Composition Khn & Weyh, Freiburg Printing betz-druck GmbH, Darmstadt Bookbinding Litges & Dopf Buchbinderei GmbH, Heppenheim Printed in the Federal Republic of Germany Printed on acid-fr
Trang 2Lubricants and LubricationEdited by Theo Mang and Wilfried Dresel
Lubricants and Lubrication 2nd Ed Edited by Th Mang and W Dresel
Copyright 2007 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co KGaA, Weinheim
Trang 3Each generation has its unique needs and aspirations When Charles Wiley firstopened his small printing shop in lower Manhattan in 1807, it was a generation
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For 200 years, Wiley has been an integral part of each generation s journey,enabling the flow of information and understanding necessary to meet theirneeds and fulfill their aspirations Today, bold new technologies are changingthe way we live and learn Wiley will be there, providing you the must-haveknowledge you need to imagine new worlds, new possibilities, and new oppor-tunities
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1807–2007 Knowledge for Generations
Trang 4Lubricants and Lubrication
Edited by
Theo Mang and Wilfried Dresel
Second, Completely Revised and Extended Edition
Trang 5Library of Congress Card No.:
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Printed in the Federal Republic of Germany Printed on acid-free paper
Trang 6List of Contributors
Thorsten Bartels
Dr.-Ing., Weisenheim am Sand, Germany
Technical Service Management and Test Lab
Management
Wolfgang Bock
Dipl.-Ing., Weinheim, Germany
International Product Management Industrial Oils
Jrgen Braun
Dr rer nat., Speyer, Germany
R&D for Industrial Oils
Christian Busch
Dr.-Ing., Kaiserslautern, Germany
Managing Director
Wolfgang Buss
Dr rer nat., Freinsheim, Germany
R&D and Product Management for Forming
Lubricants
Wilfried Dresel
Dr rer nat., Ludwigshafen, Germany
R&D for Lubricating Greases (International)
Carmen Freiler
Dipl.-Ing., Httenfeld, Germany
R&D and Product Management for Metal Cutting
Fluids
Manfred Harperscheid
Dr rer nat., Rmerberg, Germany
R&D for Engine Oils
Rolf-Peter Heckler
Dipl.-Ing., Neu-Isenburg, Germany
International Product Management for
Lubricating Greases
Dietrich Hrner
Dr rer nat., Hassloch, Germany International Product Management for Metalworking Fluids and Quenching Oils Franz Kubicki
Dipl.-Ing., Hockenheim, Germany International Product Management for Corrosion Preventives and Sheet Metalforming
Georg Lingg Dr.-Ing., Mannheim, Germany Member of the Executive Board, Technology and Supply Chain
Achim Losch
Dr rer nat., Westhofen, Germany R&D for Corrosion Preventives, Metalforming and Cleaners
Rolf Luther Dipl.-Phys., Speyer, Germany Head of Test Fields and Advanced Development Theo Mang
Prof Dr.-Ing., Weinheim, Germany Group’s Executive Board, Technology, Group Purchasing, Human Resources (until 2001) Roman Mller
Mannheim, Germany International Know-How Transfer Siegfried Noll
Chemist, Mannheim, Germany Raw Material Specifications, Central Purchasing and General Management († 2003)
Jrgen Omeis
Dr rer nat., Zwingenberg, Germany R&D for Engine Oils (until 2004)
Lubricants and Lubrication 2nd Ed Edited by Th Mang and W Dresel
Copyright 2007 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co KGaA, Weinheim
Trang 8List of Contributors V
Preface, Foreword 2nd edition XXXIII
A Word of Thanks XXXV
List of Abbreviations XXXVII
1 Lubricants and their Market 1
2.1 Lubricants as Part of Tribological Research 7
2.2 The Tribological System 8
2.3.2 Friction and Lubrication Conditions 12
2.3.2.1 Solid Friction (Dry Friction) 12
Lubricants and Lubrication 2nd Ed Edited by Th Mang and W Dresel
Copyright 2007 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co KGaA, Weinheim
Trang 9VIII Contents
