Biochemical, Genetic, and Molecular Interactions in Development - part 1 docx

T HE S KELETONDevelopmental Biology Branch, Reproductive Toxicology Division, The National Health and Environmental Effects Research Laboratory, Office of Research Development, United St

T HE S KELETON

T HE S KELETON

Developmental Biology Branch,

Reproductive Toxicology Division,

The National Health and Environmental Effects

Research Laboratory, Office of Research Development, United States Environmental Protection Agency,

Research Triangle Park, NC

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E-ISBN: 1-59259-736-X

The skeleton : biochemical, genetic, and molecular interactions in

development and homeostasis / edited by Edward J Massaro and John M.

Rogers.

p ; cm.

Includes bibliographical references and index.

ISBN 1-58829-215-0 (alk paper)

1 Bone 2 Bones Physiology 3 Bones Growth.

[DNLM: 1 Bone and Bones embryology 2 Bone Development 3.

Molecular Biology WE 200 S6276 2004] I Massaro, Edward J II.

Rogers, John M.

QP88.2.S54 2004

612.7'5 dc22

2003027149

P REFACE

v

The skeleton is a complex multifunctional system In addition to its mechanical/structural support function, it contains the marrow in which blood cells are made and,therefore, is a critical part of the circulatory and immune systems Also, in that it is themajor reservoir for the essential element calcium, a critical component of intracellularsignaling pathways, the skeleton is an integral component of the endocrine system.Furthermore, the skeleton is a dynamic system that is subject to modification (remodel-ing) throughout life under the influence of both intrinsic (chemical) signals and extrinsic(mechanical) signals Therefore, it is axiomatic that properly regulated crosstalk betweenthe biochemistry and physiology of the skeleton and the chemical biology of the organism

is of critical importance both in the complex processes of development and the nance of physiologic homeostasis Thus, gaining insight in the nature and regulation ofthese interactions is of considerable interest to researchers and clinicians in a broadspectrum of biomedical disciplines

mainte-Bone is formed during embryonic life and grows (formation exceeds resorption) idly through childhood In humans, growth peaks around 20 yr of age Thereafter, theskeleton enters a prolonged period (lasting approx 40 yr) when bone mass remains rela-tively stable During this period, resorption and reformation (remodeling) of both corticaland trabecular bone occur continuously and contemporaneously, resulting in an annualturnover of approx 10% of the adult skeleton with essentially no net effect on bone mass.The maintenance of skeletal mass is regulated through a balance between the activity ofcells that resorb bone (osteoclasts) and those that form bone (osteoblasts) Unfortunately,the balance between resorption and formation degenerates with age and, if uncompen-sated, can have debilitating consequences For women, the balance terminates at meno-pause Bone loss also occurs in men, but usually later in life Clinical disorders in whichbone resorption exceeds formation are common and include osteoporosis, Paget’s dis-ease of bone, and bone wasting secondary to such cancers as myeloma and metastaticbreast cancer Osteoporosis is the most common bone resorption disorder It affects one

rap-in three women after the fifth decade of life The pathophysiology of this conditionincludes genetic predisposition and alteration of systemic and local hormone levelscoupled with environmental influences Treatment is based on drugs that inhibit boneresorption either directly or indirectly: bisphosphonates, calcitonin, estrogens, and syn-thetic estrogen-related compounds (SERMs—selective estrogen receptor modulators).The search for more effective anti-osteoporosis drugs with fewer side effects continues

