Indoor Environmental Quality - Chapter 8 pdf

In the case of residential and nonresidential buildings, a need num-to conduct an IAQ/IE investigation develops only after occupants becomeaware that health and other problems may be ass

chapter eight

Investigating indoor environment problems

As indicated in previous chapters, built environments are subject to a ber of potentially significant indoor air quality/indoor environment(IAQ/IE) problems that may cause acute symptoms, long-term health risks,discomfort, or odor With the exception of severe cases of acute illness orunpleasant odors, most problems (or potential problems such as radon) gounrecognized In the case of residential and nonresidential buildings, a need

num-to conduct an IAQ/IE investigation develops only after occupants becomeaware that health and other problems may be associated with home or workenvironments Awareness development is rapid when an odor problem orsome type of physical discomfort occurs In most cases, building occupants

do not suspect a causal relationship between acute and chronic illness toms (which characterize classical air quality-related symptoms) and theirbuilding environment High prevalence rates of sick building syndrome(SBS)-type symptoms in noncomplaint buildings suggest that most individ-uals so-affected do not realize that their building/work environment is inany way responsible

symp-I Awareness and responsibility

A Residential buildings

Illness symptoms associated with exposure to formaldehyde (HCHO), bustion by-products such as carbon monoxide (CO), inhalant allergens, andlong-term health risks associated with elevated radon levels are majorIAQ/IE problems in residential environments When such problems occur,

com-it is the individual homeowner’s/lessee’s responsibilcom-ity to recognize that aproblem exists and seek professional assistance to identify and resolve it

In our society an individual experiencing the relatively minor symptoms

of headache, fatigue, and mucous membrane irritation seeks to achieve relief

by using over-the-counter or prescription medication The emphasis is onsymptom relief rather than identifying and mitigating causal factors Such

a symptom amelioration approach assures the problem will persist.How may homeowners/lessees develop an awareness that health prob-lems may be due to contaminant exposures in their home environments?Awareness, in most cases, comes as a matter of chance — in the form ofnational or local news reports, internet sites, conversations with acquaintan-ces, or physician suggestions

Awareness requires some degree of education on the part of ers/lessees, and physicians (if medical assistance is sought) Factors thatsuggest illness symptoms may be associated with one’s home environmentare summarized in Table 8.1 Listed factors represent common sense epide-miological observations They reflect exposure/response relationships thatare either simply helpful or essential in determining a causal relationshipbetween building environments and persistent health problems

homeown-An individual must be exposed to concentrations sufficient in magnitude

to experience symptoms caused by gas/particulate-phase contaminants ofeither a chemical or biological origin Exposure is related both to the con-centration of causal substances and to duration As a consequence, exposuresand illness symptoms can be expected to diminish when a building is ven-tilated, and when individuals are away from home for a period of time Onthe other hand, individuals who spend the most time at home commonlyexperience more severe symptoms

As indicated in Table 8.1, other factors also suggest a potential causalrelationship with one’s home environment Multiple individuals experienc-ing similar symptoms indicate common exposures, as do visitors reportingsimilar symptoms Houses that experience high moisture levels are known

to be at special risk for mold infestation and high dust mite populations.Significant HCHO exposures have occurred, and in some cases continue tooccur, in mobile homes

Table 8.1 Factors Indicating Health Problems May Be Associated with Exposures

to Contaminants in Residential Environments Symptoms diminish in severity when building is ventilated by opening windows Symptoms diminish in severity or resolve completely when occupants are away from home for several days, and recur upon returning.

Symptoms show a seasonal pattern, that is, associated with the heating/cooling season, building closure conditions, or operation of heating/cooling appliances Similar symptoms occur in several or more building occupants.

Symptoms are more severe in individuals who spend the most time at home Symptoms develop after moving into a new home (not necessarily a new house) Residential environment subject to severe moisture and/or mold infestation problems.

Symptoms experienced by visitors.