2.3.2.6 Stribeck Diagram 14
2.3.2.7 Hydrodynamic Lubrication 14
2.3.2.8 Elasto–Hydrodynamic Lubrication (EHD Regime) 15
2.3.2.9 Thermo-elasto-hydrodynamic Lubrication (TEHD) 15
3.4 The Effect of Shear Rate on Viscosity 28
3.5 Special Rheological Effects 30
3.5.1 Greases 31
3.6 Viscosity Grades 31
3.6.1 ISO Viscosity Grades 32
3.6.2 Other Viscosity Grades 32
3.6.2.1 Engine Oils 32
3.6.2.2 Automotive Gear Oils 32
3.6.2.3 Industrial Gear Oils 32
3.6.2.4 Viscosity Grades for Base Oils 33
3.6.2.5 Comparison of Viscosity Grades 33
Theo Mang and Georg Lingg
4.1 Base Oils – A Historical Review and Outlook 34
4.2 Chemical Characterization of Mineral Base Oils 35
4.2.1 Rough Chemical Characterization 35
4.2.1.1 Viscosity–Gravity Constant (VGC) 35
4.2.1.2 Aniline Point 35
Trang 10IX Contents
4.2.2 Carbon Distribution 36
4.2.3 Hydrocarbon Composition 36
4.2.4 Polycyclic Aromatics in Base Oils 36
4.2.4.1 Aromatics in White Mineral Oils 37
4.4 Base Oil Manufacturing by Hydrogenation and Hydrocracking 45
4.4.1 Manufacturing Naphthenic Base Oils by Hydrogenation 46
4.4.2 Production of White Oils 48
4.4.8 Gas-to-Liquids Conversion Technology 55
4.5 Boiling and Evaporation Behavior of Base Oils 55
4.6 Base Oil Categories and Evaluation of Various Petroleum Base Oils 59
5 Synthetic Base Oils 63
5.3.1 Esters of carboxylic acids 71
5.3.1.1 Dicarboxylic Acid Esters 72
Trang 11X Contents
5.5.1 Perfluorinated Polyethers 79
5.5.2 Polyphenyl Ethers 80
5.5.3 Polysiloxanes (Silicone Oils) 81
5.6 Other Synthetic Base Oils 83
5.7 Comparison of Synthetic Base Oils 87
5.8 Mixtures of Synthetic Lubricants 87
6.8 Antiwear (AW) and Extreme Pressure (EP) Additives 107
6.8.1 Function of AW/EP Additives 107
6.8.2 Compounds 108
6.8.2.1 Phosphorus Compounds 108
Trang 12XI Contents
6.8.2.2 Compounds Containing Sulfur and Phosphorus 109
6.8.2.3 Compounds Containing Sulfur and Nitrogen 110
6.10.1 Mechanism of Corrosion Inhibitors 114
6.10.2 Antirust Additives (Ferrous Metals) 115
6.10.2.1 Sulfonates 115
6.10.2.2 Carboxylic Acid Derivatives 115
6.10.2.3 Amine Neutralized Alkylphosphoric Acid Partial Esters 116
6.10.2.4 Vapor Phase Corrosion Inhibitors 116
6.10.3 Metal Passivators (Non-ferrous Metals) 117
7 Lubricants in the Environment 119
Rolf Luther
7.1 Definition of Environmentally Friendly Lubricants’ 119
7.2 Current Situation 120
7.2.1 Statistical Data 120
7.2.2 Economic Consequences and Substitution Potential 121
7.2.3 Agriculture, Economy, and Politics 123
7.3.4.1 The German Water Hazardous Classes 127
7.3.4.2 German Regulations for Using Water-endangering Lubricants
7.5 Globally Harmonized System of Classification and Labeling (GHS) 136
7.6 Environmental Legislation 2: Dangerous Preparations Directive
(1999/45/EC) 139
7.7 Environmental Legislation 3: Regular use 140
7.7.1 Environmental Liability Law 141
7.7.2 The Chemicals Law, Hazardous Substances Law 141
Trang 13XII Contents
7.7.3 Transport Regulations 142
7.7.4 Disposal (Waste and Recycling Laws) 142
7.7.5 Disposal Options for Not water pollutant’ Vegetable Oils 143
7.8 Environmental Legislation 4: Emissions 144
7.8.1 Air Pollution 144
7.8.2 Water Pollution 144
7.8.3 German Law for Soil Protection 145
7.8.4 German Water Law 146
7.8.5 Waste Water Charges 147
7.8.6 Clean Air: German Emissions Law 147
7.8.7 Drinking Water Directive 147
7.9 Standardization of Environmentally Compatible Hydraulic Fluids 148
7.9.1 The German Regulation VDMA 24568 148
7.9.2 ISO Regulation 15380 148
7.10 Environmental Seal 153
7.10.1 Global Eco-labeling Network 153
7.10.2 European Eco-label 153
7.10.3 The German Blue Angel’ 157
7.10.4 Nordic countries (Norway, Sweden, Finland, Iceland) – White
Swan’ 158
7.10.4.1 Requirements Concerning Renewable Resources 160
7.10.4.2 Requirements Concerning Re-refined Oil 160