In this regard, it is of both great interest and potentially enormous import to note thatrecent evidence indicates that low bone mineral density (BMD) appears to protect womenover the age of 65 from primary breast cancer It was reported that women in the highestBMD quartile have approximately three times the risk of developing bone cancer thanthose in the lowest quartile Also, those with the highest BMD, obtained from measure-ments of the wrist, forearm and heel, have almost six times the risk of advanced disease.Less prevalent than disorders of bone loss are clinical disorders of reduced boneresorption, such as osteopetrosis, and pycnodysostosis (owing to cathepsin K deficiency),that are the consequence of genetic defects Unfortunately, progress in the search foreffective treatments for these orphan diseases often is stymied by lack of support

vi Preface

Significant insight into many aspects of vertebrate skeletal development has beenobtained through molecular and genetic studies of animal models and humans withinherited disorders of skeletal morphogenesis, organogenesis, and growth Morphogen-esis, the developmental process of pattern formation and the establishment of the bodyplan that is the template for the architecture of the adult form, is an exquisitely compli-cated program Our understanding of it contains many gaps The information for thepattern and form of the vertebrate skeleton emanates from mesenchymal cells duringembryonic development Morphogenesis requires three key ingredients: inductive sig-nals, responding stem cells and a supportive extracellular matrix Within the vertebratemorphogenetic program, skeletal development is controlled by sequence-dependentactivation/inactivation of specific genes that results in the distribution of cells fromcranial neural crest, sclerotomes, and lateral plate mesoderm into a pattern of mesenchy-mal condensations at sites in which skeletal elements will develop Condensation is theearliest stage of organ formation at which tissue-specific genes are upregulated It isgenerated through interactions between molecules in the extracellular matrix such as thecell adhesion molecules fibronectin, N-CAM and N-cadherin Cell adhesion also ismediated, albeit indirectly, via activation of particular CAM genes by the products of theHox genes, Hoxa-2 and Hoxd-13 Cells proliferate and differentiate, under the control oftranscription factors, into chondrocytes or osteoblasts forming, respectively, cartilage orbone Proliferation within the condensations is mediated through the activation of cellsurface receptors such as syndecan-3, a receptor for fibroblast growth factor 2 (FGF-2),the antiadhesive matrix component, tenascin-C, a ligand for the epidermal growth factor(EGF) receptor (EGFR), the Hox genes, Hoxd-11-13 and transcription factors such asCFKH-1, MFH-1, and osf-2 Growth of condensations is regulated by BMPs, whichactivate a number of genes including Pax-2, Hoxa-2, and Hoxd-11 Conversely, growth

is blocked via inhibition of BMP signaling by the BMP antagonist, Noggin Defects inthe formation of specific bones and joints can occur through mutation of genes involved

in the control of bone and joint development Information derived from ongoing andfuture research focused on the identification of the genes/gene targets involved in skeletaldevelopment and maintenance should open new avenues for the development of thera-peutic measures for treating defects resulting either from mutation or trauma

For most of the skeleton, bones develop from cartilage models comprised of blies of chondrocytes in an extracellular collagen-containing matrix that they secrete.The replacement of cartilage by bone is the result of a genetic master program thatcontrols and coordinates chondrocyte differentiation, matrix alteration and mineraliza-tion During the conversion of the cartilage model into bone, the composition of thematrix, including collagen types, is modified, ultimately becoming mineralized through

assem-a process termed endochondrassem-al ossificassem-ation assem-and populassem-ated by osteocytes Disruption ofthe rate, timing, or duration of chondrocyte proliferation and differentiation results inshortened, misshapen skeletal elements In the majority of such disruptions, vasculariza-tion also is perturbed It has been proposed that vascularization plays a key role in thesynchronization of the processes involved in endochondral ossification Bone formationalso occurs via intramembranous ossification, in which bone cells arise directly frommesenchyme without an intermediate cartilage anlage Data indicate that this process isthe result both of a positive selection for osteogenic differentiation and a negative selec-tion against the progressive growth of chondrogenic cells in the absence of a permissive

