Advances in Haptics Part 10 pot

This chapter describes the pseudo-attraction force technique, which is a new force feedback technique that enables mobile devices to create a the sensation of two-dimensional force.. By

Various data converge to indicate that the cerebral representation of letters might not be

strictly visual, but might be based on a complex neural network including a sensorimotor

component acquired while learning concomitantly to read and write (James & Gauthier,

2006; Kato et al., 1999; Longcamp et al., 2003; 2005a; Matsuo et al., 2003) Close functional

relationships between the reading and writing processes might hence occur at a basic

sensorimotor level, in addition to the interactions that have been described at a more

cognitive level (e.g., Fitzgerald & Shanahan, 2000)

If the cerebral representation of letters includes a sensorimotor component elaborated when

learning how to write letters, how might changes in writing movements affect/impact the

subsequent recognition of letters? More precisely, what are the potential consequences of

replacing the pen with the keyboard? Both handwriting and typewriting involve

movements but there are several differences – some evident, others not so evident– between

them Handwriting is by essence unimanual; however, as evidenced by for instance Yves

Guiard (1987), the non-writing hand plays a complementary, though largely covert, role by

continuously repositioning the paper in anticipation of pen movement Even when no

movement seems needed (as for instance, in dart throwing), the passive hand and arm play

a crucial role in counterbalancing the move of the active arm and hand The nondominant

hand, says Guiard, “frames” the movement of the dominant hand and “sets and confines

the spatial context in which the ‘skilled’ movement will take place.” (ibid.) This strong

manual asymmetry is connected to a cerebral lateralization of language and motor

processes Typewriting is, as mentioned, a bimanual activity; in right-handers, the left hand

which is activated by the right motor areas is involved in writing Since the left hemisphere

is mainly responsible for linguistic processes (in righthanders), this implies

inter-hemispheric relationships in typewriting

A next major difference between the movements involved in handwriting and typewriting,

pertains to the speed of the processes Handwriting is typically slower and more laborious

than typewriting Each stroke (or letter) is drawn in about 100 ms In typing, letter

appearance is immediate and the mean time between the two touches is about 100 ms (in

experts) (Gentner, 1983) Moreover handwriting takes place in a very limited space, literally,

at the endpoint of the pen, where ink flows out of the pen The attention of the writer is

concentrated onto this particular point in space and time By comparison, typewriting is

divided into two distinct spaces: the motor space, e.g., the keyboard, where the writer acts,

and the visual space, e.g., the screen, where the writer perceives the results of his inscription

process Hence, attention is continuously oscillating between these two spatiotemporally

distinct spaces which are, by contrast, conjoined in handwriting

In handwriting, the writer has to form a letter, e.g., to produce a graphic shape which is as

close as possible to the standard visual shape of the letter Each letter is thus associated to a

given, very specific movement There is a strict and unequivocal relationship between the

visual shape and the motor program that is used to produce this shape This relationship

has to be learnt during childhood and it can deteriorate due to cerebral damage, or simply

with age On the other hand, typing is a complex form of spatial learning in which the

beginner has to build a “keypress schema” transforming the visual form of each character

into the position of a given key in keyboard centered coordinates, and specify the movement

required to reach this location (Gentner, 1983; Logan, 1999) Therefore, learning how to type

also creates an association between a pointing movement and a character However, since

the trajectory of the finger to a given key – e.g., letter – largely depends on its position on the

keyboard rather than on the movement of the hand, the relationship between the pointing and the character cannot be very specific The same key can be hit with different movements, different fingers and even a different hand This relationship can also deteriorate but with very different consequences than those pertaining to handwriting For instance, if a key is pressed in error, a spelling error will occur but the visual shape of the letter is preserved in perfect condition The visuomotor association involved in typewriting should therefore have little contribution to its visual recognition

Thus, replacing handwriting by typing during learning might have an impact on the cerebral representation of letters and thus on letter memorization In two behavioral studies, Longcamp et al investigated the handwriting/typing distinction, one in pre-readers (Longcamp, Zerbato-Poudou et al., 2005b) and one in adults (Longcamp, Boucard, Gilhodes,

& Velay, 2006) Both studies confirmed that letters or characters learned through typing were subsequently recognized less accurately than letters or characters written by hand In a subsequent study (Longcamp et al., 2008), fMRI data showed that processing the orientation

of handwritten and typed characters did not rely on the same brain areas Greater activity related to handwriting learning was observed in several brain regions known to be involved

in the execution, imagery, and observation of actions, in particular, the left Broca’s area and bilateral inferior parietal lobules Writing movements may thus contribute to memorizing the shape and/or orientation of characters However, this advantage of learning by handwriting versus typewriting was not always observed when words were considered instead of letters In one study (Cunningham & Stanovich, 1990), children spelled words which were learned by writing them by hand better than those learned by typing them on a computer However, subsequent studies did not confirm the advantage of the handwriting method (e.g., Vaughn, Schumm, & Gordon, 1992)

8 Implications for the fields of literacy and writing research

During the act of writing, then, there is a strong relation between the cognitive processing and the sensorimotor interaction with the physical device Hence, it seems reasonable to say that theories of writing and literacy currently dominant in the fields of writing research and literacy studies are, if not misguided, so at least markedly incomplete: on the one hand, currently dominant paradigms in (new) literacy studies (e.g., semiotics and sociocultural theory) commonly fail to acknowledge the crucial ways in which different technologies and material interfaces afford, require and structure sensorimotor processes and how these in

turn relate to, indeed, how they shape, cognition On the other hand, the cognitive paradigm

in writing research commonly fails to acknowledge the important ways in which cognition

is embodied, i.e., intimately entwined with perception and motor action Moreover, media and technology researchers, software developers and computer designers often seem more

or less oblivious to the recent findings from philosophy, psychology and neuroscience, as indicated by Allen et al (2004): “If new media are to support the development and use of our uniquely human capabilities, we must acknowledge that the most widely distributed human asset is the ability to learn in everyday situations through a tight coupling of action and perception.” (p 229) In light of this perspective, the decoupling of motor input and haptic and visual output enforced by the computer keyboard as a writing device, then, is seriously ill-advised

Judging from the above, there is ample reason to argue for the accommodation of

perspectives from neuroscience, psychology, and phenomenology, in the field of writing

and literacy At the same time, it is worth noticing how the field of neuroscience might

benefit from being complemented by more holistic, top-down approaches such as

phenomenology and ecological psychology Neurologist Wilson deplores the legacy of the

Decade of the Brain, where “something akin to the Tower of Babel” has come into existence:

We now insist that we will never understand what intelligence is unless we can establish

how bipedality, brachiation, social interaction, grooming, ambidexterity, language and tool

use, the saddle joint at the base of the fifth metacarpal, “reaching” neurons in the brain’s

parietal cortex, inhibitory neurotransmitters, clades, codons, amino acid sequences etc., etc

are interconnected But this is a delusion How can we possibly connect such disparate facts

and ideas, or indeed how could we possibly imagine doing so when each discipline is its

own private domain of multiple infinite regressions – knowledge or pieces of knowledge

under which are smaller pieces under which are smaller pieces still (and so on) The

enterprise as it is now ordered is well nigh hopeless (Wilson, 1998, p 164)

Finally, it seems as if Wilson’s call is being heard, and that time has come to repair what he

terms “our prevailing, perversely one-sided – shall I call them cephalocentric – theories of

brain, mind, language, and action.” (ibid.; p 69) The perspective of embodied cognition

presents itself as an adequate and timely remedy to the disembodied study of cognition and,

hence, writing At the same time it might aid in forging new and promising paths between

neuroscience, psychology, and philosophy – and, eventually, education? At any rate, a

richer and more nuanced, trans-disciplinary understanding of the processes of reading and

writing helps us see what they entail and how they actually work Understanding how they

work, in turn, might make us realize the full scope and true complexity of the skills we

possess and, hence, what we might want to make an extra effort to preserve In our times of

steadily increasing digitization of classrooms from preschool to lifelong learning, it is worth

pausing for a minute to reflect upon some questions raised by Wilson:

How does, or should, the educational system accommodate for the fact that the hand is not

merely a metaphor or an icon for humanness, but often the real-life focal point – the lever or

the launching pad – of a successful and genuinely fulfilling life? […] The hand is as much at

the core of human life as the brain itself The hand is involved in human learning What is

there in our theories of education that respects the biologic principles governing cognitive

processing in the brain and behavioral change in the individual? […] Could anything we

have learned about the hand be used to improve the teaching of children? (ibid.; pp 13-14;

pp 277-278)

As we hope to have shown during this article, recent theoretical findings from a range of

adjacent disciplines now put us in a privileged position to at least begin answering such

vital questions The future of education – and with it, future generations’ handling of the

skill of writing – depend on how and to what extent we continue to address them

9 References

Allen, B S., Otto, R G., & Hoffman, B (2004) Media as Lived Environments: The Ecological

Psychology of Educational Technology In D H Jonassen (Ed.), Handbook of Research on Educational Communications and Technology Mahwah, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum Ass

Bara, F., Gentaz, E., & Colé, P (2007) Haptics in learning to read with children from low

socio-economic status families British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 25(4), 643-663

Barton, D (2007) Literacy : an introduction to the ecology of written language (2nd ed.)

