Mercury Hazards to Living Organisms - Chapter 7 ppsx

Mercury Concentrations in Abiotic Materials and Multitaxonomic Field Collections Mercury data for abiotic samples as well as living organisms representative of different ecosystems taken

Mercury Concentrations in Abiotic Materials

and Multitaxonomic Field Collections

Mercury data for abiotic samples as well as living organisms representative of different ecosystems taken from a single collection locale, usually at the same time by the same research group, are particularly valuable Such data may illustrate food web biomagnification and other phenomena more readily than isolated data bits drawn over several years from disparate locales using different collection methods, various sample preparations, and noncomparable chemical methodologies for mercury analysis One integrated data set demonstrated that mercury from point-source discharges, such as sewer outfalls and chloralkali plants, was taken up by sediments, and the sediment mercury levels were then reflected by an increased mercury content of epibenthic fauna (Klein and Goldberg, 1970; Takeuchi, 1972; Dehlinger et al., 1973; Hoggins and Brooks, 1973; Klemmer et al., 1973; Parsons et al., 1973) In another case, analysis of the effluent from the Hyperion sewer outfall in Los Angeles showed a mercury concentration slightly below 0.001 mg/L (Klein and Goldberg, 1970) Concentrations of mercury in sediment samples near this outfall were as high as 0.82 mg/kg but decreased with increasing distance from the outfall; mercury levels in epibenthic fauna, includ-ing crabs, whelks, and scallops, were also highest at stations near the discharge and lowest at stations tens of kilometers distant.

Selected data sets for mercury are presented in Table 7.1 at locations in the Adriatic Sea, Alaska, Antarctica, Brazil, Canada, China, Cuba, Florida, Greenland, India, Italy, Korea, Malaysia, New Jersey, Puerto Rico, Spain, Taiwan, Tennessee, Thailand, and Vietnam.

7.1 ASIA

In the People’s Republic of China, the Sonhua River received about 6.5 metric tons of mercury annually for about 15 years in the 1960s and 1970s, resulting in water concentrations of 120.0 µg

methylmercury/L vs 4.0 to 10.0 µg/L from a reference site (Soong, 1994) Catfish — a major

component in the diet of fishermen — from the Sonhua River contained 1.8 to 2.7 mg mercury/kg

FW muscle in 1973 to 1974 and less than 1.0 mg/kg FW in the 1990s In 1975, 100.0% of the fishermen had greater than 4.0 mg Hg/kg FW head hair; this was only 10.0% in 1975 In 1992, head hair of fishermen contained up to 71.2 mg Hg/kg FW, a level in excess of the current World Health Organization proposed criterion of less than 50.0 mg Hg/kg FW for human health protection (see Chapter 12 ) In the Zhejiang coastal area of China, baseline data were collected in the 1990s

on mercury concentrations in edible species of fish, molluscs, and crustaceans, and also in seawater and surface sediments (Fang et al., 2004) All measurements (Table 7.1) appeared to be of low concern to human health.

140 MERCURY HAZARDS TO LIVING ORGANISMS

Table 7.1 Mercury Concentrations in Multitaxonomic Collections from a Single Collection Area Locale, Taxonomic Groups, Organism, Tissue,

and Other Variables Concentration (mg/kg) Ref a

Adriatic Sea; mercury-contaminated area vs reference site;

various seafood products of commerce; edible portions

max 0.5 FW

1

max 0.5 FW

1

Antarctica; Terra Nova Bay; 1989–1991

Fish; 4 species:

Birds:

Petrel, Pagodroma nivea; eggs vs feathers: 0.6 DW vs 0.5 DW 2

Adelie penguin, Pygoscelis adeliae:

Weddell seal, Leptonychotes weddelli; adult:

Brazil; freshwater lakes in coastal southern Brazil; one natural and two man-made;

sampled September 2002–August 2003

Natural lake:

Fish muscle Tambica, Oligosarcus jenynsii (piscivore) 0.06 (0.05–0.08) FW 32 Triara, Hoplias malabaricus (piscivore) 0.06 (0.001–0.09) FW 32