Preface vii

or inductive environment In any case, through the processes of bone growth and eling, an adult skeleton is shaped and molded and continually remolded in response toenvironmental alterations In effect, the adult skeleton is not a static entity Bone ismetabolically active throughout life and, under the influence of mechanical stress, nutri-tion, and hormones, bone remodeling occurs continually However, bone remodeling iscompromised as a function of both post menopausal hormonal changes and aging, result-ing in health problems of increasing magnitude as the proportion of the aged in the globalpopulation increases

remod-Mutations in genes encoding structural proteins of the extracellular matrix can perturbthe coordination of events necessary for normal skeletal development The magnitude ofthe disruption of the process of ordered skeletal development is dependent on both therole of the mutated gene product in the developmental process and the degree of itsfunctional perturbation The range of mutational consequences is broad, including dis-ruption of ossification/mineralization and linear growth and the structural integrity andstability of articular cartilage Evidence indicates that osteochondrodysplasias resultingfrom defects in structural proteins are inherited in an autosomal dominant manner andthat a spectrum of related clinical phenotypes can be produced by different mutations inthe same gene In addition, as might be expected, haploinsufficiency of a gene productusually produces a milder clinical phenotype than do mutations resulting in the synthesis

of highly structurally abnormal proteins The synthesis of structurally abnormal proteincan produce a dominant-negative effect that is the primary determinant of phenotype.Thus, inherited defects that interfere with post-translational modification of matrix pro-teins such as hydroxylation, sulfation and/or proteolytic cleavage, can result in distinctosteochondrodysplasias In the future, it may be possible to identify genes and pathwaysthat can maintain, repair, or stimulate the regeneration of bone and joint structures at postpatterning stages of development

In this regard, it is to be noted that metabolites of vitamin A, including retinoic acid(RA), comprise a class of molecules that are of critical importance in development andhomeostasis Retinoic acid functions through a class of nuclear hormone receptors, the

RA receptors (RARs), to regulate gene transcription Retinoic acid receptor-mediatedsignaling plays a fundamental role in skeletogenesis In the developing mammalian limb,

RA induces the differentiation of a number of cell lineages including chondrocytes.However, excess RA is a potent teratogen that induces characteristic skeletal defects in

a stage- and dose-dependent manner Genetic analyses have shown that RAR deficiencyresults both in severe deficiency of cartilage formation in certain anatomical sites and thepromotion of ectopic cartilage formation in other sites In the developing limbs oftransgenic mice expressing either dominant-negative or weakly constitutively activeRARs, chondrogenesis is perturbed, resulting in a spectrum of skeletal malformations.Recently, RA was reported to bind two circadian clock proteins, Clock and Mop4, andmay play a role in regulating circadian rhythms Thus, it may be possible to utilize theseinteractions to manipulate the body’s response to therapeutic drugs, which is entrained

in the circadian flow

A number of growth factors interact with osteoblasts or their precursors during bonedevelopment, remodeling or repair Traditionally, morphogenetic signals have been stud-ied in embryos However, it was observed that implantation of demineralized adult bonematrix into subcutaneous sites in a variety of species resulted in local bone induction Not

viii Preface

only did this model system mimic the process of limb morphogenesis, it also permittedthe isolation of bone morphogenetic proteins (BMPs) The BMPs constitute a largefamily of morphogenetic proteins within the transforming growth factor-` (TGF-`)superfamily It is to be emphasized that these morphogens and related cartilage-derivedmorphogenetic proteins (CDMPs) that initiate, promote, and maintain chondrogenesis,have actions on systems other than bone Indeed, bone morphogenetic proteins are mul-tifunctional growth factors involved in many aspects of tissue development and morpho-genesis, including, for example, regulation of FSH action in the ovary The mechanismunderlying the phenomenon of bone matrix-induced bone induction is under intenseinvestigation by biomedical engineers and orthopedic researchers

Growth/differentiation factor-5 (GDF-5), a BMP family member, has been shown to

be essential for normal appendicular skeletal and joint development in humans and mice