For individuals experiencing IAQ/IE-related illness problems in theirhomes, it is, in most cases, very difficult to make the associations that seem

so logical in Table 8.1 Nevertheless, some association must be made beforethe problem can be professionally investigated and mitigation effortsrecommended

Longer-term health risks like those associated with radon and mental tobacco smoke (ETS) require an educated public that recognizes theneed for conducting radon testing in their homes, implementing mitigationmeasures when elevated radon levels occur, and minimizing exposure totobacco smoke

environ-B Nonresidential buildings

Occupants of nonresidential office, commercial, and institutional buildingsmust also develop an awareness that illness symptoms may be associatedwith their building environment Awareness of potential IAQ/IE problems

in such buildings is more likely to occur because: (1) of the larger populationbase and potential for interaction among occupants, (2) these buildings areprone to a larger variety of problems than residential buildings, (3) buildingthermal and ventilation conditions are less under the control of occupants,(4) many buildings are poorly ventilated or have poor thermal control, whichmay contribute to vocal occupant dissatisfaction, and (5) of “odor” problems.Odor complaints often trigger investigations of unrelated illness symptoms.Investigations of IAQ/IE concerns are commonly conducted in non-residential buildings because the factors described above increase the prob-ability that IAQ and other environmental complaints will be reported tobuilding management

The relationship between health symptoms and one’s building/workenvironment is more clear cut than is the case for residential environments

In most instances, symptoms resolve within a few hours after leaving thebuilding/work environment and begin anew within an hour or two afterbeginning work the next day Symptoms typically do not occur over week-ends and during vacations Symptom prevalence is often high as well, with15+% of building occupants reporting symptoms in building investigationsand questionnaire studies

II Conducting indoor environment investigations

The task of investigating building-related health, comfort, and sometimesodor complaints falls to a variety of local, state, and federal public or occu-pational health agencies, and increasingly, private consultants Typically,residential complaints are investigated by local and state public health agen-cies Nonresidential complaints are more commonly investigated by staff ofprivate consulting firms Health hazard evaluation teams from the NationalInstitute of Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) conduct investigations

of building environments on request when workers in schools, office ings, etc., are involved.

build-The primary goal of conducting building investigations is to identifyand mitigate IAQ/IE problems and prevent their recurrence Successful con-duct of building investigations requires that investigators have (1) extensiveknowledge of buildings and building systems, (2) a broad understanding ofthe nature of IAQ/IE problems and factors that contribute to them, (3) anunderstanding that IAQ/IE investigations have both political and technicaldimensions, (4) knowledge of environmental testing procedures and theirlimitations, and (5) knowledge of investigative protocols and their applica-tion to conducting successful IAQ/IE investigations

A Residential investigations

Residential IAQ/IE problems are, in theory, easier to diagnose than those thatoccur in nonresidential buildings In many, but not all, cases they are moreeasily resolved Residential structures are smaller and more simply designed,and activities that occur within them, and equipment and materials used, arefewer and less diverse The design and operation of mechanical heating/cool-ing systems are also less complex than in nonresidential buildings

To successfully conduct an investigation of residential IAQ/IE plaints, an investigator must know what the most common problems are,various aspects of housing construction, the location and operation of heat-ing and cooling systems, aspects of human behavior, and what can go wrong

com-in heatcom-ing/coolcom-ing system operation and buildcom-ing macom-intenance nately, many of the tools required to conduct a successful residential IAQ/IEinvestigation are only acquired by an investigator after many years of con-ducting investigations Though dwellings are simple structures, each has itsown unique construction and renovation history as well as history of occu-pancy With the possible exception of many manufactured houses, IAQ/IEinvestigations will rarely be the same for any two houses

Unfortu-1 Investigative practices

There are three basic approaches to conducting residential IAQ/IE gations These can be described as (1) an ad hoc or “seat of the pants”approach, (2) conducting air testing only, and (3) a systematic approach that

investi-is designed to identify and resolve problems

a Ad hoc approach. The ad hoc approach is used by investigators whohave had little or no experience in responding to homeowner complaints.Such investigations are conducted by personnel in small public health depart-ments where few resources are available and where housing investigationsare often of the “nuisance” type They are also conducted on occasion byprivate consulting personnel who have little experience Such investigationshave a limited probability of identifying and mitigating IAQ/IE problems

b Air testing. At a somewhat higher plane are investigations ducted by local and state public health departments in which the primaryfocus is air testing Such investigations are done in response to a home-owner/lessee request to determine by air testing what might be wrong withtheir home Air testing is usually limited to a few well-defined contaminantsfor which methodologies and equipment are readily available, e.g., CO,HCHO, and mold, and which have a history of being a potential cause ofcontamination and health problems in dwellings.

