Corrosion of Ceramic and Composite Materials Part 5 pps

In Ceramic Transactions: Corrosion and Corrosive Degradation of Ceramics; Tressler, R.E., McNallan, M., Eds.; Am... In Ceramic Transactions: Corrosion and Corrosive Degradation of Cerami

9 The spontaneity of a reaction depends upon morethan just the heat of reaction To predict stability,one must consider also the entropy.

10 If the reaction is spontaneous, the change in freeenergy is negative, whereas if the reaction is inequilibrium, the free energy change is equal to zero

11 The real problem with predicting whether a reactionmay take place or not is in selecting the properreaction to evaluate Care must be taken not tooverlook some possible reactions

12 Since the corrosion of ceramics in service may neverreach an equilibrium state, thermodynamic calculationscannot be strictly applied because these calculations arefor systems in equilibrium Many reactions, however,closely approach equilibrium, and thus the condition

of equilibrium should be considered only as a limitation,not as a barrier to interpretation of the data

13 There is a general tendency for oxides to be reduced

at higher temperatures at constant oxygen partialpressures One should be aware that any metal willreduce any oxide above it in the Ellingham diagram

14 Unit activity should be applied only to species in thepure state

15 The most important parameter of corrosion from theengineering viewpoint is the reaction rate

16 Diffusion coefficients depend upon the composition andstructure of the material through which diffusion occurs

17 The rate of the reaction expressed as the rate of

change of concentration, dc/dt, depends upon the

concentration of the reactants

18 The discrepancies between the experimental data and thetheoretical models are often due to nonspherical particles,

a range in sizes, poor contact between reactants,formation of multiple products, and the dependency ofthe diffusion coefficient upon composition

19 Arnold et al [2.141] concluded that dynamicthermogravimetric studies provide insufficient data

for calculation of reaction kinetics, that the data areinfluenced by the experimental procedures, and thatthe results are uncertain.

20 The enthalpy of the reaction is often sufficient to raise

or lower the sample temperature by as much as 1000°C

21 The flow of material by diffusion is proportional to theconcentration gradient and is directed from the region

of high concentration to one of low concentration

22 In isometric crystals, the diffusion coefficient isisotropic, as it is in polycrystalline materials as long

as no preferred orientation exists

23 In most real cases, the diffusion coefficient can varywith time, temperature, composition, or positionalong the sample, or any combination of these

24 Silica-forming reactions are the most desirable forprotection against oxygen diffusion

25 A diffusion flux will set up a thermal gradient in anisothermal system

2.11 ADDITIONAL RELATED READING

Vetter, K.J Electrochemical Kinetics; Academic Press, New York, 1967 Bockris, O.M.; Reddy, A.K.N Modern Electrochemistry; Plenum Press,

New York, 1970; Vol 2.

Shaw, D.J Charged Interfaces Introduction to Colloid and Surface

Chemistry, 3rd Ed.; Butterworths, London, 1980; 148–182.

Chp 7.

Marshall, C.E The Physical Chemistry and Mineralogy of Soils: Soils

in Place; Wiley & Sons: New York, 1977; Vol II.

Reviews in Mineralogy: Mineral-Water Interface Geochemistry;

Hochella, M.F Jr., White A.F., Eds.; Mineral Soc Am., Washington, DC, 1990; Vol 23.

Burns, R.G Mineralogical Applications of Crystal Field Theory;

Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, 1970.

Shackelford J.F., Ed.; Bioceramics, Applications of Ceramic and Glass

Materials in Medicine; Trans Tech Publications: Switzerland, 1999.

Reviews in Mineralogy: Health Effects of Mineral Dusts Guthrie,

G.D Jr.; Mossman B.T., Eds.; Mineral Soc Am., Washington,

DC, 1993; Vol 28.

P.G.Shewmon Diffusion in Solids J.Williams Book Co., Jenks, OK, 1983.

2.12 EXERCISES, QUESTIONS, AND

PROBLEMS

1 Discuss the reaction products that may form and howthey may relate to any interfacial reaction layer formed

2 If a “unified theory of corrosion of ceramics” were

to be developed, what structural characteristic would

be included and why?