It has been reported that GDF-5 promotes the initial stages of chondrogenesis by ing cell adhesion and increased cell proliferation In the mouse GDF-5 gene mutantbrachypod, the defect is manifested early in chondrogenesis (embryonic day [E]12.5) as

promot-a reduction in the size of the cpromot-artilpromot-age blpromot-astempromot-a The defect is promot-associpromot-ated with promot-a decrepromot-ase

in the expression of cell surface molecules resulting in a decrease in cell adhesivenessand, consequently, perturbation of cartilage model competence Another member of thefamily, BMP-6, has been shown to be overexpressed in prostate cancer and appears to beassociated with bone-forming skeletal metastases In the United States, prostate cancerbecame the number one cancer among white males in the mid-1980s and has increased

dramatically since then A study of benign and malignant prostate lesions by in situ

hybridization showed that BMP-6 expression was high at both primary and secondarysites in cases of advanced cancer with metastases Does upregulation of BMP-6 promotemetastasis or is it involved in the body’s defense armamentarium? Is it a target fortherapeutics? Such questions are under active investigation by cancer researchers.Two families of growth factors, the TGF-` superfamily and the insulin-like growthfactors (IGF) superfamily, appear to be the principal proximal regulators of osteogenesis.However, these growth factors are not specific for cells of the osteoblast lineage Themechanism by which skeletal tissue is specifically induced and maintained involves bothcomplex interactions among circulating hormones, growth factors, and regulators of theactivity of specific genes For example, nuclear transcription factors such as core bindingfactor a1 (Cbfa1), a transcription factor essential for osteoblast differentiation and boneformation, and CCAAT/enhancer binding protein b (C/EBPb), that function as regulators

of the expression/activity of specific bone growth factors and receptors, are activated inresponse to glucocorticoids, sex steroids, parathyroid hormone (PTH), and prostaglandinE2 (PGE2) Many environmentally available chemicals, both natural and man-made,have either sex steroid or anti-sex steroid activity Evidence suggests that such chemicalshave negatively impacted fish populations and other animals by interfering with themechanism of action of reproductive hormones However, their impact on other mecha-nisms such as growth have not been thoroughly investigated

Members of the tumor necrosis factor (TNF) family of ligands and receptors have beenidentified as critical regulators of osteoclastogenesis Osteoprotegerin (OPG), a member

of the TNF receptor family, plays a key role in the physiological regulation of osteoclasticbone resorption OPG, a secreted decoy receptor produced by osteoblasts and marrowstromal cells, acts by binding to its natural ligand, OPGL (also known as RANKL [recep-

tor activator of NF-gB ligand]), thereby preventing OPGL from activating its cognatereceptor RANK, the osteoclast receptor vital for osteoclast differentiation, activation andsurvival In vitro studies have suggested that estrogen stimulates OPG expression whereasparathyroid hormone (PTH) inhibits its expression and stimulates the expression ofRANKL This construct provides a molecular mechanism for the regulation of the osteo-clastic bone resorption and osteoblastic bone formation couple and basis for the bone loss

of postmenopausal osteoporosis, aging and pathologic skeletal changes (e.g., sis, glucocorticoid-induced osteoporosis, periodontal disease, bone metastases, Paget’sdisease, hyperparathyroidism, and rheumatoid arthritis) Environmental toxicants andendocrine disruptors also may perturb the normal balance between osteoclastic and os-teoblastic activity by interfering with homeostasis and/or accelerating aging processes.With regard to endocrine disruption, OPG has been linked to vascular disease, particu-larly arterial calcification in estrogen-deficient individuals, the aged, and those afflictedwith immunological deficits

osteopetro-During skeletogenesis, cartilage matures either into permanent cartilage that persists

as such throughout the organism’s life or transient cartilage that ultimately is replaced bybone How cartilage phenotype is specified is not clear In vitro studies have shown thatCbfa1 is involved in induction of chondrocyte maturation In this regard, it is of interest