con-Generic air testing, as an investigative protocol, has significant tions Low contaminant levels based on one-time sampling are often inter-preted as indicating that a problem does not exist Such interpretations ignorethe often episodic nature of contaminant emissions and concentrations aswell as seasonal variations that occur with CO, HCHO, and mold Air testingresults are often compared to guideline values that may not be sufficientlyhealth-based or protective of sensitive populations Air testing tends to behampered by the “magic number” syndrome: levels above guideline valuesare unsafe; levels below them are safe Unfortunately, safe or acceptablelevels of exposure that protect the most sensitive or vulnerable populationsare less clear cut than guideline values, which are often based on what can

limita-be reasonably achieved

c Systematic approaches. To successfully conduct an IAQ/IE gation in a residential environment, it is essential that the investigatorapproach the problem in a systematic manner This includes pre-site-visitinformation gathering, an on-site investigation and occupant interview(s),conducting air/surface dust testing when appropriate, and evaluating poten-tial causal factors and mitigation requirements when the on-site investigationhas been completed

investi-Pre-site-visit information gathering is typically conducted in a phoneinterview with an adult building occupant (preferably the female head ofhouse) This limited interview should be designed to elicit information onthe perceived nature and history of the problem; symptom types and pat-terns; house type, construction, age, and recent changes and renovations;previous investigations and results; and any mitigation efforts Informationgathered in the phone interview may be used in initial hypothesis formationand in suggesting air testing and environmental sampling needs

The on-site investigation typically provides information essential to cessfully diagnosing an IAQ/IE problem The on-site investigation shouldinclude a careful inspection of both the interior and exterior of the building.This includes basement and crawlspace (and, in some cases, attic as well).The investigator should be cognizant of any distinctive or unusual odorsthat may indicate the nature of the problem or factors contributing to it.These include chemical odors, pesticides, new carpeting and other newmaterials, mold odor, etc The investigator should be able to recognize mate-rials, equipment, etc., that may be a source of health-affecting contaminants

suc-These would include large volumes of pressed wood products bonded withurea–formaldehyde resins (e.g., particle board, hardwood paneling,medium-density fiber board [MDF]); malfunctioning space and/or waterheaters; mold-infested materials; hobbies/crafts (e.g., silk screening, stainedglass, etc.); pets; insect infestations; recent pesticide applications; lead-basedpaint; etc.

The inspection should include an evaluation of any structural problemssuch as water-damaged interior/exterior materials, rotting timbers, damagedgutters, cracks/holes in brick veneer, and wet basements/crawlspaces Itshould include a site evaluation as well Site conditions of note include mod-erate to heavy shade, poor site drainage as evidenced by ponding after rains,moss growth, frost heaving, capillary wicking on substructure walls, etc.Heating/cooling system appliances, including hot water heaters, should

be inspected, as well as associated flue systems and supply and cold air ductsystems Evidence of flue gas spillage (in the absence of CO measurements)can be determined from condensation stains and corrosion on draft hoodsand flue pipes as well as the design and assembly of flue pipes

The location of furnace/air conditioner/blower fans and return air ducts

is important in conducting a building investigation The presence of suchsystems in musty basements or wet crawlspaces provides a pathway for thetransport of mold spores from an infested source to spaces throughout thehome Ductwork in slab-on-grade houses should be inspected (by openingsupply air registers) to determine whether water entry occurs, if insect/dustcontamination is present, and what materials ducts are made of