7.10.4.3 Requirements Concerning Environmentally Harmful Components 160
7.10.4.4 Requirements for Hydraulic Fluids, Mould Oil, Metalworking
Trang 14XIII Contents
7.13 Products (Examples) 168
7.13.1 Hydraulic Fluids 169
7.13.2 Metal Working Oil 169
7.13.3 Oil-refreshing System 170
7.14 Safety Aspects of Handling Lubricants (Working Materials) 171
7.14.1 Toxicological Terminology and Hazard Indicators 171
7.14.2 MAK (Maximum Workplace Concentration) Values 173
7.14.3 Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAK, PAH, PCA) 174
7.14.4 Nitrosamines in Cutting Fluids 174
7.14.5 Law on Flammable Fluids 175
7.15 Skin Problems Caused by Lubricants 176
7.15.1 Structure and Function of the Skin 176
7.15.2 Skin Damage 177
7.15.2.1 Oil Acne (Particle Acne) 177
7.15.2.2 Oil Eczema 178
7.15.3 Testing Skin Compatibility 179
7.15.4 Skin Function Tests 180
7.15.5 Skin Care and Skin Protection 182
8 Disposal of Used Lubricating Oils 183
Theo Mang
8.1 Possible Uses of Waste Oil 184
8.2 Legislative Influences on Waste Oil Collection and Reconditioning 184
8.3 Re-refining 185
8.3.1 Sulfuric Acid Refining (Meinken) 185
8.3.2 Propane Extraction Process (IFP, Snamprogetti) 186
8.3.3 Mohawk Technology (CEP–Mohawk) 187
8.3.4 KTI Process 187
8.3.5 PROP Process 187
8.3.6 Safety Kleen Process 188
8.3.7 DEA Technology 189
8.3.8 Other Re-refining Technologies 190
9 Lubricants for Internal Combustion Engines 191
Manfred Harperscheid and Jrgen Omeis
9.1 Four-stroke Engine Oils 191
9.1.1 General Overview 191
Trang 159.1.2 Characterization and Testing 197
9.1.2.1 Physical and Chemical Testing 198
9.1.2.2 Engine Testing 198
9.1.2.3 Passenger Car Engine Oils 200
9.1.2.4 Engine Oil for Commercial Vehicles 201
9.2.1 Application and Characteristics of Two-stroke Oils 218
9.2.2 Classification of Two-stroke Oils 220
9.2.2.1 API Service Groups 220
9.2.2.2 JASO Classification 220
9.2.2.3 ISO Classification 221
9.2.3 Oils for Two-stroke Outboard Engines 222
9.2.4 Environmentally Friendly Two-stroke Oils 223
9.3 Tractor Oils 224
9.4 Gas Engine Oils 225
9.4.1 Use of Gas Engines – Gas as a Fuel 226
9.4.2 Lubricants for Gas Engines 226
9.5 Marine Diesel Engine Oils 227
9.5.1 Low-speed Crosshead Engines 227
Trang 16XV Contents
10.3.1 Friction Conditions of Gear Types 234
10.3.1.1 Toothed Wheels 234
10.3.1.2 Load and Speed Conditions during Tooth Engagement 234
10.3.1.3 Static and Dynamic Load Distribution within Tooth Engagement 236
10.3.1.4 Lubrication Film Generation within Tooth Contact 236
10.4 Gear Lubrication Oils for Motor Vehicles 245
10.4.1 Driveline Lubricants for Commercial Vehicles 246
10.4.2 Driveline Lubricants for Passenger Cars 250
10.4.3 Lubricants for Automatic Transmissions and CVTs 254
10.4.3.1 Fluid Requirements for Hydrodynamic Transmissions 256
10.4.3.2 Fluid Requirements for Wet Clutches and Brakes 257
10.4.3.3 Fluid Requirements for CVT Applications 259
10.4.3.4 B-CVT Push Belt and Link Chain Drives 259
10.4.3.5 T-CVT Traction Drives 261
10.4.3.6 H-CVT Hydrostatic Dynamic Powershift Drives 262
10.5 Multifunctional Fluids in Vehicle Gears 262
10.6 Gear Lubricants for Industrial Gears 264
10.6.1 Viscosity-Temperature Characteristics 266
10.6.2 Fluid Shear Stability 267
10.6.3 Corrosion and Rust Protection 267
10.6.4 Oxidation Stability 268
10.6.5 Flash Point and Pour Point 268
10.6.6 Demulsibility and Water Separation 268
10.6.7 Air Release 268
10.6.8 Paint Compatibility 269
10.6.9 Seal Compatibility 269
10.6.10 Foaming 269
10.6.11 Miscibility with Mineral Oils 269
10.6.12 Environmental and Skin Compatibility 269
10.6.13 Open gear drives 270
10.7 Cost-to-benefit Ratio of Gear Lubrication Oils 270
11 Hydraulic Oils 274
Wolfgang Bock
11.1 Introduction 274
11.2 Hydraulic Principle–Pascal’s Law 275
11.3 Hydraulic Systems, Circuits, Components 276