3 Look up the vapor pressure of several materials toconfirm the concept that covalent materials vaporizemore quickly than ionic materials due to their highervapor pressure

4 Why does the corrosion rate decrease when a thermalgradient is present?

5 The Arrhenius equation has been used to representthe temperature dependence of corrosion Discusswhen this equation is most appropriate and why

6 Discuss the difference between direct and indirectdissolution What other terms are used to describethese types of dissolution?

7 What is the most predominant parameter in theequation for corrosion rate under free convection?Why is this parameter more predominant than theothers?

8 Discuss the various problems relating to theexperimental verification of the galvanic corrosion

11 Discuss the difference between electrochemical andchemical dissolution What material parameters areimportant in each type?

12 Describe how one tells whether solid-solid corrosionoccurs by bulk, grain boundary, or surface diffusion

REFERENCES

2.1 Phase Diagrams for Ceramists Vol I-XII, Am Ceram Soc.,

Westerville, Ohio.

2.2 Cooper, A.R The use of phase diagrams in dissolution studies.

In Refractory Materials; Alper, A.M., Ed.; Academic Press:

New York, 1970; Vol 6-III, 237–250.

2.3 Kramer, D.P.; Osborne, N.R Effects of atmosphere and dew point on the wetting characteristics of a glass-ceramic on two

nickel-based superalloys In Ceramic Engineering and Science

Proceedings; Smothers, W.J., Ed.; Am Ceram Soc.

Westerville, Ohio, 1983; 4 (9–10), 740–750.

2.4 Noyes, A.A.; Whitney, W.R Rate of solution of solid materials in their own solutions (Ger) Z.Physik Chem.

1897, 23, 689–692.

2.5 Nernst, W Theory of reaction velocities in heterogeneous

systems (Ger) Z.Physik Chem 47, 52–55.

2.6 Berthoud, A Formation of crystal faces J.Chem Phys 10,

624–635, 1912.

2.7 Prandtl, L NACE Tech Memo No 452, 1928.

2.8 Levich, B.G Physicochemical Hydrodynamics; Prentice Hall:

aluminum silicate J Am Ceram Soc 1964, 47 (1), 37–3.

2.11 Samaddar, B.N.; Kingery, W.D.; Cooper, A.R., Jr Dissolution

in ceramic systems: II, Dissolution of alumina, mullite,

anorthite, and silica in a calcium-aluminum-silicate slag J.

Am Ceram Soc 1964, 47 (5), 249–254.

2.12 Oishi, Y.; Copper, A.R., Jr.; Kingery, W.D Dissolution in ceramic systems: III, Boundary layer concentration gradients.

J Am Ceram Soc 1965, 48 (2), 88–95.

2.13 Hrma, P Contribution to the study of the function between the rate of isothermal corrosion and glass composition (Fr)

2.19 Blau, H.H.; Smith, C.D Refractory problems in glass

manufacture Bull Am Ceram Soc 1950, 29 (1), 6–9.

2.20 Woolley, F.E Prediction of refractory corrosion rate from

glass viscosity and composition In UNITECR ’89

Proceedings; Trostel, L.J., Jr., Ed.; Am Ceram Soc.

Westerville, OH, 1989, 768–779.

2.21 Fox, D.S.; Jacobson, N.S.; Smialek, J.L Hot corrosion of

silicon carbide and nitride at 1000°C In Ceramic

Transactions: Corrosion and Corrosive Degradation of Ceramics; Tressler, R.E., McNallan, M., Eds.; Am Ceram.

Soc Westerville, OH, 1990; Vol 10, 227–249.

2.22 Jacobson, N.S.; Stearns, C.A.; Smialek, J.L.Burner rig

corrosion of SiC at 1000°C Adv Ceram Mater 1986, 1 (2),

154–161.