During the on-site investigation, an intensive interview should be ducted with an adult occupant to better define the nature of health problemsexperienced as well as to gain additional information on various factorsobserved during the inspection of the interior and exterior of the home Thisinterview may provide information on aspects of the inspection that mightrequire more detailed evaluation

con-Air/environmental testing may be conducted to confirm and elucidatethe nature of the problem Air testing for HCHO is desirable if evidenceindicates that occupants have been experiencing symptoms consistent withthe presence of significant HCHO sources Carbon monoxide testing isappropriate if symptoms are characteristic of CO exposures or there is visibleevidence of flue gas spillage Air testing for mold using both culturable/via-ble and total mold spore sampling is desirable if the building environmenthas been subject to moisture problems with or without evident mold infes-tation The use of a portable flame ionization detector (FID) to determinesources of methane would be appropriate if a sewer gas problem appears

to exist without an evident source Surface dust sampling and monoclonalantibody testing for dust mite, pet, and cockroach allergens may be appro-priate in cases where health histories are suggestive of inhalant allergens Arole exists for air testing and environmental sampling in conducting resi-dential building investigations That role is to confirm a hypothesis or tomore fully evaluate the nature of a problem

After the on-site inspection, occupant interview, and air ronmental sampling, the investigator should evaluate all informationobtained during the investigation During this evaluation process, he/sheshould determine whether symptoms/health problems/complaints are con-sistent with observations made during the inspection, as well as with results

testing/envi-of air/environmental sampling

2 Diagnosing specific residential indoor environment problems

Though the nature of residential IAQ/IE complaints varies, only a relativelyfew contaminants are responsible These include biological contaminantssuch as mold and allergens produced by dust mites, pets, and insects;HCHO; CO; pesticides; lead dusts; sewer gases; and, increasingly, soot pro-duced by candle burning Complaints may include significant health effects

or be of a nuisance nature Diagnostic criteria used to evaluate residentialindoor environment problems are summarized below

a Biological contaminants. Biological contaminants, as indicated inChapters 5 and 6, are the major cause of allergy, asthma, and recurringsinusitis in tens of millions of North Americans annually These ailmentshave characteristic symptoms and clinical findings that can be used toidentify potential causal agents Individuals affected often have a familyhistory of allergy or asthma and test positive to specific allergens in standardallergy testing

Building diagnoses associated with allergens is best conducted in sultation with a physician trained in allergy or immunology When suchconsultation is impractical, the investigator should use professional judg-ment in evaluating the potential cause of allergy/asthma/sinusitis amongoccupants of a residence

con-Risk factors that can be used to evaluate biological contaminants aspotential causes of allergy/asthma/sinusitis associated with residentialenvironments are summarized in Table 8.2

b Formaldehyde. Fortunately, HCHO is less likely to cause related health complaints today than at any time in the past three decades.Because of changes in the use of construction materials and improvements

IAQ-in products bonded with urea–formaldehyde resIAQ-ins, IAQ-indoor HCHO trations (even in many new dwellings) are relatively low and are unlikely

concen-to cause health problems Despite this, HCHO may cause sympconcen-toms insensitive individuals in environments such as new mobile homes constructedwith urea–formaldehyde-bonded wood products and homes with new woodcabinetry or furniture Factors that suggest HCHO exposures may be respon-sible for reported health complaints include: (1) symptoms characterized byeye and upper respiratory system irritation, headache, and fatigue; (2) symp-toms more severe on warm, humid days; (3) potent HCHO-emitting sourcespresent; and (4) HCHO levels determined under near-optimum testing con-ditions (closure, humidity >50%, temperature 22 to 25°C, moderate outdoorconditions) ≥0.05 ppmv

c Carbon monoxide. Flue gas spillage and associated exposures to COand other combustion by-products commonly occur in residences Suchproblems have been reported in residences of all ages; they are, however,more likely in older buildings Carbon monoxide exposures are characterized

by symptoms of headache, extreme fatigue, sleepiness/sluggishness, andeven nausea Risk factors include the presence of combustion appliances thatshow some evidence of malfunction (loose flue pipes, flue pipe condensationstaining and/or corrosion); symptoms associated with the heating season;measured CO levels >20 ppmv; carboxyhemoglobin (COHb) levels >2% innonsmokers not exposed in the workplace; and high CO levels emanatingfrom supply registers (indicating cracked heat exchangers)