Malden, MA: Blackwell Pub

Barton, D., Hamilton, M., & Ivanic, R (2000) Situated literacies : reading and writing in

context London ; New York: Routledge

Benjamin, W (1969) The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction (H Zohn,

Trans.) In Illuminations (Introd by Hannah Arendt ed.) New York: Schocken Bolter, J D (2001) Writing space : computers, hypertext, and the remediation of print (2nd

ed.) Mahwah, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum

Buckingham, D (2003) Media education : literacy, learning, and contemporary culture

Cambridge, UK: Polity Press

Buckingham, D (2007) Beyond technology: children's learning in the age of digital culture

Cambridge: Polity

Chao, L L., & Martin, A (2000) Representation of manipulable man-made objects in the

dorsal stream NeuroImage, 12, 478-484

Coiro, J., Leu, D J., Lankshear, C & Knobel, M (eds.) (2008) Handbook of research on new

literacies New York: Lawrence Earlbaum Associates/Taylor & Francis Group Cunningham, A E., & Stanovich, K E (1990) Early Spelling Acquisition: Writing Beats the

Computer Journal of Educational Psychology, 82, 159-162

Fitzgerald, J., & Shanahan, T (2000) Reading and Writing Relations and Their

Development Educational Psychologist, 35(1), 39-50

Fogassi, L., & Gallese, V (2004) Action as a Binding Key to Multisensory Integration In G

A Calvert, C Spence & B E Stein (Eds.), The handbook of multisensory processes (pp 425-441) Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press

Gentner, D R (1983) The acquisition of typewriting skill Acta Psychologica, 54, 233-248 Gibson, J J (1966) The Senses Considered as Perceptual Systems Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co Gibson, J J (1979) The ecological approach to visual perception Boston: Houghton Mifflin Goldin-Meadow, S (2003) Hearing gesture: how our hands help us think Cambridge, MA:

Belknap Press of Harvard University Press

Greenfield, P M (1991) Language, tools and brain: The ontogeny and phylogeny of

hierarchically organized sequential behavior Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 14, 531-595

Guiard, Y (1987) Asymmetric division of labor in human skilled bimanual action: The

kinematic chain as a model Journal of Motor Behavior, 19, 486-517

Hatwell, Y., Streri, A., & Gentaz, E (Eds.) (2003) Touching for Knowing (Vol 53)

Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins

Heidegger, M (1982 [1942]) Parmenides Frankfurt: Klostermann

Heim, M (1999) Electric language : a philosophical study of word processing (2nd ed.)

New Haven: Yale University Press

Judging from the above, there is ample reason to argue for the accommodation of

perspectives from neuroscience, psychology, and phenomenology, in the field of writing

and literacy At the same time, it is worth noticing how the field of neuroscience might

benefit from being complemented by more holistic, top-down approaches such as

phenomenology and ecological psychology Neurologist Wilson deplores the legacy of the

Decade of the Brain, where “something akin to the Tower of Babel” has come into existence:

We now insist that we will never understand what intelligence is unless we can establish

how bipedality, brachiation, social interaction, grooming, ambidexterity, language and tool

use, the saddle joint at the base of the fifth metacarpal, “reaching” neurons in the brain’s

parietal cortex, inhibitory neurotransmitters, clades, codons, amino acid sequences etc., etc

are interconnected But this is a delusion How can we possibly connect such disparate facts

and ideas, or indeed how could we possibly imagine doing so when each discipline is its

own private domain of multiple infinite regressions – knowledge or pieces of knowledge

under which are smaller pieces under which are smaller pieces still (and so on) The

enterprise as it is now ordered is well nigh hopeless (Wilson, 1998, p 164)

Finally, it seems as if Wilson’s call is being heard, and that time has come to repair what he

terms “our prevailing, perversely one-sided – shall I call them cephalocentric – theories of

brain, mind, language, and action.” (ibid.; p 69) The perspective of embodied cognition

presents itself as an adequate and timely remedy to the disembodied study of cognition and,

hence, writing At the same time it might aid in forging new and promising paths between

neuroscience, psychology, and philosophy – and, eventually, education? At any rate, a

richer and more nuanced, trans-disciplinary understanding of the processes of reading and

writing helps us see what they entail and how they actually work Understanding how they

work, in turn, might make us realize the full scope and true complexity of the skills we

possess and, hence, what we might want to make an extra effort to preserve In our times of

steadily increasing digitization of classrooms from preschool to lifelong learning, it is worth

pausing for a minute to reflect upon some questions raised by Wilson:

How does, or should, the educational system accommodate for the fact that the hand is not

merely a metaphor or an icon for humanness, but often the real-life focal point – the lever or

the launching pad – of a successful and genuinely fulfilling life? […] The hand is as much at

the core of human life as the brain itself The hand is involved in human learning What is

there in our theories of education that respects the biologic principles governing cognitive

processing in the brain and behavioral change in the individual? […] Could anything we

have learned about the hand be used to improve the teaching of children? (ibid.; pp 13-14;

pp 277-278)

As we hope to have shown during this article, recent theoretical findings from a range of

adjacent disciplines now put us in a privileged position to at least begin answering such

vital questions The future of education – and with it, future generations’ handling of the

skill of writing – depend on how and to what extent we continue to address them

9 References

Allen, B S., Otto, R G., & Hoffman, B (2004) Media as Lived Environments: The Ecological

Psychology of Educational Technology In D H Jonassen (Ed.), Handbook of Research on Educational Communications and Technology Mahwah, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum Ass

Bara, F., Gentaz, E., & Colé, P (2007) Haptics in learning to read with children from low

socio-economic status families British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 25(4), 643-663

Barton, D (2007) Literacy : an introduction to the ecology of written language (2nd ed.)

Malden, MA: Blackwell Pub

Barton, D., Hamilton, M., & Ivanic, R (2000) Situated literacies : reading and writing in

context London ; New York: Routledge

Benjamin, W (1969) The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction (H Zohn,

Trans.) In Illuminations (Introd by Hannah Arendt ed.) New York: Schocken Bolter, J D (2001) Writing space : computers, hypertext, and the remediation of print (2nd

ed.) Mahwah, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum

Buckingham, D (2003) Media education : literacy, learning, and contemporary culture

Cambridge, UK: Polity Press

Buckingham, D (2007) Beyond technology: children's learning in the age of digital culture

Cambridge: Polity

Chao, L L., & Martin, A (2000) Representation of manipulable man-made objects in the

dorsal stream NeuroImage, 12, 478-484

Coiro, J., Leu, D J., Lankshear, C & Knobel, M (eds.) (2008) Handbook of research on new

literacies New York: Lawrence Earlbaum Associates/Taylor & Francis Group Cunningham, A E., & Stanovich, K E (1990) Early Spelling Acquisition: Writing Beats the

Computer Journal of Educational Psychology, 82, 159-162

Fitzgerald, J., & Shanahan, T (2000) Reading and Writing Relations and Their

Development Educational Psychologist, 35(1), 39-50

Fogassi, L., & Gallese, V (2004) Action as a Binding Key to Multisensory Integration In G

A Calvert, C Spence & B E Stein (Eds.), The handbook of multisensory processes (pp 425-441) Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press

Gentner, D R (1983) The acquisition of typewriting skill Acta Psychologica, 54, 233-248 Gibson, J J (1966) The Senses Considered as Perceptual Systems Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co Gibson, J J (1979) The ecological approach to visual perception Boston: Houghton Mifflin Goldin-Meadow, S (2003) Hearing gesture: how our hands help us think Cambridge, MA:

Belknap Press of Harvard University Press

Greenfield, P M (1991) Language, tools and brain: The ontogeny and phylogeny of

hierarchically organized sequential behavior Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 14, 531-595

Guiard, Y (1987) Asymmetric division of labor in human skilled bimanual action: The

kinematic chain as a model Journal of Motor Behavior, 19, 486-517

Hatwell, Y., Streri, A., & Gentaz, E (Eds.) (2003) Touching for Knowing (Vol 53)

Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins

Heidegger, M (1982 [1942]) Parmenides Frankfurt: Klostermann

Heim, M (1999) Electric language : a philosophical study of word processing (2nd ed.)

New Haven: Yale University Press

Hulme, C (1979) The interaction of visual and motor memory for graphic forms following

tracing Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 31, 249-261

Haas, C (1996) Writing technology : studies on the materiality of literacy Mahwah, N.J.: L

Erlbaum Associates

James, K H., & Gauthier, I (2006) Letter processing automatically recruits a sensory-motor

brain network Neuropsychologia, 44, 2937-2949

Jensenius, A R (2008) Action - sound: developing methods and tools to study

music-related body movement University of Oslo, Oslo

Jewitt, C (2006) Technology, literacy and learning : a multimodal approach London ; New

York: Routledge

Kato, C., Isoda, H., Takehar, Y., Matsuo, K., Moriya, T., & Nakai, T (1999) Involvement of

motor cortices in retrieval of kanji studied by functional MRI Neuroreport, 10,

1335-1339

Klatzky, R L., Lederman, S J., & Mankinen, J M (2005) Visual and haptic exploratory

procedures in children's judgments about tool function Infant Behavior and

Development, 28(3), 240-249

Klatzky, R L., Lederman, S J., & Matula, D E (1993) Haptic exploration in the presence of

vision Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance,

19(4), 726-743

Kress, G (2003) Literacy in the new media age London ; New York: Routledge

Lankshear, C (2006) New literacies : everyday practices and classroom learning (2nd ed.)