Trang 17XVI Contents
11.3.1 Elements of a Hydraulic System 276
11.3.1.1 Pumps and Motors 276
11.4.1 Composition of Hydraulic Fluids (Base fluids, additives) 281
11.4.1.1 Base Oil, Base Fluid 281
11.4.1.2 Hydraulic Fluid Additives 281
11.4.2 Primary, Secondary and Tertiary Characteristics of a Hydraulic
Fluid 282
11.4.3 Selection Criteria for Hydraulic Fluids 283
11.4.4 Classification of Hydraulic Fluids – Standardization of Hydraulic
Fluids 286
11.4.4.1 Classification of Hydraulic Fluids 286
11.4.5 Mineral Oil-Based Hydraulic Fluids 286
11.4.7 Biodegradable Hydraulic Fluids 296
11.4.7.1 HETG: Triglyceride, Vegetable-Oil Types 296
11.4.7.2 HEES: Synthetic Ester Types 298
11.4.7.3 HEPG: Polyglycol Types 299
11.4.7.4 HEPR: Polyalphaolefin and Related Hydrocarbon Products 299
11.4.8 Food-Grade Hydraulic Fluids 299
11.4.8.1 NSF H2 Lubricants 300
11.4.8.2 NSF H1 Lubricants 303
11.4.9 Automatic Transmission Fluids (ATF) 303
11.4.10 Fluids in Tractors and Agricultural Machinery 303
11.4.11 Hydraulic Fluids for Aircraft 303
11.4.12 International Requirements on Hydraulic Oils 304
11.4.13 Physical Properties of Hydraulic Oils and Their Effect on
Trang 18XVII Contents
11.4.13.5 Gas Solubility, Cavitation 312
11.4.13.6 Air Release 314
11.4.13.7 Foaming 314
11.4.13.8 Demulsification 315
11.4.13.9 Pour-point 315
11.4.13.10 Copper Corrosion Behavior (Copper-Strip Test) 316
11.4.13.11 Water Content (Karl Fischer method) 316
11.4.13.12 Aging Stability (Baader method) 316
11.4.13.13 Aging Stability (TOST test) 317
11.4.13.14 Neutralization Number 317
11.4.13.15 Steel/Ferrous Corrosion Protection Properties 317
11.4.13.16 Wear Protection (SHELL four-ball apparatus; VKA, DIN 51 350) 317
11.4.13.17 Shear Stability of Polymer-containing Lubricants 318
11.4.13.18 Mechanical Testing of Hydraulic Fluids in Rotary Vane Pumps
(DIN 51 389-2) 318
11.4.13.19 Wear Protection (FZG Gear Rig Test; DIN 51 354-1 and -2) 318
11.5 Hydraulic System Filters 319
11.5.1 Contaminants in Hydraulic Fluids 319
11.5.2 Oil Cleanliness Grades 320
11.5.3 Filtration 321
11.5.4 Requirements of Hydraulic Fluids 322
11.6 Machine Tool Lubrication 322
11.6.1 The Role of Machine Tools 322
11.6.2 Machine Tool Lubrication 322
11.6.3 Machine Tool Components – Lubricants 323
11.6.3.1 Hydraulic Unit 323
11.6.3.2 Slideways 326
11.6.3.3 Spindles (Main and Working Spindles) 327
11.6.3.4 Gearboxes and Bearings 327
11.6.4 Machine Tool Lubrication Problems 328
11.6.5 Hydraulic Fluids – New Trends, New Developments 328
Trang 19XVIII Contents
12 Compressor Oils 338
12.1 Air Compressor Oils 338
Wolfgang Bock and Georg Lingg
12.1.1 Displacement Compressors 340
12.1.1.1 Reciprocating Piston Compressors 340
12.1.1.2 Lubrication of Reciprocating Piston Compressors 340
12.1.1.3 Rotary Piston Compressors (Single Shaft, Rotary Vane
12.1.2.2 Lubrication of Turbo Compressors 344
12.1.3 Preparation of Compressed Air 344
12.1.4 Lubrication of Gas Compressors 344
12.1.4.1 Oxygen Compressors 344
12.1.4.2 Acid Gas Compressors 344
12.1.4.3 Inert Gas Compressors 344
12.1.4.4 Hydrocarbon Compressors 345
12.1.4.5 Vacuum Pump Lubrication 345
12.1.5 Characteristics of Compressor Oils 345
12.1.6 Standards and Specifications of Compressor Oils 345
12.2 Refrigeration Oils 353
Wolfgang Bock
12.2.1 Introduction 353
12.2.2 Minimum Requirements of Refrigeration Oils 354
12.2.2.1 DIN 51 503-1: Refrigeration oils, Minimum requirements (1997) 354
12.2.3 Classifications of Refrigeration Oils 355
12.2.3.1 Mineral Oils (MO) – Dewaxed Naphthenic Refrigeration Oils 355
12.2.3.2 Mineral Oils (MO) – Paraffinic Refrigeration Oils 355
12.2.3.3 Semi-Synthetic Refrigeration Oils – Mixtures of alkylbenzenes and
mineral oils (MO/AB) 356
12.2.3.4 Fully Synthetic Refrigeration Oils – Alkylbenzenes (AB) 357