Extreme care must be taken in diagnosing a CO problem Flue gasspillage is, by its very nature, episodic As such it is not uncommon tomeasure very low CO levels in a residence even though a CO exposureproblem exists Blood tests for COHb may be desirable when a buildingoccupant reports symptoms As CO exposures are common in small indus-

Table 8.2 Risk Factors for Biological Contaminant-Associated IAQ/IE-Related

Health Problems

materials Building history of water damage Wet building site

Musty odors Culturable/viable airborne mold test results (uninfluenced by outdoor mold sources) >1000 CFU/m 3

Sample results dominated by one or several mold genera

Total mold spore counts >10,000 S/m 3

Positive allergy tests

High (>2 µ g/g) mite allergen levels in floor dust samples

Positive allergy tests

House history of pets (without pets necessarily being present)

Positive allergy tests High allergen levels in floor dust samples (cat ≥ 1

µ g/g)

Cockroach, birds, rodents,

crickets, spiders

Positive allergy tests High allergen levels in floor dust samples (cockroach

≥ 2 U/g)

trial environments, workplace exposures should also be evaluated in thecontext of COHb test results.

d Pesticides. As indicated in Chapter 4, a variety of pesticide sure problems occur in residences These may be due to indoor application

expo-of pesticide products or passive transport expo-of pesticides from the outdoors.Acute pesticide-caused symptoms are typically associated with applicationswithin the home Diagnosis of an exposure problem requires a knowledge

of recent pesticide usage and the type used Symptoms may be due to activecompounds, inert ingredients, or both Because of low vapor pressures ofpesticidal compounds, air testing will generally not show significantly ele-vated concentrations Nevertheless, it may be desirable to conduct air testing

in response to a homeowner’s request or to confirm that air levels are notexcessive The level of indoor contamination and potential for future expo-sure may be determined from floor dust or surface wipe samples Highpesticide residue concentrations in such samples may indicate the need forsignificant remediation measures

e Lead. Exposure to lead-contaminated dust and soils is the majorcause of pediatric lead exposure and poisoning Building investigations asso-ciated with elevated blood lead levels and frank symptoms of lead poisoningare commonly conducted by public health personnel and, in some cases,private consultants It is desirable for investigators to have obtained recordsand reports of blood lead tests and physician diagnoses and recommenda-tions The investigator should conduct a complete residential risk assessmentfor potential lead exposure using the protocol described for investigation ofelevated blood lead levels in the 1995 HUD (Department of Housing andUrban Development) guidelines for lead in housing In conducting suchinvestigations, all potential sources of lead are taken into consideration.These include lead-based paint, lead-contaminated dusts and soil, water,lead associated with hobbies and crafts, lead brought home from workenvironments, lead-containing ceramics or glassware, home remedies, can-dles with lead-containing wicks, etc

f Miscellaneous nuisance problems. Sewer gas odors are the mostcommon IAQ/IE nuisance problems experienced in residences Sewerodors are usually associated with dry sink/drain traps or the absence ofdrain traps in air-conditioning condensate drain lines connected to sewerlines Sewer gas problems are easily resolved by locating all sink/draintraps that lead to sewer lines and filling them with water Air testing with

a portable flame ionization detector (FID) is desirable when dry trapscannot be located easily

An increasingly important nuisance problem in North American homes

is soot deposition on wall and ceiling surfaces associated with the frequentburning of candles and incense Soot deposition occurs on surfaces withdifferential temperature conditions (e.g., around wall heating units, on wall

surfaces with thermal bridges [see Chapter 6]) Soot and wick fragments can

be identified microscopically

B Nonresidential investigations

The investigation of IAQ/IE complaints in nonresidential office, commercial,and institutional buildings is a much more difficult task than investigatingresidential problems Nonresidential buildings represent much more com-plex environments in terms of the larger populations of individuals involved;

a greater diversity of contaminants and potential exposure sources; ical systems that provide heating, cooling, ventilation, and sometimes steamhumidification; lack of individual control over thermal and ventilation com-fort; interpersonal dynamics between occupants and building management;and the often-multifactorial nature of health complaints in such buildings.However, principles employed in conducting residential and nonresidentialinvestigations are, for the most part, similar

mechan-Investigative techniques and protocols used in problem building tigations reflect the knowledge and experience of individuals conductingthem They also reflect the availability of resources of government agenciesand private consultants that provide such services, as well as the resources

inves-of those requesting services on a fee basis

Early problem building investigations were conducted on an ad hoc basis.They were usually limited to brief discussions with building management,

a building walk-through, and a few simple screening air tests Increasingly,building investigations conducted by state government agencies and con-sulting companies that specialize in conducting IAQ/IE investigations havebecome more systematic