Maidenhead, Berkshire ; New York, NY: McGraw-Hill/Open University Press

Liberman A.M., Mattingly I.G (1985) The motor theory of speech perception revised

Cognition, 21, 1-36

Logan, F A (1999) Errors in Copy Typewriting Journal of Experimental Psychology:

Human Perception and Performance, 25, 1760-1773

Longcamp, M., Anton, J.-L., Roth, M., & Velay, J.-L (2003) Visual presentation of single

letters activates a premotor area involved in writing NeuroImage, 19(4), 1492-1500

Longcamp, M., Anton, J.-L., Roth, M., & Velay, J.-L (2005a) Premotor activations in

response to visually presented single letters depend on the hand used to write: a

study in left-handers Neuropsychologia, 43, 1699-1846

Longcamp, M., Boucard, C., Gilhodes, J.-C., & Velay, J.-L (2006) Remembering the

orientation of newly learned characters depends on the associated writing

knowledge: A comparison between handwriting and typing Human Movement

Science, 25(4-5), 646-656

Longcamp, M., Boucard, C l., Gilhodes, J.-C., Anton, J.-L., Roth, M., Nazarian, B., et al

(2008) Learning through Hand- or Typewriting Influences Visual Recognition of

New Graphic Shapes: Behavioral and Functional Imaging Evidence Journal of

Cognitive Neuroscience, 20(5), 802-815

Longcamp, M., Zerbato-Poudou, M.-T., & Velay, J.-L (2005b) The influence of writing

practice on letter recognition in preschool children: A comparison between

handwriting and typing Acta Psychologica, 119(1), 67-79

Lurija, A R (1973) The working brain: an introduction to neuropsychology London: Allen

Lane The Penguin Press

MacArthur, C A., Graham, S., & Fitzgerald, J (eds.) (2006) Handbook of writing research

New York: Guilford Press

Mangen, A (2009) The Impact of Digital Technology on Immersive Fiction Reading

Saarbrücken: VDM Verlag Dr Müller

Matsuo, K., Kato, C., Okada, T., Moriya, T., Glover, G H., & Nakai, T (2003) Finger

movements lighten neural loads in the recognition of ideographic characters Cognitive Brain Research, 17(2), 263-272

Merleau-Ponty, M (1962 [1945]) Phenomenology of perception London: Routledge Naka, M., & Naoi, H (1995) The effect of repeated writing on memory Memory &

Cognition, 23, 201-212

Noë, A (2004) Action in Perception Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press

O'Regan, J K., & Noë, A (2001) A sensorimotor account of vision and visual consciousness

Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 24(5), 939-973

O'Shaughnessy, B (2002) Consciousness and the world Oxford: Clarendon Press

Ochsner, R (1990) Physical Eloquence and the Biology of Writing New York: SUNY Press Olivier, G., & Velay, J.-L (2009) Visual objects can potentiate a grasping neural simulation

which interferes with manual response execution Acta Psychologica, 130, 147-152 Ong, W J (1982) Orality and Literacy: The Technologizing of the Word London & New

York: Methuen

Palmer, J A (2002) Fifty Major Thinkers on Education: From Confucius to Dewey London

& New York: Routledge

Pulvermüller, F (2005) Brain mechanisms linking language and action Nature Reviews

Neuroscience, 6, 576-582

Singer, D G., & Singer, J L (2005) Imagination and play in the electronic age Cambridge:

Harvard University Press

Säljư, R (2006) Lỉring og kulturelle redskaper: om lỉreprosesser og den kollektive

hukommelsen Oslo: Cappelen akademisk forl

Thompson, E (2007) Mind in life : biology, phenomenology, and the sciences of mind

Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press

Torrance, M., van Waes, L., & Galbraith, D (Eds.) (2007) Writing and Cognition: Research

and Applications Amsterdam: Elsevier

van Galen, G P (1991) Handwriting: Issues for a psychomotor theory Human Movement

Science, 10, 165-191

Van Waes, L., Leijten, M., & Neuwirth, C (Eds.) (2006) Writing and Digital Media

Amsterdam: Elsevier

Varela, F J., Thompson, E., & Rosch, E (1991) The embodied mind: cognitive science and

human experience Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press

Vaughn, S., Schumm, J S., & Gordon, J (1992) Early spelling acquisition: Does writing

really beat the computer? Learning Disabilities Quarterly, 15, 223-228

Vinter, A., & Chartrel, E (2008) Visual and proprioceptive recognition of cursive letters in

young children Acta Psychologica, 129(1), 147-156

Wilson, F R (1998) The hand : how its use shapes the brain, language, and human culture

(1st ed.) New York: Pantheon Books

Wolf, M (2007) Proust and the squid: the story and science of the reading brain New York:

HarperCollins

Zettl, H (1973) Sight - Sound - Motion Applied Media Aesthetics Belmont, CA:

Wadsworth Publishing Company, Inc

Hulme, C (1979) The interaction of visual and motor memory for graphic forms following

tracing Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 31, 249-261

Haas, C (1996) Writing technology : studies on the materiality of literacy Mahwah, N.J.: L

Erlbaum Associates

James, K H., & Gauthier, I (2006) Letter processing automatically recruits a sensory-motor

brain network Neuropsychologia, 44, 2937-2949

Jensenius, A R (2008) Action - sound: developing methods and tools to study

music-related body movement University of Oslo, Oslo

Jewitt, C (2006) Technology, literacy and learning : a multimodal approach London ; New

York: Routledge

Kato, C., Isoda, H., Takehar, Y., Matsuo, K., Moriya, T., & Nakai, T (1999) Involvement of

motor cortices in retrieval of kanji studied by functional MRI Neuroreport, 10,

1335-1339

Klatzky, R L., Lederman, S J., & Mankinen, J M (2005) Visual and haptic exploratory

procedures in children's judgments about tool function Infant Behavior and

Development, 28(3), 240-249

Klatzky, R L., Lederman, S J., & Matula, D E (1993) Haptic exploration in the presence of

vision Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance,

19(4), 726-743

Kress, G (2003) Literacy in the new media age London ; New York: Routledge

Lankshear, C (2006) New literacies : everyday practices and classroom learning (2nd ed.)

Maidenhead, Berkshire ; New York, NY: McGraw-Hill/Open University Press

Liberman A.M., Mattingly I.G (1985) The motor theory of speech perception revised

Cognition, 21, 1-36

Logan, F A (1999) Errors in Copy Typewriting Journal of Experimental Psychology:

Human Perception and Performance, 25, 1760-1773

Longcamp, M., Anton, J.-L., Roth, M., & Velay, J.-L (2003) Visual presentation of single

letters activates a premotor area involved in writing NeuroImage, 19(4), 1492-1500

Longcamp, M., Anton, J.-L., Roth, M., & Velay, J.-L (2005a) Premotor activations in

response to visually presented single letters depend on the hand used to write: a

study in left-handers Neuropsychologia, 43, 1699-1846

Longcamp, M., Boucard, C., Gilhodes, J.-C., & Velay, J.-L (2006) Remembering the

orientation of newly learned characters depends on the associated writing

knowledge: A comparison between handwriting and typing Human Movement

Science, 25(4-5), 646-656

Longcamp, M., Boucard, C l., Gilhodes, J.-C., Anton, J.-L., Roth, M., Nazarian, B., et al

(2008) Learning through Hand- or Typewriting Influences Visual Recognition of

New Graphic Shapes: Behavioral and Functional Imaging Evidence Journal of

Cognitive Neuroscience, 20(5), 802-815

Longcamp, M., Zerbato-Poudou, M.-T., & Velay, J.-L (2005b) The influence of writing

practice on letter recognition in preschool children: A comparison between

handwriting and typing Acta Psychologica, 119(1), 67-79

Lurija, A R (1973) The working brain: an introduction to neuropsychology London: Allen

Lane The Penguin Press

MacArthur, C A., Graham, S., & Fitzgerald, J (eds.) (2006) Handbook of writing research

New York: Guilford Press

Mangen, A (2009) The Impact of Digital Technology on Immersive Fiction Reading

Saarbrücken: VDM Verlag Dr Müller

Matsuo, K., Kato, C., Okada, T., Moriya, T., Glover, G H., & Nakai, T (2003) Finger

movements lighten neural loads in the recognition of ideographic characters Cognitive Brain Research, 17(2), 263-272

Merleau-Ponty, M (1962 [1945]) Phenomenology of perception London: Routledge Naka, M., & Naoi, H (1995) The effect of repeated writing on memory Memory &

Cognition, 23, 201-212

Noë, A (2004) Action in Perception Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press

O'Regan, J K., & Noë, A (2001) A sensorimotor account of vision and visual consciousness

Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 24(5), 939-973

O'Shaughnessy, B (2002) Consciousness and the world Oxford: Clarendon Press

Ochsner, R (1990) Physical Eloquence and the Biology of Writing New York: SUNY Press Olivier, G., & Velay, J.-L (2009) Visual objects can potentiate a grasping neural simulation

which interferes with manual response execution Acta Psychologica, 130, 147-152 Ong, W J (1982) Orality and Literacy: The Technologizing of the Word London & New

York: Methuen

Palmer, J A (2002) Fifty Major Thinkers on Education: From Confucius to Dewey London

& New York: Routledge

Pulvermüller, F (2005) Brain mechanisms linking language and action Nature Reviews