12.2.3.5 Fully Synthetic Refrigeration Oils – Polyalphaolefins (PAO) 357
12.2.3.6 Fully Synthetic Refrigeration Oils – Polyol esters (POE) 357
12.2.3.7 Fully Synthetic Refrigeration Oils – Polyglycols (PAG) for R 134a 359
12.2.3.8 Fully Synthetic Refrigeration Oils – Polyglycols for NH3 359
12.2.3.9 Other Synthetic Fluids 360
12.2.3.10 Refrigeration Oils for CO2 360
12.2.3.11 Copper Plating 360
Trang 20XIX Contents
12.2.4 Types of Compressor 362
12.2.5 Viscosity Selection 362
12.2.5.1 General Overview 362
12.2.5.2 Mixture Concentration in Relationship to Temperature and Pressure
(RENISO Triton SE 55 – R 134a) 365
12.2.5.3 Mixture Viscosity in Relationship to Temperature, Pressure and
Refrigerant
Concentration (RENISO Triton SE 55 – R 134a) 365
12.2.5.4 Mixture Density in Relationship to Temperature and Refrigerant
Concentration (RENISO Triton SE 55 – R 134a; Fig 12.9) 365
12.2.5.5 Miscibility Gap, Solubility Threshold (RENISO Triton Series with R 134a,
13.2 Demands on Turbine Oils – Characteristics 367
13.3 Formulation of Turbine Oils 368
13.4 Turbine Lubricants – Specifications 369
13.5 Turbine Oil Circuits 374
13.6 Flushing Turbine Oil Circuits 379
13.7 Monitoring and Maintenance of Turbine Oils 380
13.8 Life of (Steam) Turbine Oils 380
13.9 Gas Turbine Oils – Application and Requirements 381
13.10 Fire-resistant, Water-free Fluids for Power Station Applications 382
13.11 Lubricants for Water Turbines and Hydroelectric Plants 383
14 Metalworking Fluids 384
Theo Mang, Carmen Freiler and Dietrich Hrner
14.1 Action Mechanism and Cutting Fluid Selection 385
14.1.1 Lubrication 386
14.1.2 Cooling 387
14.1.3 Significance of Cutting Fluid with Various Cutting Materials 389
14.1.3.1 High-speed Steels 389
14.1.3.2 Cemented Carbide Metals 390
14.1.3.3 Coated Carbide Metals 390
Trang 21XX Contents
14.2 Friction and Wear Assessment Method for the Use of Cutting
Fluids 393
14.2.1 Tool Life and Number of Parts Produced by the Tool as
Practical Assessment Parameters 394
14.2.2 Measuring Cutting Forces in Screening Tests 394
14.2.3 Feed Rates at Constant Feed Force 395
14.2.4 Measuring Tool Life by Fast-screening Methods 395
14.2.5 Cutting Geometry and Chip Flow 396
14.2.6 Other Fast Testing Methods 397
14.2.6.1 Temperature Measurement 397
14.2.6.2 Radioactive Tools 397
14.2.6.3 Surface Finish 397
14.3 Water-miscible Cutting Fluids 397
14.3.1 Nomenclature and Breakdown 398
14.3.2.6 Corrosion Inhibitors and other Additives 411
14.3.2.7 Cutting Fluids Containing Emulsifiers 413
14.3.2.8 Coolants Containing Polyglycols 415
14.3.2.9 Salt Solutions 415
14.3.3 Corrosion Protection and Corrosion Test Methods 416
14.3.4 Concentration of Water-mixed Cutting Fluids 417
14.3.4.1 Determination of Concentration by DIN 51 368 (IP 137) 417
14.3.4.2 Concentration Measurement Using Hand-held Refractometers 418
14.3.4.3 Concentration Measurement Through Individual Components 418
14.3.4.4 Determination of Concentration by Titration of Anionic
Components 418
14.3.4.5 Determination of Concentration Through Alkali Reserve 419
14.3.4.6 Concentration after Centrifuging 419
14.3.6.3 Methods of Determining Foam Behavior 424
14.3.7 Metalworking Fluid Microbiology 425
14.3.7.1 Hygienic and Toxicological Aspects of Microorganisms 427
14.3.7.2 Methods of Determining Microbial Count 427
Trang 22XXI Contents
14.3.7.3 Determination of the Resistance of Water-miscible Coolants Towards
Microorganisms 428
14.3.7.4 Reducing or Avoiding Microbial Growth in Coolants 428
14.3.8 Preservation of Coolants with Biocides 430
14.3.8.9 Quaternary Ammonium Compounds 436
14.4 Neat Cutting Fluids 436
14.4.1 Classification of Neat Metalworking Oils According to
Specifications 436
14.4.2 Composition of Neat Metalworking Fluids 437
14.4.2.1 Base Oils and Additives 437
14.4.2.2 Significance of Viscosity on the Selection of Neat Products 438