2.23 Cook, L.P.; Bonnell, D.W.; Rathnamma, D.Model for molten

salt corrosion of ceramics In Ceramic Transactions:

Corrosion and Corrosive Degradation of Ceramics; Tressler,

R.E., McNallan, M., Eds.; Am Ceram Soc Westerville, OH, 1990; Vol 10, 251–275.

2.24 Gordon, S.; McBride, B.J Computer Program for Calculation

of Complex Chemical Equilibrium Compositions, Rocket Performance, Incident & Reflected Shocks, and Chapman- Jongnet Detonations NASA SP-273, US Printing Office: Washington, DC, 1971.

2.25 Borom, M.P.; Arendt, R.H.; Cook, N.C Dissolution of oxides

of Y, Al, Mg, and La by molten fluorides Ceram Bull 1981,

60 (11), 1168–1174.

2.26 Le Clerc, P.; Peyches, I Polarization of refractory oxides

immersed in molten glass (Fr) Verres Refract 1953, 7 (6),

In High Temperature and Environmental Effects on Polymeric

Composites, STP 1174; Harris, C.E., Gates, T.S., Eds.; ASTM:

Philadelphia, PA, 1993; 95–113.

2.30 Lindsay, J.G.; Bakker, W.T.; Dewing, E.W Chemical resistance

of refractories to Al and Al-Mg alloys J Am Ceram Soc.

1964, 47 (2), 90–94.

2.31 Busby, T.Hotter refractories increase the risk of downward

drilling Glass Ind 1992, 73 (1), 20, 24.

2.32 Lasaga, A.C Atomic treatment of mineral-water surface

reactions In Reviews in Mineralogy, Mineral-Water Interface

Geochemistry; Hochella, M.F., Jr., White, A.F., Eds.; Mineral.

Soc Am Washington, DC, 1990; Vol 23, 17–85 Chp 2.

2.33 Marshall, C.E The Physical Chemistry and Mineralogy of

Soils: Soils in Place; Wiley & Sons: New York, 1977; Vol II.

2.34 Huang, P.M.Feldspars, olivines, pyroxenes, and amphiboles.

In Minerals in Soil Environments; Dinauer, R.C., Ed.; Soil

Sci Soc Am Madison, WI, 1977, 553–602 Chp 15 2.35 Casey, W.H.; Bunker, B.Leaching of mineral and glass surfaces

during dissolution In Reviews in Mineralogy, Vol 23:

Mineral-Water Interface Geochemistry; Hochella, M.F., Jr.,

White, A.F., Eds.; Mineral Soc Am Washington, DC, 1990; Vol 23, 397–426 Chp 10.

2.36 Borchardt, C.A Montmorillonite and other smectite minerals.

In Minerals in Soil Environments; Dinauer, R.C., Ed.; Soil

Sci Soc Am Madison, WI, 1977, 293–330 Chp 9 2.37 Schnitzer, M.; Kodama, H Reactions of minerals with soil

humic substances In Minerals in Soil Environments; Dinauer,

R.C., Ed.; Soil Sci Soc Am Madison, WI, 1977, 741–770 Chp 21.

2.38 Jennings, H.M Aqueous solubility relationships for two types

of calcium silicate hydrate J Am Ceram Soc 1986, 69 (8),

614–618.

2.39 Marshall, C.E The Physical Chemistry and Mineralogy of

Soils: Soil Materials; Krieger Publishing Company:

Huntington, NY, 1975; Vol I.

2.40 Elmer, T.H Role of acid concentration in leaching of cordierite

and alkali borosilicate glass J.Am.Ceram Soc 1985, 68 (10),

C273-C274.

2.41 Burns, R.G Mineralogical Applications of Crystal Field

Theory; Cambridge University Press: London, 1970; 162–

2.43 Shaw, D.J Charged interfaces Introduction to Colloid and

Surface Chemistry, 3rd Ed.; Butterworths: London, 1980;

148–182 Chp 7.