Acara, Geophagus brasiliensis (planktivore) 0.019 (0 01–0.022) FW 32 Suburban lake; Rio Grande City:

MERCURY IN ABIOTIC MATERIALS AND MULTITAXONOMIC FIELD COLLECTIONS 141

Table 7.1 (continued) Mercury Concentrations in Multitaxonomic Collections from a Single

Collection Area

Locale, Taxonomic Groups, Organism, Tissue,

and Other Variables Concentration (mg/kg) Ref a

Fish muscle:

Industrial Lake, Pelotas City:

Fish muscle:

Brazil; Madeira River; gold mining area; maximum values b

Brazil; gold mining site; 1992 b

Fish muscle:

Spotted catfish, Pseudoplatystoma coruscans 0.3 FW; Max 1.0 FW 4

Black river piranha, Pygocentrus nattereri 0.3 (0.1–0.5) FW 4

Bird feather:

Brazil; Amazon gold mining region b

mercury)

5 Humans (reference site):

Cattle and pigs:

Canada; northern Quebec; 1989–1990

Ringed seal, Phoca hispida

(continued)

142 MERCURY HAZARDS TO LIVING ORGANISMS

Table 7.1 (continued) Mercury Concentrations in Multitaxonomic Collections from a Single

Collection Area

Locale, Taxonomic Groups, Organism, Tissue,

and Other Variables Concentration (mg/kg) Ref a

Beluga whale, Delphinapterus leucus

Canada; Canadian Arctic; Amituk Lake

Arctic char, Salvelinus alpinus; muscle vs liver 0.57 FW vs 1.24 FW 34

China; Sonhua River region; in 1960s and 1970s, area received 6.5 tons of mercury annually, including 0.5 tons of methylmercury

Water; 1975; vs reference site 0.12 FW (as methylmercury) vs

0.004–0.010 FW

20 Human hair:

Catfish muscle (fish diet):

China; Zhejiang coastal area

Fish; muscle; 7 species; May 1998 0.009–0.014 (0.002–0.032) FW 19

Cephalopods; mantle; 2 species; May 1998 0.016–0.024 (0.009–0.047) FW 19

Bivalve molluscs; soft parts; 4 species; May 1998 0.013–0.023 (0.009–0.044) FW 19

Shrimp; muscle; 3 species; May 1998 0.01–0.015 (0.004–0.028) FW 19

Cuba; 1985–1987; chloralkali plant vicinity

Mimosa tree, Mimosa pudica vs soils; distance from source:

Sea urchin, Lytechinus variegatus; gonads:

Finland; freshwater reservoirs

Surface sediments; 0–5 cm; various water depths; 1997–1998:

MERCURY IN ABIOTIC MATERIALS AND MULTITAXONOMIC FIELD COLLECTIONS 143

Table 7.1 (continued) Mercury Concentrations in Multitaxonomic Collections from a Single

Collection Area

Locale, Taxonomic Groups, Organism, Tissue,

and Other Variables Concentration (mg/kg) Ref a

Fish muscle; 1994–1998:

Predators:

Northern pike, Esox lucius 0.85–1.58 (0.28–3.7) FWc 31

Pikeperch, Stizostedion lucioperca 0.60–0.91 (0.13–1.38) FWc 31

Nonpredators:

Florida; 1995; southern estuaries; total mercury vs methylmercury

0.0005 DW

8

Fish muscle; 9 species 1.4 (0.1–10.1) DW; 0.31 (0.03–2.2) FW

vs 1.05 (0.06–4.5) DW; 0.23 (0.01–1.0) FW

8

Greenland; 1983–1991

Fish; 10 species; liver vs muscle < 0.01–0.6 FW vs 0.01–0.3 FW 9

Seabirds; 10 species:

Marine mammals

Seals; 4 species:

Baleen whales; 1 species:

Toothed whales; 3 species:

Polar bear, Ursus maritimus:

Greenland; 1984–1987; total mercury vs organic mercury

Seals:

(continued)

144 MERCURY HAZARDS TO LIVING ORGANISMS

Table 7.1 (continued) Mercury Concentrations in Multitaxonomic Collections from a Single

Collection Area

Locale, Taxonomic Groups, Organism, Tissue,

and Other Variables Concentration (mg/kg) Ref a

Toothed whales:

Baleen whales:

Polar bear:

India; Bombay

Humans; blood:

Bombay vs reference site:

Italy; vicinity of Monte Amiata

Near banks of roasted Cinnabar:

Pine, Pinus nigra

Near geothermal plant:

Pine, Pinus nigra

Reference site; 6–7 km from known sources:

Italy; coast; summer; 1986–1987

Korea

Air; Seoul vs Inchon; various locations 3.5–36.8 (2.2–176.2) ng/m3 vs

13.1–38.9 (6.4–88.3) ng/m3

24

Fish; freshwater; edible parts:

0.23 µg/L)

24

MERCURY IN ABIOTIC MATERIALS AND MULTITAXONOMIC FIELD COLLECTIONS 145

Table 7.1 (continued) Mercury Concentrations in Multitaxonomic Collections from a Single

Collection Area

Locale, Taxonomic Groups, Organism, Tissue,

and Other Variables Concentration (mg/kg) Ref a

Hair, human:

Seoul residents; males vs females 2.6 (0.6–8.5) DW vs 2.1 (0.6–7.4) DW 24

Malaysia

Soils vs crops; max concentrations:

Spain; Catalonia; November 1992–February 1993; edible tissues

Means:

Taiwan; 1995–1996; edible tissues

Thailand

Soils vs crops; max concentrations:

United States

Alaska; Kuskokwim River Basin; near abandoned mercury

mines:

Fish muscle; downstream; total mercury; salmon vs other

fish

< 0.1 FW vs max 0.62 FW 25 Mine water; filtered vs nonfiltered Max 0.05 µg/l vs max 2.5 µg/L 26 Stream sediments, downstream:

(continued)

146 MERCURY HAZARDS TO LIVING ORGANISMS

Table 7.1 (continued) Mercury Concentrations in Multitaxonomic Collections from a Single

Collection Area

Locale, Taxonomic Groups, Organism, Tissue,

and Other Variables Concentration (mg/kg) Ref a

Terrestrial vegetation:

New Jersey; Newark Bay; sediments vs fish muscle 0.1–9.8 DW vs 0.1–1.4 DW 16

New Jersey; 57 supermarkets/fish markets; July–October 2003

Fish fillets:

Chilean sea bass (Patagonian toothfish), Dissotichus

eleginoides

Bluefish, Pomatomus saltatrix 0.3 (0.009–0.76 FW; 32.0%> 0.3 FW;

2.0%> 0.5 FW

33

Tuna, mainly yellowfin tuna, Thunnus albacares 0.6 (0.08–2.5) FW; 62.0%> 0.3 FW;

42.0%> 0.5 FW; 26.0%> 0.75 FW

33

Shellfish, edible tissues:

Oregon; Willamette Basin; 2002–2003; max mean value

Surface water:

Total mercury vs dissolved mercury 5.8 ng/L vs 2.6 ng/L 30 Total methylmercury vs dissolved methylmercury 0.14 ng/L vs 0.10 ng/L 30

Sediments; total mercury vs methylmercury 0.71 DW vs 0.0009 DW 30 Puerto Rico; estuaries; 1988

Aquatic:

Blue crab, Callinectes sapidus; Shrimp, Palaemonetes sp. Not detectable in any tissue or whole

body

17 Fish muscle

Cattle egret, Bubulcus ibis; pectoral muscle vs liver 0.1 FW vs 0.1 FW 17

Moorhen, Gallinula chloropus:

Tennessee; mercury-contaminated (1950–1963) site vs

reference site; 1986–1987

White-footed mouse, Peromyscus leucopus; kidney 1.2 FW vs 0.5 FW 18

Short tail shrew, Blarina brevicauda; kidney 39.0 FW vs 1.0 FW 18

Vietnam

Dalat region; humans; ages 20–35 years; head hair; weekly

fish consumption of 300 g (max.) of marine fish and 400 g

(max.) of freshwater fish:

MERCURY IN ABIOTIC MATERIALS AND MULTITAXONOMIC FIELD COLLECTIONS 147

In Korea, air levels were elevated (up to 176.0 ng/m3) over industrialized areas, such as Seoul, when compared to rural areas (Sohn and Jung, 1993; Table 7.1 ) Mercury concentrations in edible portions of marine and freshwater fishes and marine molluscs were always less than 0.3 mg/kg

FW, suggesting little risk to consumers of these products Dentists and dental technicians had elevated hair mercury concentrations — up to 84.6 mg/kg DW — presumably from contact with elemental mercury in preparing dental amalgams.

In Malaysia, most crops did not reflect soil mercury concentrations, except mustard, Brassica

juncea, with 0.055 mg/kg FW; this slightly exceeded the Malaysian food criterion of 0.05 mg

Hg/kg as consumed (Table 7.1, Zarcinas et al., 2004a) Similar studies in Thailand indicated no accumulation of mercury in crops from agricultural soils (Table 7.1; Zarcinas et al., 2004b).

In Taiwan, it appears that a mercury contamination problem is developing among marine products of commerce, as judged by the unsatisfactorily high concentrations measured in fish, crustaceans, and oysters (Table 7.1; Han et al., 1998).

In Vietnam, it was shown that increased consumption of fish, especially tuna, was associated with elevated hair mercury concentrations in consumers, although all hair concentrations were less than 3.0 mg Hg/kg FW hair (Table 7.1; Dung et al., 1994).

7.2 BRAZIL

Atmospheric deposition is the primary route by which mercury enters freshwater systems (Meili

et al., 2003); In Brazil, mercury concentrations in precipitation are closely linked with proximity

to sources of mercury emissions (Mirlean et al., 2005) Atmospheric mercury depositions in Bra-zilian lakes are directly linked to concentrations in fish, with surface-feeding carnivores attaining the highest concentrations (Mirlean et al., 2005; Table 7.1).

Other data for Brazil are from areas where elemental mercury was used extensively to extract gold through amalgamation, with resultant widespread mercury contamination of the biosphere (Malm et al ,1990; Hylander et al., 1994; Palheta and Taylor, 1995; Table 7.1) Concentrations of mercury in air, sediments, fish muscle, and human hair were sufficiently elevated to impact human

Table 7.1 (continued) Mercury Concentrations in Multitaxonomic Collections from a Single

Collection Area

Locale, Taxonomic Groups, Organism, Tissue,

and Other Variables Concentration (mg/kg) Ref a

Nha Trang region:

Humans; ages 20–35 years; head hair; weekly fish

consumption of 700.0 g (max.) of marine fish and 300.0 g

(max.) freshwater fish:

Diet (tuna fish)

Muscle; total mercury vs methylmercury 0.28 FW vs 0.14 FW 21 Liver; total mercury vs methylmercury 0.43 FW vs 0.39 FW 21

Note: Values are in mg total mercury/kg fresh weight (FW) or dry weight (DW), unless indicated otherwise

aReference: 1, Buzina et al., 1989; 2, Bargagli et al., 1998; 3, Malm et al., 1990; 4, Hylander et al., 1994; 5, Palheta and Taylor, 1995; 6, Langlois et al., 1995; 7, Gonzalez, 1991; 8, Kannan et al., 1998; 9, Dietz et al., 1996; 10, Dietz et al., 1990; 11, Srinivasin and Mahajan, 1989; 12, Ferrara et al., 1991; 13, Giordano et al., 1991; 14, Schuhmacher et al., 1994; 15, Han et al., 1998; 16, Gillis et al., 1993; 17, Burger et al., 1992; 18, Talmage and Walton, 1993; 19, Fang et al., 2004; 20, Soong, 1994; 21, Dung et al., 1994; 22, Zarcinas et al., 2004a; 23, Zarcinas et al., 2004b; 24, Sohn and Jung, 1993; 25, Gray et al., 2000; 26, Gray and Bailey, 2003;