Neuroscience, 6, 576-582

Singer, D G., & Singer, J L (2005) Imagination and play in the electronic age Cambridge:

Harvard University Press

Säljư, R (2006) Lỉring og kulturelle redskaper: om lỉreprosesser og den kollektive

hukommelsen Oslo: Cappelen akademisk forl

Thompson, E (2007) Mind in life : biology, phenomenology, and the sciences of mind

Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press

Torrance, M., van Waes, L., & Galbraith, D (Eds.) (2007) Writing and Cognition: Research

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Kinesthetic Illusion of Being Pulled Sensation Enables Haptic Navigation for Broad Social Applications

Tomohiro Amemiya, Hideyuki Ando and Taro Maeda

X

Kinesthetic Illusion of Being Pulled Sensation Enables Haptic Navigation

for Broad Social Applications

1NTT Communication Science Laboratories, 2Osaka University

Japan

Abstract

Many handheld force-feedback devices have been proposed to provide a rich experience

with mobile devices However, previously reported devices have been unable to generate

both constant and translational force They can only generate transient rotational force since

they use a change in angular momentum Here, we exploit the nonlinearity of human

perception to generate both constant and translational force Specifically, a strong

acceleration is generated for a very brief period in the desired direction, while a weaker

acceleration is generated over a longer period in the opposite direction The internal human

haptic sensors do not detect the weaker acceleration, so the original position of the mass is

"washed out" The result is that the user is tricked into perceiving a unidirectional force This

force can be made continuous by repeating the motions This chapter describes the

pseudo-attraction force technique, which is a new force feedback technique that enables mobile

devices to create a the sensation of two-dimensional force A prototype was fabricated in

which four slider-crank mechanism pairs were arranged in a cross shape and embedded in a

force feedback display Each slider-crank mechanism generates a force vector By using the

sum of the generated vectors, which are linearly independent, the force feedback display

can create a force sensation in any arbitrary direction on a two-dimensional plane We also

introduce an interactive application with the force feedback display, an interactive robot,

and a vision-based positioning system

1 Introduction

Haptic interfaces in virtual environments allow users to touch and feel virtual objects

Significant research activities over 20 years have led to the commercialization of a large

number of sophisticated haptic interfaces including PHANToM and SPIDAR However,

most of these interfaces have to use some type of mechanical linkage to establish a fulcrum

relative the ground (Massie & Salisbury, 1994; Sato, 2002), use huge air compressors (Suzuki

et al., 2002; Gurocak et al., 2003), or require that a heavy device be worn (Hirose et al., 2001),

thus preventing these mobile devices from employing haptic feedback

21

Although haptic feedback provides many potential benefits as regards the use of small

portable hand-held devices (Ullmer & Ishii 2000; Luk et al., 2006), the haptic feedback in

mobile devices consists exclusively of vibrotactile stimuli generated by vibrators (MacLean

et al., 2002) This is because it is difficult for mobile devices to produce a kinesthetic

sensation Moreover, the application of low-frequency forces to a user requires a fixed

mechanical ground that mobile haptic devices lack To make force-feedback devices

available in mobile devices, ungrounded haptic feedback devices have been developed since

they are more mobile and can operate over larger workspaces than grounded devices

(Burdea, 1996) The performance of ungrounded haptic feedback devices is less accurate

than that of grounded devices in contact tasks However, ungrounded haptic feedback

devices can provide comparable results in boundary detection tests (Richard & Cutkosky,

1997) Unfortunately, typical ungrounded devices based on the gyro effect (Yano et al., 2003)

or angular momentum change (Tanaka et al., 2001) are incapable of generating both constant

and directional forces; they can generate only a transient rotational force (torque) sensation

In addition, Kunzler and Runde pointed out that gyro moment displays are proportional to

the mass, diameter, and angular velocity of the flywheel (Kunzler & Runde, 2005)

There are methods for generating sustained translational force without grounding, such as

propulsive force or electromagnetic force Recently, there have been a number of proposals

for generating both constant and directional forces without an external fulcrum These

includeusing two oblique motors whose velocity and phase are controlled (Nakamura &

Fukui, 2007), simulating kinesthetic inertia by shifting the center-of-mass of a device

dynamically when the device is held with both hands (Swindells et al., 2003), and producing

a pressure field with airborne ultrasound (Iwamoto et al., 2008)

2 Pseudo-Attraction Force Technique

2.1 Haptic interface using sensory illusions

To generate a sustained translational force without grounding, we focused on the

characteristic of human perception, which until now has been neglected or inadequately

implemented in haptic devices Although human beings always interact with the world

through human sensors and effectors, the perceived world is not identical to the physical

world (Fig 1) For instance, when we watch television, the images (a combination of RGB

colors) we see are different from physical images (a composition of all wavelengths of light),

and TV animation actually consists of a series of still pictures Such phenomena are usually

interpreted by converting them to subjectively equivalent phenomena These distortions of

human perception, including systematic errors or illusions, have been exploited when

designing human interfaces Moreover, some illusions have the potential to enable the

development of new haptic interfaces (Hayward 2008) Therefore, the study of haptic

illusions can provide valuable insights into not only human perceptual mechanisms but also

the design of new haptic interfaces

"washed out" The result is that the user is tricked into perceiving a unidirectional force This force can be made continuous by repeating the motions Figure 2 shows a model of the nonlinear relationship between physical and psychophysical quantities If the acceleration patterns are well designed, a kinesthetic illusion of being pulled can be created because of this nonlinearity

Although haptic feedback provides many potential benefits as regards the use of small

portable hand-held devices (Ullmer & Ishii 2000; Luk et al., 2006), the haptic feedback in

mobile devices consists exclusively of vibrotactile stimuli generated by vibrators (MacLean

et al., 2002) This is because it is difficult for mobile devices to produce a kinesthetic

sensation Moreover, the application of low-frequency forces to a user requires a fixed

mechanical ground that mobile haptic devices lack To make force-feedback devices

available in mobile devices, ungrounded haptic feedback devices have been developed since

they are more mobile and can operate over larger workspaces than grounded devices

(Burdea, 1996) The performance of ungrounded haptic feedback devices is less accurate

than that of grounded devices in contact tasks However, ungrounded haptic feedback

devices can provide comparable results in boundary detection tests (Richard & Cutkosky,

1997) Unfortunately, typical ungrounded devices based on the gyro effect (Yano et al., 2003)

or angular momentum change (Tanaka et al., 2001) are incapable of generating both constant

and directional forces; they can generate only a transient rotational force (torque) sensation

In addition, Kunzler and Runde pointed out that gyro moment displays are proportional to

the mass, diameter, and angular velocity of the flywheel (Kunzler & Runde, 2005)

There are methods for generating sustained translational force without grounding, such as

propulsive force or electromagnetic force Recently, there have been a number of proposals

for generating both constant and directional forces without an external fulcrum These

includeusing two oblique motors whose velocity and phase are controlled (Nakamura &

Fukui, 2007), simulating kinesthetic inertia by shifting the center-of-mass of a device

dynamically when the device is held with both hands (Swindells et al., 2003), and producing

a pressure field with airborne ultrasound (Iwamoto et al., 2008)

2 Pseudo-Attraction Force Technique

2.1 Haptic interface using sensory illusions

To generate a sustained translational force without grounding, we focused on the

characteristic of human perception, which until now has been neglected or inadequately

implemented in haptic devices Although human beings always interact with the world

through human sensors and effectors, the perceived world is not identical to the physical

world (Fig 1) For instance, when we watch television, the images (a combination of RGB

colors) we see are different from physical images (a composition of all wavelengths of light),

and TV animation actually consists of a series of still pictures Such phenomena are usually

interpreted by converting them to subjectively equivalent phenomena These distortions of

human perception, including systematic errors or illusions, have been exploited when

designing human interfaces Moreover, some illusions have the potential to enable the

development of new haptic interfaces (Hayward 2008) Therefore, the study of haptic

illusions can provide valuable insights into not only human perceptual mechanisms but also

the design of new haptic interfaces

"washed out" The result is that the user is tricked into perceiving a unidirectional force This force can be made continuous by repeating the motions Figure 2 shows a model of the nonlinear relationship between physical and psychophysical quantities If the acceleration patterns are well designed, a kinesthetic illusion of being pulled can be created because of this nonlinearity

2.3 Implementation

To generate the asymmetric back-and-forth motion of a small, constrained mass, we have

adopted a swinging slider-crank mechanism as a quick motion mechanism (Fig 3) In the

mechanism, the rotation of a crank (OB) makes the weight slide backwards and forwards

with asymmetric acceleration The force display is composed of a single degree of freedom

(DOF) mechanism The force vector of the asymmetric oscillation is

2

2 ( ) )

( F

dt

t x d m

where m is the weight The acceleration is given by the second derivative with respect to

time of the motion of the weight x, which is given by

2 1

3 1

x(t) = OD, d = OA, l1 = OB, l2 = BC, l3 = CD, and ωt = AOB in Fig 3 ω is the constant angular

velocity, and t is time

Fig 3 Overview of the swinging slider-crank mechanism for generating asymmetric

oscillation The slider (weight) slides backwards and forwards as the crank (OB) rotates

Point A causes the slide to turn about the same point Since the relative link lengths (AB:AC)

are changed according to the rotation of the crank, the slider (weight) moves with

asymmetric acceleration

We fabricated a prototype of the force display In the prototype, d = 28 mm, l1 = 15 mm, l2 =