2.44 Brady, P.V.; House, W.A Surface-controlled dissolution and

growth of minerals In Physics and Chemistry of Mineral

Surfaces; Brady, P.V., Ed.; CRC Press: New York; 1996, 225–

305 Chp 4.

2.45 Parks, G.A The isoelectric points of solid oxides, solid hydroxides, and aqueous hydroxo complex systems Chem.

Rev 1965, 65 (2), 177–198.

2.46 Diggle, J.W Dissolution of oxide phases In Oxides and Oxide

Films; Diggle, J.W., Ed.; Marcel Dekker: New York, 1973;

Vol 2, 281–386 Chp 4.

2.47 Bright, E.; Readey, D.W Dissolution kinetics of TiO2 in

HF-HCl solutions J Am Ceram Soc 1987, 70 (12), 900–906.

2.48 Hulbert, S.F.; Bokros, J.C.; Hench, L.L.; Wilson, J.; Heimke,

G In High Tech Ceramics; Vincenzini, P., Ed.; Elsevier Science

Pub B.V.: Amsterdam, 1987; 180–213.

2.49 Hench, L.L.; Wilson, J Introduction An Introduction to

Bioceramics, Advanced Series in Ceramics World Scientific

Publishing Co Ltd.: Singapore, 1993; Vol 1, 1–24.

2.50 Reviews in Mineralogy, Health Effects of Mineral Dusts.;

Guthrie, G.D., Jr., Mossman, T., Eds.; Mineral Soc Am Washington, DC, 1993; Vol 28.

2.51 Nolan, R.P.; Langer, A.M Limitations of the Stanton

hypothesis In Health Effects of Mineral Dusts; Guthrie, G.D.,

Jr., Mossman, T., Eds.; Reviews in Mineralogy Min Soc.

Am Washington, DC, 1993; Vol 28 Chp 9.

2.52 Correns, C.W Growth and dissolution of crystals under linear pressure Discuss Faraday Soc No 5; 1949, 267–271 2.53 Winkler, E.M Salt action on stone in urban buildings In

Application of Science in Examination of Works of Art; Joung,

W.J., Ed.; Museum of Fine Arts: Boston, 1973.

2.54 Skoulikidis, T.N Atmospheric corrosion of concrete

reinforcements, limestones, and marbles In Atmospheric

Corrosion; Ailor, W.H., Ed.; John Wiley & Sons: New York,

1982; 807–825.

2.55 Amoroso, G.G.; Fassina, V Stone Decay and Conservation;

Elsevier: Amsterdam, 1983; 12.

2.56 Hoffmann, M.R.Fog and cloud water deposition In Materials

Degradation Caused by Acid Rain; ACS Symposium Series

318; Baboian, R., Ed.; Am Chem Soc Washington, DC, 1986; 64–91.

2.57 Mulawa, P.A.; Cadle, S.H.; Lipari, F.; Ang, C.C.; Vandervennet, R.T Urban dew: Composition and influence on dry deposition

rates In Materials Degradation Caused by Acid Rain, ACS

Symposium Series 318; Baboian, R., Ed.; Am Chem Soc Washington, DC, 1986; 61–91.

2.58 Semonin, R.G Wet deposition chemistry In Materials

Degradation Caused by Acid Rain, ACS Symposium Series

318; Baboian, R., Ed.; Am Chem Soc Washington, DC, 1986; 23–41.

2.59 Neal, K.M.; Newnam, S.H.; Pokorney, L.M.; Rybarczyk, J.P Elemental analysis of simulated acid rain stripping of Indiana

limestone, marble, and bronze In Materials Degradation

Caused by Acid Rain, ACS Symposium Series 318; Baboian,

R., Ed.; Am Chem Soc Washington, DC, 1986; 285–300 2.60 Reddy, M.M.; Sherwood, S.I.; Doe, B.R.Limestone and marble dissolution by acid rain: An onsite weathering

experiment In Materials Degradation Caused by Acid Rain,

ACS Symposium Series 318; Baboian, R., Ed.; Am Chem Soc Washington, DC, 1986; 226–238.

2.61 Kobussen, A.G Corrosion in condensing gas-fired central

heating boilers In Dewpoint Corrosion; Holmes, D.R., Ed.;

Ellis Horwood Ltd.: Chichester, UK, 1985; 179–190.