27, Bailey and Gray, 1997; 28, Gray et al., 1996; 29, Bailey et al., 2002; 30, Hope and Rubin, 2005; 31, Voigt, 2000; 32, Mirlean et al., 2005; 33, Burger et al., 2005; 34, Muir and Lockhart, 1993; 35, Semkin et al., 2005

bExceeds Malaysian criterion of 0.05 mg Hg/kg as consumed

cAcceptable limit in Finland is 0.5 to 1.0 mg total Hg/kg FW; however, exceedance is frequent

148 MERCURY HAZARDS TO LIVING ORGANISMS

health directly and indirectly The subject of mercury contamination from gold mining activities

in Brazil, the United States, and elsewhere is discussed in detail in Chapter 11

7.3 CARIBBEAN REGION

Mercury contamination from a Cuban chloralkali plant was reflected in elevated soil mercury concentrations and its terrestrial vegetation, and in sediments and gonads of benthic fauna from these sediments ( Table 7.1 ) Mercury contamination is measurable for at least 5 km from the chloralkali plant (Gonzalez, 1991) In Puerto Rico, low mercury levels were measured in crab and fish muscle samples collected from estuaries in 1988, and in terrestrial reptile and bird tissues, providing useful baseline data for that area (Table 7.1; Burger et al., 1992).

7.4 EUROPE

Mercury data from seafood products of commerce taken from the Adriatic Sea (Table 7.1) showed that methylmercury accounts for about 42.0% of the total mercury from products taken in mercury-contaminated areas, and 100.0% in seafoods from nonmercury-contaminated areas (Buzina et al., 1989).

In Italy, elevated mercury concentrations were measured in soils near a geothermal plant and

near a mercury mine, and in needles of Pinus nigra growing on these soils (Table 7.1; Ferrara

et al., 1991) Low mercury concentrations were measured in marine invertebrates from Italian coastal waters in the summers of 1986 and 1987; however, fish muscle contained up to 0.63 mg Hg/kg FW (Table 7.1, Giordano et al., 1991), which should be of concern to health authorities.

In Spain, mercury data for marine seafoods in 1992 and 1993 showed that some crustaceans and fish had greater than 0.5 mg total Hg/kg FW (Table 7.1; Schuhmacher et al., 1994), a level of concern in many nations.

7.5 INDIA

Mercury concentrations were elevated in sediments and in muscle of fish and shrimp caught near Bombay when compared to a reference site; residents of Bombay who were identified as fish consumers had elevated blood mercury concentrations (maximum 0.13 mg/L ) when compared to nonfish consumers (maximum 0.042 mg/L) (Table 7.1; Srinivasin and Mahajan, 1989) In all cases, mercury concentrations were of minor concern.

7.6 NORTH AMERICA

Elevated mercury concentrations in muscle and liver tissues of Arctic char, Salvelinus alpinus, from

Amituk Lake in the Canadian Arctic were attributed to long life span and low growth rate of char

in Arctic waters coupled with mercury biomagnification (Table 7.1; Schindler et al., 1995) Mercury data from northern Quebec in 1989 to 1990 showed concentrations up to 0.9 mg/kg

FW in fish muscle, up to 1.6 mg/kg FW in avian muscle, 5.1 mg/kg FW in liver of ringed seals, and 2.6 mg/kg FW in muscle and 20.3 mg/kg FW in liver of beluga whales (Table 7.1; Langlois

et al., 1995) All concentrations should be of concern to human consumers of these tissues.

In Florida, baseline data collected in 1995 from southern estuaries showed acceptable mercury concentrations in sediments and water, and unacceptable levels of total mercury (up to 2.2 mg/kg FW) and methylmercury (up to 1.0 mg/kg FW) in teleost muscle (Table 7.1; Kannan et al., 1998).