to note that transgenic mice overexpressing either Cbfa1 or a dominant-negative Cbfa1 in chondrocytes exhibit dwarfism and skeletal malformations These phenotypesare mediated through opposing mechanisms In the former case, Cbfa1 overexpressionaccelerates endochondral ossification resulting from precocious chondrocyte maturationwhereas in the latter, DN-Cbfa1 overexpression suppresses maturation and delays endo-chondral ossification In addition, mice overexpressing Cbfa1 fail to form most of theirjoints and what would be permanent cartilage in normal mice enters the endochondralpathway of ossification In contrast, in DN-Cbfa1 transgenic mice, most chondrocytesexhibit a marker for permanent cartilage It may be concluded from these observations thatproper temporal and spatial expression of chondrocyte Cbfa1 is required for normalskeletogenesis, including formation of joints, permanent cartilage, and endochondral bone.Both gain-of-function and loss-of-function mutations in fibroblast growth factor re-ceptor 3 (FGFR3) have revealed unique roles for this receptor during skeletal develop-ment Loss-of-function alleles of FGFR3 lead to an increase in the size of the hypertrophiczone, delayed closure of the growth plate and the subsequent overgrowth of long bones.Gain-of-function mutations in FGFR3 have been linked genetically to autosomal domi-nant dwarfing chondrodysplasia syndromes in which both the size and architecture of theepiphyseal growth plate are altered Analysis of these phenotypes and the biochemicalconsequences of the mutations in FGFR3 demonstrate that FGFR3-mediated signaling

(DN)-is an essential negative regulator of endochondral ossification

Thorough understanding of bone physiology and how it is modified throughout all

stages of life, from in utero development to advanced age, is of great current interest for

its potential application to the establishment of criteria for the achievement and nance of bone health and the reestablishment of bone health following trauma and dis-ease Other clinical applications include:

mainte-• Establishment of criteria for the achievement of optimal bone strength throughoutlife, its maintenance in such long-term microgravity situations as space travel, and the

facilitation of readjustment to normogravity upon return to earth This will require lishment of rapid and precise methods for distinguishing mechanically competent bonefrom incompetent bone.

estab-• Establishment of optimal conditions for the healing of fractures, osteotomies, andarthrodeses

• Understanding the mechanics of induction by falling of metaphyseal and diaphysealfractures of the radius in children, but primarily metaphyseal fractures in the aged

• Improvement of the endurance of load-bearing implants

• Understanding the mechanism(s) of osteopenia and osteoporosis and how and why,during menopause, healthy women lose only bone adjacent to marrow

Furthermore, because of the multifunctionality and interactions of the skeletal system,biomedical researchers and practitioners of almost every clinical discipline have greatinterest in bone biology Even a cursory review of the bone biology literature will revealthe depth of interest in the field Publications emanate from a broad spectrum of biomedi-cal areas that include: adolescent medicine, anatomy, anthropology, biochemistry, bio-mechanics, biomedical engineering, biophysics, cardiology, cell and molecular biology,clinical nutrition research, dentistry, developmental biology, endocrinology, enzymol-ogy, epidemiology, food science, genetics, genetic counseling, gerontology, hematol-ogy, histology, human nutrition, internal medicine, medicinal chemistry, metabolism,microbiology, neurology, oncology, orthopedics, pediatric medicine, pharmacology andtherapeutics, physical and rehabilitation medicine, physiology, plastic surgery, publichealth, radiology and imaging research, space and sports medicine, trace/essential ele-ment research, vascular biology, vitaminology and cofactor research, women’s health,teratology, and toxicology

Bone biology is a diverse field, and our goal in developing The Skeleton: Biochemical,

Genetic, and Molecular Interactions in Development and Homeostasis was to provide

researchers and students with an overview of selected topics of current interest in bonebiology and to stimulate their interest in this fascinating and diverse field

Edward J Massaro John M Rogers

Preface vContributors xv

I CHONDROGENESIS, CHONDROCYTES,AND CARTILAGE

1 Molecular Basis of Cell–Cell Interaction and Signaling

in Mesenchymal Chondrogenesis 3

Rocky S Tuan

2 Chondrocyte Cell Fate Determination in Response to Bone

Morphogenetic Protein Signaling 17

Lillian Shum, Yuji Hatakeyama, Julius Leyton, and Kazuaki Nonaka

3 Regulation of Chondrocyte Differentiation 43

Andreia M Ionescu, M Hicham Drissi, and Regis J O’Keefe

4 Continuous Expression of Cbfa1 in Nonhypertrophic

Chondrocytes Uncovers Its Ability to Induce HypertrophicChondrocyte Differentiation and Partially Rescues

