Typical features to be included in the plan shouldbe:

1 action in the event of an emergency – means of escape, assembly point,importance of a roll call to account for everybody on the premises;

2 ensuring staff know the sound and pattern of audible alarms;

3 nominate person or persons to call emergency services;

4 nominate a person to act as guide for the emergency services whenthey arrive on site;

5 appoint an emergency co-ordinator who should be the point of contactwith the emergency services and who should make themselves known

to the relevant services before an emergency arises;

6 appoint area wardens whose duties will include ensuring their area ofresponsibility has been evacuated;

7 make arrangements to ensure the safe evacuation of any staff who needspecial assistance, e.g disabled person;

8 train all employees in the emergency plan procedures

The emergency plan should be in writing to prevent any ambiguity and

so it can be referred to when required When making appointments forspecific duties under the plan, account must be taken of the possibility ofabsences due to holidays, illnesses or other reasons

4.2.14 Access and facilities for the fire brigade

For the fire brigade to be able to deal effectively with a fire and protectlife, it is essential that they have adequate access to all parts of thepremises and that suitable facilities, such as a supply of water, areavailable to them

A section of the Building Regulations23 requires that the buildingdesign and construction incorporate facilities to assist fire-fighters in theprotection of life and include:

1 sufficient means of external access to enable fire appliances to bebrought near to the building for effective use;

2 sufficient means of access into, and within, the building for fire-fightingpersonnel to effect rescue and fight fire;

3 the building to be provided with sufficient internal fire mains and otherfacilities to assist fire-fighters in their tasks;

4 the building to be provided with adequate means for venting heat andsmoke from a fire in the basement

4.2.14.1 Access for fire appliances

Depending on the height of a building access may be required forpumping appliances and turntable ladders/hydraulic platforms Forsmall buildings (of less than 2000 m2floor area or a top storey no higherthan 11 m above ground level) access for pumping appliances is required

to within 45 m of any point on the ‘footprint’ or plan area of the building

or 15% of the perimeter whichever is less onerous For the largest ofbuildings (with a floor area of more than 24 000 m2with a top storey morethan 11 m above ground level) access is required to 100% of the perimeterfor a pumping and a high reach vehicle These distances can be reduced

if the building is fitted with internal fire mains The access roadway needs

to withstand 12.5 tonnes for pumping appliances and 17 tonnes for highreach appliances Roads and gates should be wide enough, there should

be adequate turning circles and the height clearance of overheadpipelines, wires and bridges should be sufficient to accommodate thelargest fire appliance

4.2.14.2 Fire-fighting access shafts

Larger buildings with floors more than 18 m above or more than 10 mbelow ground level should be provided with a fire-fighting shaft thatcontains fire-fighting lifts Fire-fighting shafts should be separated fromthe accommodation areas by a fire resistant lobby at each floor level Afire main outlet should be located in the fire resistant lobby at each floorlevel The fire-fighting shaft provides, first, a protected means of escapefor persons in the building and, second, gives fire-fighters a safe route bywhich to reach the upper floors without the need to wear breathingapparatus A normal lift shaft and surrounding stairs serves this purposeprovided it and the lobby at each floor have separation from the mainfloor area by a fire resistant construction

4.2.14.3 Fire-fighting information about the premises

Under the Fire Services Act fire authorities are required to obtaininformation about buildings in their area This information is designed toassist them in preparing fire-fighting plans for the building and to ensurethat they are familiar with access points, water supplies and any specialhazards that the building contains The Fire Precautions (Workplace)Regulations place reciprocal obligations on occupiers to liaise with thelocal fire brigade and enable them to become familiar with the premises.Also to ensure that when the fire brigade attend an incident they are met

by somebody who can guide them to the source of the fire, report on theevacuation of occupants and be a point of contact for any queries

4.2.15 Fire terminology

An increasing wide range of fire terminology is now being used and it isimportant to have a basic understanding of the most frequently usedterms This is important in discussions with Fire Prevention Officers toensure there is no misunderstanding Some of the more commonly usedterms are listed below

Accommodation stairwayis a stairway provided for the convenience ofoccupants and is separate from those required for means of escapepurposes

Active fire protectionare measures to contain the spread of fire whichrequire some form of mechanical actuation, i.e operation of smoke vents

or release of fire shutters

Alternative escape routesare escape routes located so that should a fireoccur in any part of the building it will not affect both routes at the sametime

Auto-ignition temperatureis the temperature at which a material willdecompose and ignite without the application of an external source ofheat

Backdraught occurs when the air supply to a fire is restricted and theoxygen in the air is used up more quickly than it can be replaced makingthe fire appear to die down but remain above the auto-ignitiontemperature As soon as a fresh supply of oxygen becomes available, such

as by opening a door, it will form an explosive mixture which will ignitewith explosive force This ‘explosion’ is called a backdraught