60 mm, and l3 = 70 mm The actual acceleration values of the prototype were measured with

a laser sensor (Keyence Inc., LK-G150, sampling 20 kHz) employing a seventh order LPF

Butterworth filter with a cut-off frequency of 100 Hz (Fig.4)

-400 -200 0 200

Time [s]

2 ]

(c) 7 cycles per second

(d) 9 cycles per second

-200 -100 0 100

(a) 3 cycles per second

(b) 5 cycles per second

Fig 4 Actual asymmetric acceleration value with the LPF (blue solid line) vs the calculated value (black dotted line) Humans perceive a unidirectional force by holding the haptic device This is because the strong and weak acceleration periods yield different sensations, although the device physically generates a bidirectional force

2.3 Implementation

To generate the asymmetric back-and-forth motion of a small, constrained mass, we have

adopted a swinging slider-crank mechanism as a quick motion mechanism (Fig 3) In the

mechanism, the rotation of a crank (OB) makes the weight slide backwards and forwards

with asymmetric acceleration The force display is composed of a single degree of freedom

(DOF) mechanism The force vector of the asymmetric oscillation is

2

2 ( ) )

( F

dt

t x

d m

where m is the weight The acceleration is given by the second derivative with respect to

time of the motion of the weight x, which is given by

2 1

3 1

l d

x(t) = OD, d = OA, l1 = OB, l2 = BC, l3 = CD, and ωt = AOB in Fig 3 ω is the constant angular

velocity, and t is time

Fig 3 Overview of the swinging slider-crank mechanism for generating asymmetric

oscillation The slider (weight) slides backwards and forwards as the crank (OB) rotates

Point A causes the slide to turn about the same point Since the relative link lengths (AB:AC)

are changed according to the rotation of the crank, the slider (weight) moves with

asymmetric acceleration

We fabricated a prototype of the force display In the prototype, d = 28 mm, l1 = 15 mm, l2 =

60 mm, and l3 = 70 mm The actual acceleration values of the prototype were measured with

a laser sensor (Keyence Inc., LK-G150, sampling 20 kHz) employing a seventh order LPF

Butterworth filter with a cut-off frequency of 100 Hz (Fig.4)

-400 -200 0 200

Time [s]

2 ]

(c) 7 cycles per second

(d) 9 cycles per second

-200 -100 0 100

(a) 3 cycles per second

(b) 5 cycles per second

Fig 4 Actual asymmetric acceleration value with the LPF (blue solid line) vs the calculated value (black dotted line) Humans perceive a unidirectional force by holding the haptic device This is because the strong and weak acceleration periods yield different sensations, although the device physically generates a bidirectional force

3 Requirements for perceiving pseudo-attraction force

There are still many aspects of the perception of the pseudo-attraction force that are not well

understood, but knowledge has been accumulating In this section, we introduce various

parameters for eliciting the pseudo-attraction force through experimental results

3.1 Acceleration profile

First, we determined whether oscillations with asymmetric acceleration elicit the perception

of a pseudo-attraction force Two oscillations with different acceleration profiles were

compared as haptic stimuli: asymmetric acceleration (shown in Fig 4) and symmetric

acceleration (control) For the asymmetric acceleration stimuli, the average percentage

correct scores (i.e., how often the perceived force direction matched the crank-to-slider

direction in Fig 3) for all subjects were approximately 100% at frequencies below 10 cycles

per second when we used a binary judgment task (forward or backward) For the symmetric

acceleration stimuli, the scores were between 25% and 75%, which is the chance level These

results show that the symmetric acceleration could not generate a directed force sensation

We performed a binomial test for the average percent correct scores, which showed no

significant effect of the control stimuli for any of the frequencies This means that symmetric

acceleration does not elicit the perception of a pseudo-attraction force Again, no directional

force was felt if the mass were merely moved back and forth, but different acceleration

patterns for the two directions to create a perceived force imbalance produced the

perception of a pseudo-attraction force (Amemiya & Maeda, 2009)

3.2 Frequency of acceleration

Frequency of acceleration plays an important role in eliciting the perception of a

pseudo-attraction force Oscillations with high frequency might create a continuous force sensation,

but previous experimental results showed that the performance decreased steadily at

frequencies over ten cycles per second (Amemiya et al., 2008) However, low frequency

oscillation tends to be perceived as a knocking sensation If we wish to create a sustained

rather than a transient force sensation such as the sensation of being pulled continuously,

the frequency should be in the 5 to 10 cycles per second range In addition, those who

experienced the stimuli strongly perceived the sensation at 5 cycles per second independent

of other parameters (Amemiya & Maeda, 2009)

3.3 Gross weight of force display

Changes in the gross weight and the weight of the reciprocating mass affects the perceived

force sensation Experimental results have shown that lighter gross weights and a heavier

reciprocating mass yield higher percent-correct scores in binary judgment tasks for all

frequencies (Amemiya & Maeda, 2009) Considering the Weber fraction of force perception,

the differential threshold of force perception is thought to increase as the gross weight

increases In addition, the increase in the gross weight may work as a mass damper, which

would reduce the gain of the effective pulse acceleration The threshold of the ratio of the

gross weight and the weight of the reciprocating mass was 16 %, which is a rough standard

for effective force perception in the developed prototype

3.4 Angular resolution

The azimuth accuracy of the perceived force direction versus the stimulated direction generated by an asymmetric acceleration has been examined (Amemiya et al., 2006) The orientation of the force vector was altered from 0 to 360° on the horizontal plane in 15° steps (24 vectors) The subjects were required to reply with one of 360 degrees in a static posture The results showed that the root mean square of the angular errors between response and stimulus was approximately 20 degrees When users move or rotate their bodies, i.e., dynamically explore the force vector, their angular resolution would be higher than that in a static posture

3.5 Cancellation of orthogonal oscillation

If asymmetric oscillation was generated by rotational mechanism such as the slider-crank mechanism, a force perpendicular to the directional one were created because of the motion

of the linkages The side-to-side force prevents the user from sensing the desired direction The side-to-side force should be cancelled out completely, for instance, by using two identical but mirror-reversed mechanisms (Amemiya et al., 2008)

4 Application

4.1 Overview

For broad social use, we designed an interactive application of haptic navigation based on a

pseudo-attraction force display The scenario was as follows A waiter (user) in a cafe wants to deliver a drink ordered by a customer (target) The waiter does not know where the customer is sitting However, his “smart tray” creates an attraction force centered on the customer and guides the waiter to him/her Since the guidance is based on force sensation, the guidance information is useful regardless of the waiter’s age or language ability Moreover, since the guidance directions are transmitted via touch, the other senses remain available to the waiter, making it easier for him to move through even the most crowded areas Finally, the instructions remain entirely private; no one else can discover that the waiter is receiving instructions

4.2 System configuration

The system consists of a tray held by the user (waiter), a small bag containing a battery and

a control device, and a position and direction identification system based on infrared LEDs and a wide-angle camera (Fig 5) The force display and infrared LEDs are embedded in the tray The user's position and posture are detected by placing three super-high luminance infrared LEDs (OD-100, OPTO Diode Corp., peak wavelength 880 nm, beam angle 120 degrees), at the corners of a right-angled isosceles triangle (side length = 100 mm) on the tray The infrared rays are captured by a ceiling-mounted IEEE1394 black and white CMOS camera (Firefly MV, FFMV-03MTM; Point Grey Research Inc.) with a wide-angle lens (field angle 175 degrees) The positions and orientations of each IR-LED are obtained by binarizing the brightness value from the acquired camera image with OpenCV library, and calculating the position and orientation from the relationship with a right-angled isosceles triangle formed by three dots (Fig 6)

3 Requirements for perceiving pseudo-attraction force

There are still many aspects of the perception of the pseudo-attraction force that are not well

understood, but knowledge has been accumulating In this section, we introduce various

parameters for eliciting the pseudo-attraction force through experimental results

3.1 Acceleration profile

First, we determined whether oscillations with asymmetric acceleration elicit the perception

of a pseudo-attraction force Two oscillations with different acceleration profiles were

compared as haptic stimuli: asymmetric acceleration (shown in Fig 4) and symmetric

acceleration (control) For the asymmetric acceleration stimuli, the average percentage

correct scores (i.e., how often the perceived force direction matched the crank-to-slider

direction in Fig 3) for all subjects were approximately 100% at frequencies below 10 cycles

per second when we used a binary judgment task (forward or backward) For the symmetric

acceleration stimuli, the scores were between 25% and 75%, which is the chance level These

results show that the symmetric acceleration could not generate a directed force sensation

We performed a binomial test for the average percent correct scores, which showed no

significant effect of the control stimuli for any of the frequencies This means that symmetric

acceleration does not elicit the perception of a pseudo-attraction force Again, no directional

force was felt if the mass were merely moved back and forth, but different acceleration

patterns for the two directions to create a perceived force imbalance produced the

perception of a pseudo-attraction force (Amemiya & Maeda, 2009)

3.2 Frequency of acceleration

Frequency of acceleration plays an important role in eliciting the perception of a

pseudo-attraction force Oscillations with high frequency might create a continuous force sensation,

but previous experimental results showed that the performance decreased steadily at

frequencies over ten cycles per second (Amemiya et al., 2008) However, low frequency

oscillation tends to be perceived as a knocking sensation If we wish to create a sustained

rather than a transient force sensation such as the sensation of being pulled continuously,

the frequency should be in the 5 to 10 cycles per second range In addition, those who

experienced the stimuli strongly perceived the sensation at 5 cycles per second independent

of other parameters (Amemiya & Maeda, 2009)