II CONTROL OF SKELETAL DEVELOPMENT

7 Molecular Genetic Analysis of the Role of the HoxD Complex

in Skeletal Development: Impact of the loxP/Cre System

in Targeted Mutagenesis of the Mouse HoxD Complex 101

Marie Kmita, Denis Duboule, and József Zákány

8 Control of Development and Homeostasis Via Regulation

of BMP, Wnt, and Hedgehog Signaling 113

Renee Hackenmiller, Catherine Degnin, and Jan Christian

9 FGF4 and Skeletal Morphogenesis 131

Valerie Ngo-Muller, Shaoguang Li, Scott A Schaller, Manjong Han, Jennifer Farrington, Minoru Omi, Rosalie Anderson, and Ken Muneoka

10 Retinoid Signaling and Skeletal Development 147

Andrea D Weston and T Michael Underhill

xi

III OSTEOBLASTIC CELL DIFFERENTIATION

12 Synergy Between Osteogenic Protein-1 and Osteotropic

Factors in the Stimulation of Rat Osteoblastic CellDifferentiation 173

John C Lee and Lee-Chuan C Yeh

13 Bone Morphogenic Proteins, Osteoblast Differentiation,

and Cell Survival During Osteogenesis 185

Cun-Yu Wang

14 Osteoclast Differentiation 195

Sakamuri V Reddy and G David Roodman

IV BONE INDUCTION, GROWTH, AND REMODELING

15 Soluble Signals and Insoluble Substrata: Novel Molecular

Cues Instructing the Induction of Bone 217

Ugo Ripamonti, Nathaniel L Ramoshebi, Janet Patton, Thato Matsaba, June Teare, and Louise Renton

16 Perichondrial and Periosteal Regulation of Endochondral

Growth 229

Dana L Di Nino and Thomas F Linsenmayer

17 Computer Simulations of Cancellous Bone Remodeling 249

Jacqueline C van der Linden, Harrie Weinans, and Jan A N Verhaar

18 Effects of Microgravity on Skeletal Remodeling

and Bone Cells 263

Pierre J Marie

V BONE MINERALIZATION

19 Quantitative Analyses of the Development of Different Hard

Tissues 279

Siegfried Arnold, Hans J Höhling, and Ulrich Plate

20 Fetal Mineral Homeostasis and Skeletal Mineralization 293

Contents xiii

VI SKELETAL DYSMORPHOLOGY

22 Role of Pax3 and PDGF-_ Receptor in Skeletal

Morphogenesis and Facial Clefting 335

Simon J Conway

23 Genetics of Achondroplasia and Hypochondroplasia 349

Giedre Grigelioniene

24 Effects of Boric Acid on Hox Gene Expression and the Axial

Skeleton in the Developing Rat 361

Michael G Narotsky, Nathalie Wéry, Bonnie T Hamby, Deborah S Best, Nathalie Pacico, Jacques J Picard, Françoise Gofflot, and Robert J Kavlock

25 Toxicant-Induced Lumbar and Cervical Ribs in Rodents 373

John M Rogers, R Woodrow Setzer, and Neil Chernoff

26 Experimental Skeletal Dysmorphology: Risk Assessment

Issues 385

Rochelle W Tyl, Melissa C Marr, and Christina B Myers

Index 415

DEBORAH S BEST• Reproductive Toxicology Division, National Health and

Environmental Effects Research Laboratory, Office of Research and Development,

US Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC

JEAN-PIERRE BONNAMY• Department of Molecular and Human Genetics, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX

QIAN CHEN• Department of Orthopaedics, Brown Medical School, Rhode Island Hospital, Providence, RI

NEIL CHERNOFF• Developmental Biology Branch, Reproductive Toxicology Division, National Health and Environmental Effects Research Laboratory, Office of Research Development, US Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC

SIMON J CONWAY• Department of Cell Biology and Anatomy, Institute of Molecular Medicine and Genetics, Medical College of Georgia, Augusta, GA