14.4.3 Oil Mist and Oil Evaporation Behavior 439
14.4.3.1 Evaporation Behavior 439
14.4.3.2 Low-Misting Oils 440
14.4.3.3 The Creation of Oil Mist 440
14.4.3.4 Sedimentation and Separation of Oil Mists 441
14.4.3.5 Toxicity of Oil Mist 441
14.4.3.6 Oil Mist Measurement 443
14.4.3.7 Oil Mist Index 444
14.4.3.8 Oil Mist Concentration in Practice 444
14.5 Machining with Geometrically Defined Cutting Edges 447
14.5.1 Turning 447
14.5.2 Drilling 447
14.5.3 Milling 448
14.5.4 Gear Cutting 449
14.5.5 Deep Hole Drilling 450
14.5.5.1 Deep Hole Drilling Methods 450
14.5.5.2 Tasks to be Fulfilled by the Cutting Fluid 451
14.5.6 Threading and Tapping 452
14.5.7 Broaching 453
14.6 Machining with Geometric Non-defined Cutting Edges 454
14.6.1 Grinding 454
14.6.1.1 High-speed Grinding 455
14.6.1.2 Grinding Wheel Abrasive Materials and Bondings 456
14.6.1.3 Requirements for Grinding Fluids 456
14.6.1.4 Special Workpiece Material Considerations 457
14.6.1.5 CBN High-speed Grinding 457
Trang 23XXII Contents
14.6.1.6 Honing 458
14.6.1.7 Honing Oils 460
14.6.1.8 Lapping 461
14.6.1.9 Lapping Powder and Carrier Media 461
14.7 Specific Material Requirements for Machining Operations 462
14.7.2.1 Influence of the Type of Aluminum Alloy 464
14.7.2.2 The Behavior of Aluminum During Machining 465
14.7.2.3 Tool Materials 467
14.7.3 Magnesium and its Alloys 468
14.7.4 Cobalt 469
14.7.4.1 The Health and Safety Aspects of Carbides 469
14.7.4.2 Use of Cutting Oils in Carbide Machining Processes 470
14.7.5 Titanium 470
14.7.6 Nickel and nickel alloys 471
14.8 Metalworking Fluid Circulation System 472
14.8.1 Metalworking Fluid Supply 472
14.8.1.1 Grinding 474
14.8.2 Individually-filled Machines and Central Systems 475
14.8.3 Tramp Oil in Coolants 476
14.8.4 Separation of Solid Particles 477
14.8.4.1 Swarf Concentration and Filter Fineness 477
14.8.4.2 Full, Partial or Main Flow Solids Separation 478
14.8.4.3 Filtration Processes 479
14.8.4.4 Solids Separation Equipment 482
14.8.5 Plastics and Sealing Materials in Machine Tools – Compatibility with
Cutting Fluids 487
14.8.6 Monitoring and Maintenance of Neat and Water-miscible Cutting
Fluids 488
14.8.6.1 Storage of Cutting Fluids 488
14.8.6.2 Mixing Water-miscible Cutting Fluids 489
14.8.6.3 Monitoring Cutting Fluids 489
14.8.6.4 Cutting Fluid Maintenance 491
14.8.6.5 Corrective Maintenance for Neat and Water-miscible Cutting Fluids 493
14.8.7 Splitting and Disposal 495
14.8.7.1 Disposal of Cutting Fluids 495
14.8.7.2 Evaluation Criteria for Cutting Fluid Water Phases 496
14.8.7.3 Electrolyte Separation 497
14.8.7.4 Emulsion Separation by Flotation 499
Trang 24XXIII Contents
14.8.7.5 Splitting of Emulsions with Adsorbents 499
14.8.7.6 Separating Water-miscible Cutting Fluids by Thermal Methods 500
14.8.7.7 Ultrafiltration 500
14.8.7.8 Evaluation of Disposal Methods 502
14.9 Coolant Costs 503
14.9.1 Coolant Application Costs 503
14.9.1.1 Investment Costs (Depreciation, Financing Costs, Maintenance
14.9.1.6 Coolant Separation and Disposal 504
14.9.2 Coolant Application Costs with Constant System 504
14.9.2.1 Specific Coolant Costs 504
14.9.2.2 Optimization of Coolant use by Computer 508
14.10 New Trends in Coolant Technology 510
14.10.1 Oil Instead of Emulsion 510
14.10.1.1 Fluid Families and Multifunctional Fluids for Machine Tools 511
14.10.1.2 Washing Lines 512
14.10.1.3 De-oiling of Chips and Machined Components 512
14.10.1.4 Future Perspectives – Unifluid 513
14.10.2 Minimum Quantity Lubrication 513
14.10.2.1 Considerations When Dispensing with Coolants 514
14.10.2.2 Minimum Quantity Lubrication Systems 515
14.10.2.3 Coolants for Minimum Quantity Lubrication 516
14.10.2.4 Oil Mist Tests with Minimum Quantity Lubrication 518
14.10.2.5 Product Optimization of a Minimum Quantity Coolant Medium for