3.3 Gross weight of force display

Changes in the gross weight and the weight of the reciprocating mass affects the perceived

force sensation Experimental results have shown that lighter gross weights and a heavier

reciprocating mass yield higher percent-correct scores in binary judgment tasks for all

frequencies (Amemiya & Maeda, 2009) Considering the Weber fraction of force perception,

the differential threshold of force perception is thought to increase as the gross weight

increases In addition, the increase in the gross weight may work as a mass damper, which

would reduce the gain of the effective pulse acceleration The threshold of the ratio of the

gross weight and the weight of the reciprocating mass was 16 %, which is a rough standard

for effective force perception in the developed prototype

3.4 Angular resolution

The azimuth accuracy of the perceived force direction versus the stimulated direction generated by an asymmetric acceleration has been examined (Amemiya et al., 2006) The orientation of the force vector was altered from 0 to 360° on the horizontal plane in 15° steps (24 vectors) The subjects were required to reply with one of 360 degrees in a static posture The results showed that the root mean square of the angular errors between response and stimulus was approximately 20 degrees When users move or rotate their bodies, i.e., dynamically explore the force vector, their angular resolution would be higher than that in a static posture

3.5 Cancellation of orthogonal oscillation

If asymmetric oscillation was generated by rotational mechanism such as the slider-crank mechanism, a force perpendicular to the directional one were created because of the motion

of the linkages The side-to-side force prevents the user from sensing the desired direction The side-to-side force should be cancelled out completely, for instance, by using two identical but mirror-reversed mechanisms (Amemiya et al., 2008)

4 Application

4.1 Overview

For broad social use, we designed an interactive application of haptic navigation based on a

pseudo-attraction force display The scenario was as follows A waiter (user) in a cafe wants to deliver a drink ordered by a customer (target) The waiter does not know where the customer is sitting However, his “smart tray” creates an attraction force centered on the customer and guides the waiter to him/her Since the guidance is based on force sensation, the guidance information is useful regardless of the waiter’s age or language ability Moreover, since the guidance directions are transmitted via touch, the other senses remain available to the waiter, making it easier for him to move through even the most crowded areas Finally, the instructions remain entirely private; no one else can discover that the waiter is receiving instructions

4.2 System configuration

The system consists of a tray held by the user (waiter), a small bag containing a battery and

a control device, and a position and direction identification system based on infrared LEDs and a wide-angle camera (Fig 5) The force display and infrared LEDs are embedded in the tray The user's position and posture are detected by placing three super-high luminance infrared LEDs (OD-100, OPTO Diode Corp., peak wavelength 880 nm, beam angle 120 degrees), at the corners of a right-angled isosceles triangle (side length = 100 mm) on the tray The infrared rays are captured by a ceiling-mounted IEEE1394 black and white CMOS camera (Firefly MV, FFMV-03MTM; Point Grey Research Inc.) with a wide-angle lens (field angle 175 degrees) The positions and orientations of each IR-LED are obtained by binarizing the brightness value from the acquired camera image with OpenCV library, and calculating the position and orientation from the relationship with a right-angled isosceles triangle formed by three dots (Fig 6)

XBeePro

Camera IEEE1394 USB

Force display IR-LEDs

Motor driver

Motors

Force display Robot Phones

USB

Fig 5 System configuration

image from camera

Fig 6 Vision-based position and posture identification system The white dots in the camera

image are the infrared LEDs

The user must hold the tray horizontally because of the drink being carried on it Therefore,

the user’s posture can be presumed by detecting three IR-LEDs The image capture rate is

about 60 fps The camera height is about 3.0 m and the camera faces the ground When three

points can be acquired, the position measurement error does not exceed 100 mm This is

sufficient for our demonstration since the distance to the targets is about 1,000 mm

There are two ways to generate a two-dimensional force vector (Fig 7), and we fabricate

each prototype A turntable-based force display is one module based on a slider-crank

mechanism with a turntable (Fig 8) The direction of the force display module is controlled

with a stepper motor (bipolar, step angle 1.8 degrees, 1/4 micro step drive; KH42HM2-851;

Japanese Servo Ltd.) engaged by a belt with a belt pulley installed in the turntable

(Amemiya et al., 2009)

A vector-summation-based force display is designed to generate a force sensation in at least

eight cardinal directions by the summation of linearly independent force vectors Four

slider-crank mechanism pairs are embedded in the force display in the shape of a crosshair

By combining force vectors generated by each slider-crank mechanism, the force display can

create a virtual force in eight cardinal directions on a two-dimensional plane

The target is several bear-shaped robots (RobotPhone; Iwaya Inc.) As the customer speaks,

he also moves his head and hands to communicate with gestures

4 3 Demonstration procedure

The user moved towards the target following the direction indicated by the perceived force sensation The force direction was controlled so that it faced the target (customer) based on the posture detection system Control instructions were sent from the computer to the microcomputer via a wireless link (XBee-PRO (60 mW) ZigBee module; MaxStream) when required The user chose one customer by stopping in front of the target If this choice was correct, the customer (bear-shaped robot) said, ‘‘thank you’’; otherwise, the customer said,

‘‘I did not order this’’ while moving his head and hands to communicate with gestures

force display spacers

Force displayStepper motor

Belt pulleyFig 8 Overview of the turntable-based force display

XBeePro

Camera IEEE1394

USB

Force display IR-LEDs

Motor driver

Motors

Force display Robot Phones

USB

Fig 5 System configuration

image from camera

Fig 6 Vision-based position and posture identification system The white dots in the camera

image are the infrared LEDs

The user must hold the tray horizontally because of the drink being carried on it Therefore,

the user’s posture can be presumed by detecting three IR-LEDs The image capture rate is

about 60 fps The camera height is about 3.0 m and the camera faces the ground When three

points can be acquired, the position measurement error does not exceed 100 mm This is

sufficient for our demonstration since the distance to the targets is about 1,000 mm

There are two ways to generate a two-dimensional force vector (Fig 7), and we fabricate

each prototype A turntable-based force display is one module based on a slider-crank

mechanism with a turntable (Fig 8) The direction of the force display module is controlled

with a stepper motor (bipolar, step angle 1.8 degrees, 1/4 micro step drive; KH42HM2-851;

Japanese Servo Ltd.) engaged by a belt with a belt pulley installed in the turntable

(Amemiya et al., 2009)

A vector-summation-based force display is designed to generate a force sensation in at least

eight cardinal directions by the summation of linearly independent force vectors Four

slider-crank mechanism pairs are embedded in the force display in the shape of a crosshair

By combining force vectors generated by each slider-crank mechanism, the force display can

create a virtual force in eight cardinal directions on a two-dimensional plane

The target is several bear-shaped robots (RobotPhone; Iwaya Inc.) As the customer speaks,

he also moves his head and hands to communicate with gestures

4 3 Demonstration procedure

The user moved towards the target following the direction indicated by the perceived force sensation The force direction was controlled so that it faced the target (customer) based on the posture detection system Control instructions were sent from the computer to the microcomputer via a wireless link (XBee-PRO (60 mW) ZigBee module; MaxStream) when required The user chose one customer by stopping in front of the target If this choice was correct, the customer (bear-shaped robot) said, ‘‘thank you’’; otherwise, the customer said,

‘‘I did not order this’’ while moving his head and hands to communicate with gestures

force display spacers

Force displayStepper motor

Belt pulleyFig 8 Overview of the turntable-based force display

We demonstrated the above application at an international conference and exhibition The

average rate of correct delivery to the target exceeded 75 % (note that none of the

participants received any initial training), indicating that the navigation support provided is

effective and appropriate The results show the usefulness of the proposed technique The

few delivery failures appear to be due to tracking errors in the camera system or a delay

between the rotation of the stepper motor and the user’s perception of the change Moreover,

we believe the force’s amplitude to be attenuated by the connection of the device to the tray,

and this attenuation also influenced delivery failure We sometimes observed that not all the

LEDs could be detected since some were occasionally obscured by the participant System

robustness could be improved by adopting a different position and posture identification

system This haptic navigation could be also applied to a navigation system for the visually

impaired (Amemiya & Sugiyama 2009)

5 Conclusion and future potential

The developed haptic display based on a pseudo-attraction force technique conveyed a

kinesthetic illusion of being pulled or pushed The ability of the haptic display to realize a

wide-area social support system was discussed Future work will include extending the

reach by using a global positioning system to allow outdoor use

Acknowledgements

We thank Dr Ichiro Kawabuchi for his assistance This study was supported by Nippon

Telegraph and Telephone Corporation and was also partially supported by the sponsorship

of CREST, Japan Science and Technology Agency

6 References

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nongrounding force display in the air Proceedings of Eurohaptics 2006 Paris, France

pp 317-324

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Springer

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on Computers and Accessibility (ASSETS 2009), pp 107-114, ACM Press

Burdea, G C (1996) Force & Touch Feedback for Virtual Reality, Wiley, New York

Chang, A & O’Sullivan, C (2005) Audio-haptic feedback in mobile phones Proceedings of

CHI’05 extended abstracts on human factors in computing systems, pp 1264-1267, ACM