JAN CHRISTIAN• Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, Oregon Health and Science University, Portland, OR

CATHERINE DEGNIN• Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, Oregon Health and Science University, Portland, OR

DANA L DI NINO• Department of Anatomy and Cellular Biology, Tufts University Medical School, Boston, MA

M HICHAM DRISSI• Center for Musculoskeletal Research, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY

DENIS DUBOULE• Department of Zoology and Animal Biology and NCCR ‘Frontiers

in Genetics,’ University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland

PATRICIA DUCY• Department of Molecular and Human Genetics, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX

JENNIFER FARRINGTON• Division of Developmental Biology, Department of Cell and Molecular Biology, Tulane University, New Orleans, LA

CHIARA GENTILI• Centro di Medicina Rigenerativa, Istituto Nazionale Ricerca sul Cancro, Genova, Italy

FRANÇOISE GOFFLOT• Unit of Developmental Genetics, Université Catholique de Louvain, Bruxelles, Belgium

ELEANOR GOLDEN• Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, School of Dental

Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA

GIEDRE GRIGELIONIENE• Paediatric Endocrinology Unit, Karolinska Hospital, Stockholm, Sweden

RENEE HACKENMILLER• Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, Oregon Health and Science University, Portland, OR

BONNIE T HAMBY• RTI International, Center for Life Sciences and Technology, Research Triangle Park, NC

xv

YUJI HATAKEYAMA• Cartilage Biology and Orthopaedics Branch, National Institute

of Arthritis, and Musculoskeletal and Skin Disease, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD

HANS J HÖHLING• Institut für Medizinische Physik und Biophysik, Westfälische Wilhelms-Universität Münster, Germany

ANDREIA M IONESCU• Center for Musculoskeletal Research, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY

GERARD KARSENTY• Department of Molecular and Human Genetics, Baylor College

of Medicine, Houston, TX

ROBERT J KAVLOCK• Reproductive Toxicology Division, National Health and

Environmental Effects Research Laboratory, Office of Research and Development,

US Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC

MARIE KMITA• Department of Zoology and Animal Biology and NCCR “Frontiers in Genetics,” University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland

CHRISTOPHER S KOVACS• Faculty of Medicine—Endocrinology, Memorial University

of Newfoundland Health Sciences Centre, St John’s, Newfoundland, Canada

EIKI KOYAMA• Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Thomas Jefferson University Medical School, Philadelphia, PA

JOHN C LEE• Department of Biochemistry, University of Texas Health Science Center, San Antonio, TX

JULIUS LEYTON• Cartilage Biology and Orthopaedics Branch, National Institute

of Arthritis, and Musculoskeletal and Skin Disease, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD

SHAOGUANG LI• The Jackson Laboratory, Bar Harbor, Maine

THOMAS F LINSENMAYER• Department of Anatomy and Cellular Biology, Tufts

University Medical School, Boston, MA

PIERRE J MARIE• INSERM U349 Lariboisière Hospital, Paris, France

MELISSA C MARR• RTI International, Center for Life Sciences and Toxicology, Research Triangle Park, NC

EDWARD J MASSARO• Developmental Biology Branch, Reproductive Toxicology Division, National Health and Environmental Effects Research Laboratory, Office of Research Development, US Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC

THATO MATSABA• Bone Research Unit, Medical Research Council/University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa

CHRISTINA B MYERS• RTI International, Center for Life Sciences and Toxicology, Research Triangle Park, NC

KEN MUNEOKA• Division of Developmental Biology, Department of Cell and Molecular Biology, Tulane University, New Orleans, LA

JOHANNA MYLLYHARJU• Collagen Research Unit, Biocenter Oulu and Department of Medical Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Oulu, Oulu, Finland

MICHAEL G NAROTSKY• Reproductive Toxicology Division, National Health and Environmental Effects Research Laboratory, Office of Research and Development,

US Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC

VALERIE NGO-MULLER• ICGM Cochin Port-Royal, Paris France

MICHAEL J OWEN• Imperial Cancer Research Fund, London, UK

NATHALIE PACICO• Unit of Developmental Genetics, Université Catholique de Louvain, Bruxelles, Belgium

MAURIZIO PACIFICI• Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Thomas Jefferson University Medical School, Philadelphia, PA

JANET PATTON• Bone Research Unit, Medical Research Council/University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa

JACQUES J PICARD• Unit of Developmental Genetics, Université Catholique de Louvain, Bruxelles, Belgium

ULRICH PLATE• Klinik und Poliklinik für Mund- und Kiefer-Gesichtschirurgie, Westfälische Wilhelms-Universität Münster, Germany

HULBERT A P POLS• Department of Internal Medicine, Erasmus Medical Center Rotterdam, Rotterdam, The Netherlands

NATHANIEL L RAMOSHEBI• Bone Research Unit, Medical Research Council/University

of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa

SAKAMURI V REDDY• Center for Bone Biology, Division of Hematology-Oncology, Department of Medicine, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA

LOUISE RENTON• Bone Research Unit, Medical Research Council/University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa

UGO RIPAMONTI• Bone Research Unit, Medical Research Council/University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa

JOHN M ROGERS• Developmental Biology Branch, Reproductive Toxicology

Division, National Health and Environmental Effects Research Laboratory, Office of Research Development, US Environmental Protection Agency,

Research Triangle Park, NC

G DAVID ROODMAN• Center for Bone Biology, Division of Hematology-Oncology, Department of Medicine, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA

SCOTT A SCHALLER• Department of Cell and Molecular Biology, Division of

Developmental Biology, Tulane University, New Orleans, LA

R WOODROW SETZER• Pharmacokinetics Branch, Experimental Toxicology Division, National Health and Environmental Effects Research Laboratory, Office of

Research and Development, US Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC

LILLIAN SHUM• Cartilage Biology and Orthopaedics Branch, National Institute

of Arthritis and Musculoskeletal and Skin Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD

SHU TAKEDA• Department of Molecular and Human Genetics, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX

JUNE TEARE• Bone Research Unit, Medical Research Council/University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa

xviii Contributors

ROCKY S TUAN• Cartilage Biology and Orthopaedics Branch, National Institute

of Arthritis and Musculoskeletal and Skin Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD

ROCHELLE W TYL• RTI International, Center for Life Sciences and Toxicology, Research Triangle Park, NC

T MICHAEL UNDERHILL• Department of Physiology, and Division of Oral Biology, Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry, University of Western Ontario, London, Ontario, Canada

JACQUELINE C VAN DER LINDEN• Orthopedic Research Laboratory, Erasmus University Rotterdam, Rotterdam, The Netherlands

MARJOLEIN VAN DRIEL• Department of Internal Medicine, Erasmus Medical Center Rotterdam, Rotterdam, The Netherlands

JOHANNES P T M VAN LEEUWEN• Department of Internal Medicine, Erasmus Medical Center Rotterdam, Rotterdam, The Netherlands

JAN A N VERHAAR• Orthopedic Research Laboratory, Erasmus University Rotterdam, Rotterdam, The Netherlands

CUN-YU WANG• Department of Biologic and Materials Sciences, University of

Michigan School of Dentistry, Ann Arbor, MI

HARRIE WEINANS• Orthopedic Research Laboratory, Erasmus University Rotterdam, Rotterdam, The Netherlands

NATHALIE WÉRY• Unit of Developmental Genetics, Université Catholique de Louvain, Bruxelles, Belgium

ANDREA D WESTON• Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry, University of Western Ontario, London, Ontario, Canada

LEE-CHUAN C YEH• Department of Biochemistry, University of Texas Health Science Center, San Antonio, TX

JÓZSEF ZÁKÁNY• Department of Zoology and Animal Biology and NCCR ‘Frontiers in Genetics,’ University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland

Regulation of Mesenchymal Chondrogenesis 1

I

Chondrogenesis, Chondrocytes, and Cartilage

2 Tuan