Cavity barrier is the arrangement provided in a cavity, such as a loftspace, or a concealed space to prevent the penetration or movement ofsmoke or flame within such a space

Dead end is an area from which escape is possible in one directiononly

Distance of travelis the actual distance a person needs to travel from anypoint in a building to the nearest storey exit having regard to the layout

of walls, partitions, furniture and plant

Dry rising mainis a rising water main that is normally kept empty butwith facilities at ground level to enable the fire brigade to connect theirpumps

Dry sprinkler systemconsists of sprinkler pipework pressurised with air.When a sprinkler head ruptures water enters the system

Emergency escape lighting is that part of the emergency lighting thatensures that the means of escape can be used at all times

Escape routeforms the means of escape from any point in a building tothe final exit

Final exitis the termination of an escape route from a building that givesdirect access to a place of safety The final exit must be sited to ensure therapid dispersal of persons from the vicinity of a building so that they are

no longer in danger from smoke or fire

Fire dooris a door or shutter which together with its frame and furniture

is intended to resist the passage of fire or smoke

Fire engineeringis an approach to fire prevention that takes into accountthe total fire safety package and sets a range of fire safety features against

an assessment of the fire hazard and the fire risk for the particularpremises

Fire loadis the amount of fuel and combustible materials within a room

or area which will burn to generate heat and so feed the fire

Fire pointis the lowest temperature at which a liquid gives off sufficientflammable vapours to produce a sustainable flame when ignited The firepoint is normally a few degrees higher than the flash point (Also refers

to the panels on which fire alarms and extinguishers are mounted.)

Fire risk is a combination of the probability of ignition and theconsequent life and property loss

Flammable liquid is a liquid with a flash point between 32°C and55°C

Flashoveris the very quick acceleration of a fire when the temperature ofthe combustible material in a compartment reaches a level at which it allignites simultaneously This requires a plentiful supply of fresh air

Flash point is the lowest temperature at which a liquid producessufficient flammable vapours to cause a momentary flame when ignited

It should be noted that as soon as the source of ignition is removed theflame extinguishes

Highly flammable liquidis a liquid with a flashpoint below 32°C

Ignition temperature is the temperature to which a material has to beheated for sustained combustion to take place once the material has beenignited Ignition temperature applies to all substances whereas fire point

is only applicable to liquids

Intumescent materials are special materials that expand and form aninsulating or sealing layer when heated to a predeterminedtemperature

Lower explosive limitis the lowest concentration of a flammable gas orvapour mixture in air which is capable of ignition and subsequent flamepropagation Below this concentration ignition cannot take place

Means of escaperefers to the safe route by which persons in a buildingcan travel to a place of safety

Refugeis a place of temporary safety within a building

Storey exitis the final exit from a storey or floor

Travel distance represents the actual distance a person must travel toreach the nearest storey exit having regard to the layout of furniture,equipment, etc.

Upper explosive limitis the highest level of concentration of a flammablegas or vapour mixture in air which is capable of ignition and subsequentflame propagation Above this concentration level ignition cannot takeplace

References

1 The Fire Precautions (Workplace) Regulations 1997 as amended by the Fire Precautions

(Workplace) (Amendment) Regulations 1999, The Stationery Office, London 1999.

2 BS 5839, Fire detection and alarm systems for buildings, (6 parts), BSI, London

3 BS EN 60849, Sound systems for emergency purposes, British Standards Institution,

London

4 BS EN 54:2001, Fire detection and alarm systems, (7 parts), BSI, London.

5 BS EN 2, Classification of Fires, BSI, London (1992)

6 BS EN 3, Portable fire extinguishers, (6 parts), BSI, London

7 BS 7863, Recommendations for colour coding to indicate the extinguishing media contained in

portable fire extinguishers, BSI, London (1996)

8 BS 5423 (withdrawn – see BS EN 3; BS 7863:1996; BS 7867:1997)

9 BS 7937:2000, Specification for portable extinguishers for use on cooking oil fires (Class F),

British Standards Institution, London 2000

10 BS 5306, Fire extinguishing installations and equipment on premises, (7 parts), BSI, London

11 BS 7944, Type 1 heavy duty fire blankets and Type 2 heavy duty heat protection blankets, see

also BS EN 1869 BSI, London

12 BS EN 1869: 1997, Fire blankets, BSI, London (1997)

13 LPC Rules for Automatic Sprinklers Installations, The Loss Prevention Council, London

14 BS EN 12259: Fixed fire fighting systems (4 parts), BSI, London

15 CEA rules, Commit´e Europ´een des Assurances, Paris.

16 European Council Directive, Interpretative Document for safety in case of fire (Construction

Products Directive), EU, Luxembourg, in preparation

17 Sprinkler Code, Code 13, National Fire Protection Association, Quincy, USA

18 The Building Regulations 1991, Approved Documents Approved Document B: Fire Safety 2000, The Stationery Office, London (2000)