Drilling 520
15 Forming Lubricants
15.1 Sheet Metal Working Lubricants 522
Theo Mang, Franz Kubicki, Achim Losch and Wolfgang Buss
15.1.1 Processes 523
15.1.2 Basic Terms in Forming Processes 523
15.1.2.1 Lattice Structure of Metals 523
Trang 25XXIV Contents
15.1.3.1 Friction and Lubrication in the Different Areas of a Deep Drawing
Operation 527
15.1.3.2 Significance of Lubrication Dependent upon Sheet Metal Thickness,
Drawn-part Size and the Efficiency of Deformation 531
15.1.3.3 Assessment of the Suitability of Lubricants for Deep Drawing 533
15.1.4 Stretch Drawing and a Combination of Stretch and Deep Drawing 534
15.1.7 Tools Used in Sheet Metal Forming Operations 543
15.1.8 Lubricants for Sheet Metal Forming 545
15.1.10 Removal of Forming Lubricants – Industrial Cleaners 553
15.1.10.1 Intermediate Cleaning in Mechanical Manufacture 554
15.1.10.2 Cleaning Before Heat Treatment and Surface Coating 554
15.1.10.3 Cleaning During Maintenance 555
15.1.10.4 Cleaning Methods and Agents 555
15.1.10.5 Systematization of Cleaners 556
15.1.11 Testing Tribological Characteristics 563
15.1.12 Sheet Metal Forming in Automobile Manufacturing 565
15.1.12.1 Prelubes 565
15.1.12.2 Skin Passing 567
15.1.12.3 Coil Oiling 567
15.1.12.4 Transport and Storage of Sheet Metal 567
15.1.12.5 Washing of Steel Strips and Blanks 567
15.1.12.6 Additional Lubrication 568
15.1.12.7 Pressing 568
15.1.12.8 Transport and Storage of Pressed Parts 570
15.1.12.9 Welding and Bonding 570
15.1.12.10 Cleaning and Phosphating 570
15.1.12.11 Cataphoretic Painting 571
15.1.12.12 Savings Potential using Prelubes 571
15.1.12.13 Dry-film Lubricants 571
Trang 26XXV Contents
15.2 Lubricants for Wire, Tube, and Profile Drawing 573
Theo Mang and Wolfgang Buss
15.2.1 Friction and Lubrication, Tools, and Machines 573
15.2.1.1 Forming Classification 573
15.2.1.2 Friction and Lubrication, Machines and Tools when Wire Drawing 574
15.2.1.3 Drawing Force and Tension 575
15.2.1.4 Drawing Tool and Wear 577
15.2.1.5 Wire Cracks 579
15.2.1.6 Hydrodynamic Drawing 579
15.2.1.7 Wire Friction on Cone 579
15.2.1.8 Lubricant Feed in Wet Drawing 582
15.2.1.9 Dry Drawing 582
15.2.1.10 Applying Lubricant as Pastes or High-viscosity Products 583
15.2.2 Drawing Copper Wire 583
15.2.2.1 Lubricants 584
15.2.2.2 Lubricant Concentration 585
15.2.2.3 Solubility of Copper Reaction Products 586
15.2.2.4 Water Quality and Electrolyte Stability 586
15.2.2.5 Laboratory Testing Methods 587
15.2.2.6 Lubricant Temperature 588
15.2.2.7 Influence of the Lubricant on Wire Enameling 588
15.2.2.8 Circulation Systems, Cleaning and Disposal of Drawing Emulsions 588
15.2.3 Drawing of Steel Wire 589
15.2.3.1 Requirements 589
15.2.3.2 Lubricant Carrier Layers 590
15.2.3.3 Lime as a Lubricant Carrier 590
15.2.3.4 Borax as Lubricant Carrier 590
15.2.3.5 Phosphate as Lubricant Carrier 590
15.2.3.6 Oxalate Coatings and Silicates 591
15.2.3.7 Lubricants for Steel Wire Drawing 591
15.2.4 Drawing Aluminum Wire 593
15.2.4.1 Drawing Machines and Lubrication 593
15.2.4.2 Lubricants for Aluminum Wire Drawing 593
15.2.5 Wire from Other Materials 594
15.2.5.1 Stainless Steel 594
15.2.5.2 Nickel 594
15.2.5.3 Tungsten 595
15.2.6 Profile Drawing 595
15.2.6.1 Lubricating Tasks in Profile Drawing 596
15.2.6.2 Pretreatment and the Use of Lubricant when Profile Drawing Steel 596
15.2.7 Tube Drawing 596
15.2.7.1 Tube-drawing Methods 597
15.2.7.2 Tools and Tool Coatings 597
15.2.7.3 Lubricants and Surface Pretreatment for Tube Drawing 599
15.2.8 Hydroforming 601
Trang 27XXVI Contents
15.2.8.1 Process Principle 602
15.2.8.2 Process Configuration 603
15.2.8.3 Tribological Aspects of Hydroforming 603
15.2.8.4 Lubricants for Hydroforming 605
15.3 Lubricants for Rolling 606
Theo Mang and Wolfgang Buss