Press

Gurocak, H.; Jayaram, S.; Parrish, B & Jayaram U (2003) Weight sensation in virtual

environments using a haptic device with air jets, Journal of Computing and Information Science in Engineering, Vol 3, No 2 ASME, pp 130-135

Hirose, M.; Hirota, K.; Ogi, T.; Yano, H.; Kakehi, N.; Saito, M.; Nakashige, M (2001)

HapticGEAR: The Development of a Wearable Force Display System for Immersive

Projection Displays, Proceedings of Virtual Reality 2001 Conference, pp 123–130

Iwamoto, T; Tatezono, M; Hoshi, T.; Shinoda, H (2008) Non-Contact Method for Producing

Tactile Sensation Using Airborne Ultrasound, Proceedings of EuroHaptics 2008, pp

504-513

Kunzler, U & Runde, C (2005) Kinesthetic Haptics Integration into Large-Scale Virtual

Environments, Proceedings of World Haptics Conference 2005, pp 551–556

Luk, J.; Pasquero, J.; Little, S.; MacLean, K.; Levesque, V & Hayward, V (2006) A role for

haptics in mobile interaction: Initial design using a handheld tactile display

prototype Proceedings of conference on human factors in computing systems, ACM

Press, pp 171-180

MacLean, K E., Shaver, M J & Pai, D K (2002) Handheld Haptics: A USB Media

Controller with Force Sensing, Proceedings of Tenth Symposium on Haptic Interfaces for Virtual Environment and Teleoperator Systems (HAPTICS 2002), pp 311–318

We demonstrated the above application at an international conference and exhibition The

average rate of correct delivery to the target exceeded 75 % (note that none of the

participants received any initial training), indicating that the navigation support provided is

effective and appropriate The results show the usefulness of the proposed technique The

few delivery failures appear to be due to tracking errors in the camera system or a delay

between the rotation of the stepper motor and the user’s perception of the change Moreover,

we believe the force’s amplitude to be attenuated by the connection of the device to the tray,

and this attenuation also influenced delivery failure We sometimes observed that not all the

LEDs could be detected since some were occasionally obscured by the participant System

robustness could be improved by adopting a different position and posture identification

system This haptic navigation could be also applied to a navigation system for the visually

impaired (Amemiya & Sugiyama 2009)

5 Conclusion and future potential

The developed haptic display based on a pseudo-attraction force technique conveyed a

kinesthetic illusion of being pulled or pushed The ability of the haptic display to realize a

wide-area social support system was discussed Future work will include extending the

reach by using a global positioning system to allow outdoor use

Acknowledgements

We thank Dr Ichiro Kawabuchi for his assistance This study was supported by Nippon

Telegraph and Telephone Corporation and was also partially supported by the sponsorship

of CREST, Japan Science and Technology Agency

6 References

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asymmetric acceleration via periodic translational motion, Proceedings of World Haptics Conference, pp 619-622, IEEE Computer Society

Amemiya, T.; Ando, H & T Maeda T (2006) Directed force perception when holding a

nongrounding force display in the air Proceedings of Eurohaptics 2006 Paris, France

pp 317-324

Amemiya, T.; Ando, H & T Maeda T (2007) Hand-held force display with spring-cam

mechanism for generating asymmetric acceleration, Proceedings of World Haptics Conference, pp 572-573, March 2007, IEEE Computer Society

Amemiya, T.; Ando, H & T Maeda T (2008) Lead-Me interface for pulling sensation in

hand-held devices, ACM Transactions on Applied Perception, Vol 5, No 3, pp 1-17

Amemiya, T & Maeda, T (2008) Asymmetric oscillation distorts the perceived heaviness of

handheld objects, IEEE Transactions on Haptics, Vol 1, No 1, pp 9-18

Amemiya, T & Maeda, T (2009) Directional force sensation by asymmetric oscillation from

a doublelayer slider-crank mechanism, Journal Computing Information Science in Engineering, Vol 9, No 1, 011001, ASME

Amemiya, T.; Maeda, T & Ando, H (2009) Location-free Haptic Interaction for Large-Area

Social Applications, Personal and Ubiquitous Computing, Vol 13, No 5, pp 379-386,

Springer

Amemiya, T & Sugiyama, H (2009) Haptic Handheld Wayfinder with Pseudo-Attraction

Force for Pedestrians with Visual Impairments, Proceedings of 11th ACM Conference

on Computers and Accessibility (ASSETS 2009), pp 107-114, ACM Press

Burdea, G C (1996) Force & Touch Feedback for Virtual Reality, Wiley, New York

Chang, A & O’Sullivan, C (2005) Audio-haptic feedback in mobile phones Proceedings of

CHI’05 extended abstracts on human factors in computing systems, pp 1264-1267, ACM

Press

Gurocak, H.; Jayaram, S.; Parrish, B & Jayaram U (2003) Weight sensation in virtual

environments using a haptic device with air jets, Journal of Computing and Information Science in Engineering, Vol 3, No 2 ASME, pp 130-135

Hirose, M.; Hirota, K.; Ogi, T.; Yano, H.; Kakehi, N.; Saito, M.; Nakashige, M (2001)

HapticGEAR: The Development of a Wearable Force Display System for Immersive

Projection Displays, Proceedings of Virtual Reality 2001 Conference, pp 123–130

Iwamoto, T; Tatezono, M; Hoshi, T.; Shinoda, H (2008) Non-Contact Method for Producing

Tactile Sensation Using Airborne Ultrasound, Proceedings of EuroHaptics 2008, pp

504-513

Kunzler, U & Runde, C (2005) Kinesthetic Haptics Integration into Large-Scale Virtual

Environments, Proceedings of World Haptics Conference 2005, pp 551–556

Luk, J.; Pasquero, J.; Little, S.; MacLean, K.; Levesque, V & Hayward, V (2006) A role for

haptics in mobile interaction: Initial design using a handheld tactile display

prototype Proceedings of conference on human factors in computing systems, ACM

Press, pp 171-180

MacLean, K E., Shaver, M J & Pai, D K (2002) Handheld Haptics: A USB Media

Controller with Force Sensing, Proceedings of Tenth Symposium on Haptic Interfaces for Virtual Environment and Teleoperator Systems (HAPTICS 2002), pp 311–318

Massie, T & Salisbury, J K (1994) The phantom haptic interface: A device for probing

virtual objects, Proceedings of the ASME Winter Annual Meeting, Symposium on Haptic Interfaces for Virtual Environment and Teleoperator Systems, Vol 55-1, Chicago, IL.,

1994, pp 295-300

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Feedback Display, Proceedings of World Haptics Conference 2007, pp 582-583

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Interface, Proceedings of the ASME Dynamic Systems and Control Division, pp 181–

187

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Congress, Vol 13, pp 17-23

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pressure toward untethered human interface, Proceedings of CHI ’02 Extended Abstracts on Human Factors in Computing Systems ACM Press, 2002, pp 808-809

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device Proceedings of the 5th international conference on multimodal interfaces ACM

Press, pp 52-59

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torque display and haptic characteristics of human palm Proceedings of 11th international conference on augmented tele-existence, pp 115-120

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Vol 39, Nos 3-4, pp 915-931

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using the gyro effect, Proceedings of 11th international symposium on Haptic Interfaces for Virtual Environment and Teleoperator Systems IEEE Computer Society, pp 32-39

Since its introduction in the early 50's, teleoperation systems have expanded their reach, to

address micro and macro manipulation, interaction with virtual worlds and the general field

of haptic interaction From its beginnings, as a mean to handle radioactive materials and to

reduce human presence in dangerous areas, teleoperation and haptics have also become an

interaction modality with computer generated objects and environments

One of the main goals of teleoperation is to achieve transparency, i.e the complete perception

by the human operator of the virtual or remote environment with which he/she is

interacting (Lawrence, 1993) The ability of a teleoperation system to provide transparency

depends upon the performance of the master and the slave, and of its control system

Ideally, the master should be able to emulate any environment, real or simulated, from

free-space to infinitely stiff obstacles

The design of a transparent haptic interface is a quite challenging engineering task, since

motion and sensing capabilities of the human hand/arm system are difficult to match

Furthermore, recent studies are providing more and more evidence that transparency is not

only achieved by a good engineering design, but also by a combination of perceptual and

cognitive factors that affect the operator ability to actually perceive the stimuli provided

The current knowledge on operator models reflects two separate groups of results On one

hand, there are guidelines for the design of an effective interface, from a human factors points

of view, which include perceptual issues related to the cognitive and information processing of

the human operators (see Subsection 2.4) On the other hand, there are several operator models

related to biomechanical, bandwidth and reaction time issues (see Subsection 2.5)

In this work we survey the main human factors that concur to the effectiveness of a haptic

interface, and we present a series of psychophysical experiments, which can enrich

performance in haptic systems, by measuring the mechanical effectiveness of the interface,

providing a measure of the perception of a human operator In addition the experiments are

useful to represent the complex behavior of the human perception capabilities, and to

propose new ways for enhancing the transparency of the virtual environment, by proposing

suitable force scaling functions In addition, our experience with psychophysics procedures

highlights the needs of non-classical approaches to the problem, but the design of this type

of experiments is not trivial, thus the need of a dedicated software tool or library arises