The purpose of an IAQ/IE investigation is, in theory, to identify andresolve complaints in a way that prevents them from recurring However,building managers/owners may see the problem in different terms Theymay view it in the context of occupant complaints only; i.e., the focus of theirconcern may be to mollify those who complain rather than identify andresolve the actual cause or causes Consequently, they may request that agovernment agency or private consulting company conduct air testing todemonstrate to occupants their “good faith” in responding to occupant con-cerns Such investigations are usually limited to providing screening mea-surements Since contaminant levels in screening measurements are rarelyabove guideline values (with the exception of CO2), air testing alone is oftenunsuccessful in identifying and resolving building-related problems It is notuncommon for building managers to conclude from such testing that anIAQ/IE problem does not exist The type of services that a building man-ager/owner requests is discretionary, whether it makes technical sense or not

1 Investigative protocols for problem buildings

A number of systematic protocols have been developed for conducting lem building investigations in the U.S., Canada, and northern Europe In the

prob-U.S., NIOSH has developed a protocol to serve the needs of its health hazardevaluation teams It employs a multidisciplinary approach, with an investi-gative team consisting of an industrial hygienist, an epidemiologist, and atechnical person familiar with the operation and maintenance of buildingmechanical systems The NIOSH protocol, like most others, utilizes a multi-stage approach, with more intensive investigative efforts when the cause ofoccupant complaints cannot be easily identified.

NIOSH and the USEPA have jointly developed a model investigativeprotocol for in-house personnel It is a multistage or phased approach thatemphasizes information gathering; a building walk-through; and an evalu-ation of ventilation systems, contaminant sources, and pollutant pathways

It gives limited attention to air testing, suggesting that such testing may not

be required to solve most problems, and that test results may be misleading.Exceptions to this are routine tests to determine ventilation adequacy andthermal comfort parameters, such as temperature, humidity, and air move-ment A flow diagram with suggested activities in conducting an in-houseinvestigation is illustrated in Figure 8.1 This investigative protocol isincluded in a more expansive USEPA Building Air Quality Manual, which isavailable from the USEPA (www.epa.gov) and Government Printing Office

It includes discussions of factors that can be used to prevent IAQ problems;diagnosis of IAQ problems; mitigation measures; and appendices thatdescribe common IAQ measurements, HVAC system operation and IAQconcerns, moisture and mold problems, and a number of forms and check-lists that are useful in conducting IAQ investigations USEPA has also devel-oped a kit (Tools for Schools) somewhat along the lines of the Building Air Quality Manual, which is designed to assist facilities managers in improvingand maintaining good air quality in schools Like the Building Air Quality Manual, it includes a number of useful checklists

Two other investigative protocols have been developed for use in theU.S The AIHA (American Industrial Hygiene Association) protocol wasdesigned for use by industrial hygienists (professionals who have historicallyconducted air testing and safety evaluations of industrial workplaces).Because of their experience and training, industrial hygienists most com-monly conduct problem building investigations Because of an initial over-emphasis on air testing and reference to occupational health standards, theAIHA protocol emphasizes investigation rather than air testing It is alsomultiphasic; that is, it becomes more intensive in its conduct when problemsare not easily identified and resolved

The Building Diagnostics protocol is utilized by a number of privateconsulting firms Because of its engineering origin, it emphasizes the evalu-ation of building system performance, in contrast to identifying specificcausal factors It assumes that if a building and its systems are performing

as designed, or meet generally accepted performance criteria for comfort,such as standards recommended by the American Society of Heating, Refrig-eration, and Air-Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE), most (≥80%) buildingoccupants will be satisfied with building air quality