19 BS EN 12416: Fixed fire fighting systems Powder systems

Part 1 – Requirements and test methods for components,

Part 2 – Design, construction and maintenance, BSI, London (2001)

20 BS ISO 14520 – Part 1: 2000, Gaseous fire fighting systems: Physical properties and systems

design, British Standards Institution, London, 2000

21 European Council Directive 92/58/EEC, Safety Signs Directive, EU, Luxembourg, 1992

22 The Health and Safety (Safety Signs and Signals) Regulations 1996, The Stationery Office,

London (1996)

23 The Building Regulations 1991, The Stationery Office, London (1991)

24 BS 476: Fire tests on building materials and structures: (17 parts), BSI, London

25 Guide to Fire Precautions in Existing Places of Work that Require a Fire Certificate (The Blue Guide), The Stationery Office, London.

26 BS 5588: Fire precautions in the design, construction and use of buildings,

Part 8, Code of Practice for means of escape for disabled people,

Part 10, Code of practice for shopping complexes, BSI, London

27 BS DD 240, Fire safety engineering in buildings,

Part 1, Guide to the application of fire safety engineering principles,

Part 2, Commentary on the equation given in part I, BSI, London (1997)

28 BS 7974:2001, Application of fire safety engineering to the design of buildings – Code of practice,

BSI, London (2001)

29 BS 5588, Fire precautions in the design, construction and use of buildings

30 The Fire Services Act 1947, The Stationery Office, London (1947)

31 The Fire Precautions Act 1971, The Stationery Office, London (1971)

32 The Fire Safety and Safety in Places of Sport Act 1987, The Stationery Office, London

(1987)

33 The Fire Certificate (Special Premises) Regulations 1996, The Stationery Office, London

(1996)

34 The Fire Precautions (Workplace) Regulations 1997, The Stationery Office, London (1997)

35 European Council Directive no 89/391/EEC, On the introduction of measures to encourage

improvements in the safety and health of workers at work (the Framework Directive), EU,

Luxembourg, (1989)

36 European Council Directive no 89/654/EEC, concerning the minimum safety and health

requirements for the workplace (the Workplace Directive), EU, Luxembourg (1998)

37 The Environment and Safety Information Act 1988, The Stationery Office, London (1988)

38 The Building Standards (Scotland) Regulations 1990, The Stationery Office, London

(1990)

39 The Building Operations (Scotland) Regulations 1975, The Stationery Office, London

(1975)

Statutes, Publications and Guidance available from various sources

The following listed documents can be obtained from:

9090/0870 6005522 Website: www.tso-online.co.uk

The Building Regulations 1991

Approved Document B: Fire Safety (2000)

Approved Document M: Access and facilities for disabled (1998)

Building Regulations and fire safety procedural guidance

Code of Practice for fire precautions in factories, offices, shops and railway premises not required to have a fire certificate (1994)

Guide to fire precautions in existing places of entertainment and like premises (1990)

Fire Precautions Act 1971: Guide to fire precautions in existing places of work that require a fire

certificate: factories, offices, shops and railway premises (1993)

Fire Precautions Act 1971: Guide to fire precautions in premises used as hotels and boarding houses

which require a fire certificate (1991)

Fire Safety: An employer’s guide.

Technical standards for compliance with the Building Standards (Scotland) Regulations

1990, as Amended by the Building Standards (Scotland), (1999)

Fire fighting Halon phase out: advice on alternatives and guidelines for users (1995)

www.hsebooks.co.uk

HSE 8 Oxygen: Fire and explosion hazards in the use and misuse of oxygen (1998)

FIS2 Dust explosions in the food industry (1993)

L21 Management of health and safety at work – Management of Health and Safety at Work

Regulations 1999 Approved Code of Practice and Guidance (2000)

L54 Managing construction health and safety – The Construction (Design and Management)

Regulations 1994, Approved Code of Practice (1995)

INDG98 Permit to work system (1997)

INDG227 Safe working with flammable substances (1996)

INDG236 Maintaining portable electrical equipment in offices and other low-risk environments

(1996)

INDG237 Maintaining portable electrical equipment in hotels and tourist accommodation (1996) INDG314 Hot work on small tanks and drums (2000)

HSG51 The storage of flammable liquids in containers (1998)

HSG71 Chemical warehousing: Storage of packaged dangerous substances (1998)

HSG118 Electrical safety in arc welding (1994)

HSG140 Safe use and handling of flammable liquids (1996)