15.3.1 General 606
15.3.1.1 Rolling Speed 607
15.3.1.2 Rationalization 607
15.3.1.3 Surface and Material Quality 607
15.3.1.4 Hygienic Commercial Requirements 607
15.3.2 Friction and Lubrication when Rolling 608
15.3.3 Rolling Steel Sheet 611
15.3.3.1 Hot Rolling 611
15.3.3.2 Sheet Cold Rolling 613
15.3.3.3 Finest Sheet Cold Rolling 617
15.3.3.4 Cold Rolling of High Alloy Steel Sheet 618
15.3.4 Rolling Aluminum Sheet 620
15.3.5 Aluminum Hot Rolling 620
15.3.6 Aluminum Cold Rolling 621
15.3.7 Rolling Other Materials 622
15.4 Solid Metal Forming Lubricants (Solid Forming, Forging and
Extrusion) 623Theo Mang and Wolfgang Buss
15.4.1 Processes 623
15.4.1.1 Upsetting 623
15.4.1.2 Extrusion 624
15.4.1.3 Impression Die Forging 624
15.4.1.4 Open Die Forging 624
15.4.2 Forming Temperatures 624
15.4.2.1 Cold 624
15.4.2.2 Warm 625
15.4.2.3 Hot 625
15.4.3 Friction and Lubrication with Cold Extrusion and Cold Forging 625
15.4.3.1 Friction and Lubricant Testing Methods 626
15.4.3.2 Selection Criteria for Lubricants and Lubrication Technology 628
15.4.3.3 Lubricating Oils for Cold Extrusion of Steel (Extrusion Oils) 629
15.4.3.4 Phosphate Coatings and Soap Lubricants for Cold Extrusion of
Steel 631
15.4.3.5 Solid Lubricants for Cold Extrusion of Steel 634
15.4.4 Warm Extrusion and Forging 636
15.4.4.1 Temperature Range up to 350 C 638
15.4.4.2 Temperature Range 350 to 500 C 638
Trang 28XXVII Contents
15.4.4.3 Temperature Range 500 to 600 C 638
15.4.4.4 Temperature Range > 600 C 638
15.4.5 Lubrication when Hot Forging 639
15.4.5.1 Demands on Hot Forging Lubricants 640
15.4.5.2 Lubricant Testing Methods 641
15.4.6 Hot Forging of Steel 641
15.4.6.1 Lubricants 641
15.4.7 Aluminum Forging 643
15.4.8 Isothermal and Hot Die Forging 644
15.4.9 Application and Selection of Lubricant 645
16.2.1.7 Cation Mixed Soaps M1X/M2X 655
16.2.1.8 Anion Mixed Soaps MX1/MX2 656
16.2.2 Complex Soaps 656
16.2.2.1 Lithium Complex Soaps 656
16.2.2.2 Calcium Complex Soaps 658
16.2.2.3 Calcium Sulfonate Complex Soaps 659
16.2.2.4 Aluminum Complex Soaps 659
16.2.2.5 Other Complex Soaps 660
16.2.3 Other Ionic Organic Thickeners 660
16.2.4 Non-ionic Organic Thickeners 660
16.2.4.1 Diureas and Tetraureas 661
16.2.4.2 Other Non-ionic Organic Thickeners 662
Trang 2916.3.2.2 Other Synthetic Base Oils 666
16.3.2.3 Immiscible Base Oil Mixtures 666
16.4 Grease Structure 666
16.5 Additives 667
16.5.1 Structure Modifiers 668
16.5.2 Antirust Additives (Corrosion Inhibitors) 668
16.5.3 Extreme Pressure and Anti-Wear Additives 668
16.5.4 Solid Lubricants 669
16.5.5 Friction Modifiers 669
16.5.6 Nanomaterials 670
16.6 Manufacture of Greases 670
16.6.1 Metal Soap-Based Greases 670
16.6.1.1 Batch Production with Preformed Metal Soaps 670
16.6.1.2 Batch Production with Metal Soaps Prepared In-situ 671
16.9.10 Special and Lifetime Applications 689
16.9.11 Applications with Polymeric Materials 689
16.10 Grease Market 690
16.11 Ecology and the Environment 691
16.12 Grease Tribology 693
Trang 30XXIX Contents
17 Solid Lubrication 694
Christian Busch
17.1 Classification of Solid Lubricants 694
17.1.1 Class 1: Structural Lubricants 695
17.1.2 Class 2: Mechanical Lubricants 696
17.1.2.1 Self-Lubricating Substances 696
17.1.2.2 Substances with Lubricating Properties that Need a Supporting
Medium 698
17.1.2.3 Substances with Indirect Lubricating Properties Based on their Hardness
(Physical Vapor Deposition (PVD), Chemical Vapor Deposition (CVD),
and Diamond-like Carbon (DLC) layers) 699
17.3.1.1 Solid Lubricants in Carrying Media 704
17.3.2 Dispersions and Suspensions 704
17.3.3 Greases and Grease Pastes 704
17.4.5 Plastic and Elastomer Lubrication 713
18 Laboratory Methods for Testing Lubricants 715
Siegfried Noll and Roman Mller
18.1 Introduction 715
18.2 Density 715
18.3 Viscosity 716