The Building Diagnostics approach places primary emphasis on ation of the performance of the building and its systems and the quantitativeassessment of airborne contaminants and a variety of environmental param-eters It eschews information gathering from occupants and uses air testingonly in the final stages of an investigation.

evalu-Investigative protocols have also been developed by European gators These include the essentially similar Danish Building Research Insti-tute (DBRI) and Nordtest (Nordic Ventilation Group) protocols They contain

investi-Figure 8.1 USEPA/NIOSH model investigative protocol for in-house personnel (From USEPA/NIOSH, EPA/400/1-91/003, DHHS Publication No 91-1141, 1991.)

five and eight investigative stages, respectively, and are designed to atically evaluate factors that are likely to be problems, with more intensivetechnical investigations involving surveys of buildings and occupants, fol-lowed by simple, and, if needed, more complex environmental measure-ments DBRI and Nordtest protocols describe specific inspection criteria to

system-be used in conducting investigations, and tables that descrisystem-be environmentaland contaminant risk factors for health and comfort complaints in buildings.These tables are provided for illustrative purposes (Tables 8.3 and 8.4).Investigative protocols briefly described above represent efforts to stan-dardize procedures for conducting building investigations by a variety ofpublic agencies, professional groups, and private consultants A high degree

of success in identifying and resolving IAQ/IE problems should be themeasure of the value of an investigative protocol There is, unfortunately,

no evidence to indicate the relative success of individual protocols in tifying and resolving IAQ/IE problems since systematic follow-up studies

iden-of the efficacy iden-of recommended mitigation measures have not been ducted and reported Because of differences in how investigations are con-ducted, success rates in solving IAQ/IE problems are likely to be quitevariable However, because of relatively high prevalence rates for ventila-tion-related problems, such as inadequate outside air (high CO2 levels), cross-contamination, re-entry, and entrainment, these problems are likely to beidentified in most systematic investigations

con-2 Generalized investigative protocol

A generalized investigative protocol is presented here that combines ments common to most protocols and elements which, in the author’s expe-rience, are essential to successfully identify and resolve IAQ/IE-related com-plaints It includes multiple stages of investigation: pre-site-visit informationgathering, on-site inspection of the building environment, assessment ofoccupant symptoms and complaints, assessment of HVAC system operationand maintenance, assessment of potential contaminant sources, and envi-ronmental measurements

ele-a Pre-site-visit information gathering. Before beginning an on-siteinspection, it is important to obtain information that will facilitate its con-duct Such information gathering can be accomplished by means of a phoneinterview with building managers/owners or others who may be familiarwith the problem

It is desirable to obtain the building manager’s/owner’s perception ofthe problem to gauge their view of occupant complaints and commitment

to identifying and resolving complaints Important initial requested mation should include: (1) both the general and, if available, specific nature

infor-of complaints (e.g., comfort vs health complaints, general IAQ symptoms

vs cases of severe respiratory illness); (2) relative time period when plaints began; (3) coincidental events (e.g., building renovation, introduction

com-of new furnishings, manifestation com-of an odor problem, etc.); (4) general

Table 8.3 Environmental Risk Factors for Health and Comfort Complaints in Buildings

Level of risk

dryness, SBS

>26 (summer)

Noise, dBA

© 2001 by CRC Press LLC

Ventilation system Natural exhaust,

well-working supply system

Supply with heating

or cooling

Humidification, badly monitored

SBS, allergy

(3–4/week)

(<2/week)

SBS, allergy

Source: From Kukkonen, E et al., Nordtest Report NT Technical Report 204, Helsinki, 1993.