22

The study of the perceptual capabilities is relevant for the design of virtual reality

simulators, and for the specification of haptics applications that overcomes current users

limitations Their study is important for improving telepresence in tele-manipulation

system There is a growing need to not only continue to improve hardware platforms and

rendering algorithms, but also to evaluate human performance with haptic interfaces

In a kinesthetic interaction, since the user lacks direct tactile information, the probe of the

haptic device has to firmly penetrate the virtual surface before the user, via force feedback,

is able to make use of kinesthetic cues and deduce the features of the body It is necessary to

achieve a compromise between accuracy in tissue discrimination, governed by the

magnitude of force feedback, and the temporal and displacement extent of surface

penetration, which is tightly related to the probability of damaging the tissue

In the state of the art, we review earlier results on human bandwidth and biomechanical

models of an operator involved in manual control, and the methods to identify the range

and threshold of human haptic perception These earlier results point out the lack of

analysis of the interplay between different sensing modes of the human perception system,

and the need to move from experiments testing a single factor to experiments involving

several interplaying factors

These considerations motivated the development of a series of experiments, carried out in

the Altair Laboratory in Verona, combining multiple biomechanical and human factors In

particular, we evaluate those human factors most relevant to surface contact task in low

stiffness environments We address the study of human factors, among over force detection

threshold, reaction time, contact velocity, and minimal penetration depth in a contact task

with pliable surfaces

Psychophysical experiments are conducted using different haptic devices In the first two

experiments we measure the absolute force discrimination threshold of the human hand

when grasping, a haptic device, both for onset and for sinusoidal force stimuli We develop

a set of compensation rules, capable of granting higher overall accuracy in perceiving haptic

virtual environments, by directly involving the results collected in the previous perceptual

experiments The overall goal is accurate rendering of haptic interactions between a tool and

any pliable body

The third experiment combines the just-mentioned factors in a single task of surface

detection, in which the subjects are instructed to halt exploration as quickly as they feel the

force due to the contact with a virtual object We measure the penetration depth that can be

used to reliably perceive the contact surface, and the enhancement due to the proposed

perceptual based scaling method

The Chapter is organized as following In the follow up of this Section we present some

relevant findings on biomechanical properties of the human arms and the models and

guidelines that have been derived In Section III a series of psychophysical experiments are

presented to consider the relevance of perceptual findings for teleoperation systems; in

Section IV we justify the needs for a circular approach between perceptual issues and

teleoperation system An overview of a new library for perceptual experiments is presented

in Section V In Section VI conclusions and future works are pointed out

2 Relevant Findings from Human Factors

In this section, we summarize some of the main findings relevant to the quantitative measures of the human perceptual capabilities We start from the bandwidth measurements

of the human haptic perception Then, we describe some of the haptics parameters analyzed using one-factor psychophysical methodology That is, we review the human capabilities on length, angle, force, and stiffness detection and discrimination; we also consider the perception of the peri-personal space and some measures of human performance in bilateral teleoperation Furthermore, we advance the guidelines that arise from these findings for teleoperation system Finally, we describe the human models, mostly biomechanical, that these tests have produced

2.1 Human Response Characteristics

In manual control, the human perception system does not have one single bandwidth (Burdea, 1996) Human bandwidth is a function of the mode in which he/she is operating Sensation of mechanical vibration of the skin has been reported as high as 10 Khz, but the ability to discriminate one signal from another declines above 320 Hz In general, the human hand can sense compressive stress (about 10 Hz), skin motion stimulus (30 Hz), vibration (50-400 Hz) and skin stretch (low frequency)

With respect to specific aspects of teleoperation, there are a number of important sensory inputs to the human operator: tactile, proprioceptive, and kinesthetic ones Because the bandwidth of the muscular actuation is limited at about 10 Hz, Brooks (1990) argues that a hand controller should be asymmetrical in data flow In fact, a good hand controller must track hand motions up to 5-10Hz, and must be able to feedback to the operator signals as high as 30 Hz for proprioceptive/kinesthetic sensing and possibly up to 320 Hz low-amplitude vibrational information

2.2 Experiments on Thresholds Detection

To refine the analysis of the above bandwidth characteristics, measures related to the Just Noticeable Difference (JND), also called the Weber fraction, are used This measure is the

minimal difference between two intensities of stimulation (I vs I + ∆I) that leads to a change

in the perceptual experience The JND is an increasing function of the base level of input, generally defined as a percentage value by:

JND%  (I   I)  I

In haptics, the perceptual experience is investigated considering several independent factors That is, the perception of length, angle, and parallelism, the perception of force vectors, and surface stiffness, the relevance of the peri-personal space, the numerosity judgments are investigated with classical psychophysical methods Besides, several haptic perceptual illusions and performance in haptic tasks are considered Several examples of measurements methods and relevant findings are the following

The study of the perceptual capabilities is relevant for the design of virtual reality

simulators, and for the specification of haptics applications that overcomes current users

limitations Their study is important for improving telepresence in tele-manipulation

system There is a growing need to not only continue to improve hardware platforms and

rendering algorithms, but also to evaluate human performance with haptic interfaces

In a kinesthetic interaction, since the user lacks direct tactile information, the probe of the

haptic device has to firmly penetrate the virtual surface before the user, via force feedback,

is able to make use of kinesthetic cues and deduce the features of the body It is necessary to

achieve a compromise between accuracy in tissue discrimination, governed by the

magnitude of force feedback, and the temporal and displacement extent of surface

penetration, which is tightly related to the probability of damaging the tissue

In the state of the art, we review earlier results on human bandwidth and biomechanical

models of an operator involved in manual control, and the methods to identify the range

and threshold of human haptic perception These earlier results point out the lack of

analysis of the interplay between different sensing modes of the human perception system,

and the need to move from experiments testing a single factor to experiments involving

several interplaying factors

These considerations motivated the development of a series of experiments, carried out in

the Altair Laboratory in Verona, combining multiple biomechanical and human factors In

particular, we evaluate those human factors most relevant to surface contact task in low

stiffness environments We address the study of human factors, among over force detection

threshold, reaction time, contact velocity, and minimal penetration depth in a contact task

with pliable surfaces

Psychophysical experiments are conducted using different haptic devices In the first two

experiments we measure the absolute force discrimination threshold of the human hand

when grasping, a haptic device, both for onset and for sinusoidal force stimuli We develop

a set of compensation rules, capable of granting higher overall accuracy in perceiving haptic

virtual environments, by directly involving the results collected in the previous perceptual

experiments The overall goal is accurate rendering of haptic interactions between a tool and

any pliable body

The third experiment combines the just-mentioned factors in a single task of surface

detection, in which the subjects are instructed to halt exploration as quickly as they feel the

force due to the contact with a virtual object We measure the penetration depth that can be

used to reliably perceive the contact surface, and the enhancement due to the proposed

perceptual based scaling method

The Chapter is organized as following In the follow up of this Section we present some

relevant findings on biomechanical properties of the human arms and the models and

guidelines that have been derived In Section III a series of psychophysical experiments are

presented to consider the relevance of perceptual findings for teleoperation systems; in

Section IV we justify the needs for a circular approach between perceptual issues and

teleoperation system An overview of a new library for perceptual experiments is presented

in Section V In Section VI conclusions and future works are pointed out

2 Relevant Findings from Human Factors

In this section, we summarize some of the main findings relevant to the quantitative measures of the human perceptual capabilities We start from the bandwidth measurements

of the human haptic perception Then, we describe some of the haptics parameters analyzed using one-factor psychophysical methodology That is, we review the human capabilities on length, angle, force, and stiffness detection and discrimination; we also consider the perception of the peri-personal space and some measures of human performance in bilateral teleoperation Furthermore, we advance the guidelines that arise from these findings for teleoperation system Finally, we describe the human models, mostly biomechanical, that these tests have produced

2.1 Human Response Characteristics

In manual control, the human perception system does not have one single bandwidth (Burdea, 1996) Human bandwidth is a function of the mode in which he/she is operating Sensation of mechanical vibration of the skin has been reported as high as 10 Khz, but the ability to discriminate one signal from another declines above 320 Hz In general, the human hand can sense compressive stress (about 10 Hz), skin motion stimulus (30 Hz), vibration (50-400 Hz) and skin stretch (low frequency)

With respect to specific aspects of teleoperation, there are a number of important sensory inputs to the human operator: tactile, proprioceptive, and kinesthetic ones Because the bandwidth of the muscular actuation is limited at about 10 Hz, Brooks (1990) argues that a hand controller should be asymmetrical in data flow In fact, a good hand controller must track hand motions up to 5-10Hz, and must be able to feedback to the operator signals as high as 30 Hz for proprioceptive/kinesthetic sensing and possibly up to 320 Hz low-amplitude vibrational information

2.2 Experiments on Thresholds Detection

To refine the analysis of the above bandwidth characteristics, measures related to the Just Noticeable Difference (JND), also called the Weber fraction, are used This measure is the

minimal difference between two intensities of stimulation (I vs I + ∆I) that leads to a change

in the perceptual experience The JND is an increasing function of the base level of input, generally defined as a percentage value by:

JND%  (I   I)  I

In haptics, the perceptual experience is investigated considering several independent factors That is, the perception of length, angle, and parallelism, the perception of force vectors, and surface stiffness, the relevance of the peri-personal space, the numerosity judgments are investigated with classical psychophysical methods Besides, several haptic perceptual illusions and performance in haptic tasks are considered Several examples of measurements methods and relevant findings are the following