Table 8.3 Environmental Risk Factors for Health and Comfort Complaints in Buildings

Level of risk

© 2001 by CRC Press LLC

Table 8.4 Contaminant Risk Factors for Health and Comfort Complaints in Buildings

and skin irritation

Bacteria in air,

CFU/m 3

Allergy, SBS, respiratory complaints Fungi in air,

CFU/m 3

Allergy, respiratory complaints

floor dust, CFU/g

<1000 1000–3000 >3000 SBS ?, allergy Macromolecular

description of the building/work environment; (5) nature of ventilation tem management; (6) previous investigations/environmental testing andtheir results; and (7) any manager/owner interview/complaint documenta-tion Depending on the information obtained in this preliminary phase, theinvestigator may develop one or more prospective hypotheses as to potentialcauses of reported complaints Such information may be used to plan theinvestigation and determine environmental sampling needs.

sys-Pre-site-visit information gathering may be used to provide buildingmanagers with problem-solving recommendations on a self-help basis (as isdone by NIOSH staff in their investigative protocol) Of particular impor-tance is whether the ventilation system is being operated properly andwhether thermal comfort needs are being addressed

Pre-site-visit information gathering can be conducted systematicallywith note-taking or by using a checklist A checklist is a valuable tool, lestthe investigator fail to request desired information before the site visit

b On-site investigation. The on-site investigation is the primarymeans by which IAQ/IE problems are identified and resolved The siteinvestigation should include a preliminary meeting with the building man-ager/owner and facility staff to obtain detailed information on the nature

of the problem (the building and its use and operation), and an tor/management agreement as to the scope of the investigation

investiga-After the initial meeting with the building manager/owner and otherpersonnel, the investigator should conduct a walk-through inspection to (1)ascertain the layout of the building and the nature of activities conducted

by its occupants, and (2) identify potential sources of contaminants andproblems through sensory means The latter may include, for example, inad-equate ventilation (e.g., human odor, a sense of stuffiness), solvents, known

or unknown odors, excessive/inadequate air movement, and/or thermaldiscomfort The presence of identifiable odors is an important tool in iden-tifying potential causes of occupant complaints The walk-through investi-gation should also include a walk around the building (in less denselyurbanized areas) to identify where building intakes, loading docks, andpossible outdoor sources may be located, and to assess the potential forentrainment and re-entry (see Chapter 11)

During the walk-through inspection, the investigator attempts to tify potential contaminant sources that may be responsible for the reportedproblem(s) Source assessments are of a qualitative nature Contami-nant/source problems may have been identified in previous investigations,known from experience, drawn from the reports of others, or have been thesubject of intensive research investigations As a consequence, investigatorsshould have a sense of the kind of indoor environment/health complaintsand other problems that could occur in a building and how such problemsshould be evaluated What one considers to be a problem will, of course,significantly affect the outcome of an investigation

iden-Though not commonly conducted by many IAQ/IE investigators, it isessential that occupants reporting complaints be surveyed by in-personinterviews (preferred) or by the use of standardized questionnaires Inter-views can be of a general nature or structured (preferred) Ideally, individualsinterviewed should include those who have complained and those who havenot A guide for the initial characterization of complaints is summarized inTable 8.5 Complaints may be of a health, comfort, or odor nature It wouldnot be unusual during the course of an interview for an individual to reportapparent building-related symptoms, discomfort with thermal conditions,and unpleasant odors associated with the building environment.

Interviews with complainants often elicit information that helps definethe nature of health complaints, their onset and time-dependent variation,their occurrence among specific individuals (e.g., those working with largequantities of paper), and their possible relationship to work activities orother factors that may indicate a potential causal association In many cases,occupant interviews are sufficient to identify risk factors and exposures thatare responsible for major complaints An extensive building investigationmay not, as a consequence, be necessary

In other circumstances, results of occupant interviews may not reveal aclear-cut pattern or the occupant population might be too large for an inter-view assessment of the problem In such cases, it may be desirable to admin-ister questionnaires to all building occupants or to individuals in areas ofthe building where complaints have been reported

Questionnaires are used in many IAQ/IE investigations They are oftendesigned to obtain occupant demographic information, prevalence rates ofillness symptoms that may be associated with the building/work environ-

Table 8.5 Guide for the Initial Characterization

of Complaints Nature of complaints/symptoms

Site/organ affected (e.g., respiratory)

Long-term (continuing, periodic, seasonal, weekly, daily)

Short-term (isolated events)

Location of affected and nonaffected groups

Source: From McCarthy, J.F et al., in Indoor Air Pollution: A Health

Perspective, Samet, J.M and Spengler, J.C., Eds., The Johns Hopkins

University Press, Baltimore, 1991, 82 With permission.