2.62 Penkett, S.A Chemical changes in the air SCI Sulfur

Symposium; May 1979; 109–122.

2.63 Cox, W.M.; Farrell, D.M; Dawson, J.L.Corrosion monitoring

for process control In Dewpoint Corrosion; Holmes, D.R.,

Ed.; Ellis Horwood Ltd.: Chichester, UK, 1985; 191–217 2.64 Cussler, E.L.; Featherstone, J.D.B Demineralization of porous

solids Science Aug 1981, 213, 1018–1019.

2.65 Yoshimura, M.; Hiuga, T.; Somiya, S Dissolution & reaction

of yttria-stabilized zirconia single crystals in hydrothermal

solutions J Am Ceram Soc 1986, 69 (7), 583–584.

2.66 Sato, T.; Ohtaki, S.; Shimada, M Transformation of yttria partially stabilized zirconia by low temperature annealing in

air J.Mater Sci 1985, 20 (4), 1466–1470.

2.67 Janowski, K.R.; Rossi, R.C Mechanical degradation of MgO

by water vapor J Am Ceram Soc 1968, 51 (8), 453–455 2.68 White, W.B Glass structure and glass durability In Materials

Stability and Environmental Degradation, Materials Research Society Symposium Proceedings; Barkatt, A., Verink, E.D.,

Jr., Smith, L.R., Eds.; Mater Res Soc Pittsburgh, PA, 1988; Vol 125, 109–114.

2.69 Wald, J.W.; Messier, D.R.; DeGuire, E.J Leaching behavior of

Si-Y-Al-O-N glasses Int J High Technol Ceram 1986, 2

(1), 65–72.

2.70 Douglas, R.W.; El-Shamy, T.M.M Reaction of glass with

aqueous solutions J Am Ceram Soc 1967, 50 (1), 1–8.

2.71 Jantzen, C.M Thermodynamic approach to glass corrosion.

In Corrosion of Glass, Ceramics, & Ceramic

Superconductors; Clark, D.E., Zoitos, B.K., Eds.; Noyes

Publications: Park Ridge, NJ, 1992; 153–217 Chp 6 2.72 Newton, R.G.; Paul, A A new approach to predicting the durability of glasses from their chemical compositions Glass

Technol 1980, 21 (6), 307–309.

2.73 Pourbaix, M Atlas of Electrochemical Equilibria in Aqueous

Solution; NACE: Houston, TX, 1974 Eng Trans by

J.A.Franklin.

2.74 Garrels, R.M.; Christ, C.L Solutions, Minerals, and

Equilibria; Harper and Row: New York, 1965.

2.75 Hench, L.L.; Clark, D.E Physical chemistry of glass surfaces.

J Non-Cryst Solids 1978, 28, 83–105.

2.76 McVay, G.L.; Peterson, L.R Effect of gamma radiation on

glass leaching J Am Ceram Soc 1981, 64 (3), 154–158.

2.77 Hogenson, D.K.; Healy, J.H Mathematical treatment of

glass corrosion data J.Am Ceram Soc 1962, 45 (4), 178–

181.

2.78 Budd, S.M The mechanism of chemical reaction between silicate glass and attacking agents; Part 1 Electrophilic and nucleophilic mechanism of attack Phys Chem Glasses 1961,

2 (4), 111–114.

2.79 Budd, S.M.; Frackiewicz, J The mechanism of chemical reaction between silicate glass and attacking agents; Part 2.

Chemical equilibria at glass-solution interfaces Phys Chem.

Glasses 1961, 2 (4), 115–118.

2.80 Simmons, C.J.; Simmons, J.H Chemical durability of fluoride Glasses: I, Reaction of fluorozirconate glasses with water.

J.Am Ceram Soc 1986, 69 (9), 661–669.

2.81 Thomas, W.F An investigation of the factors likely to affect the strength and properties of glass fibers Phys Chem Glasses

1960, 1 (1), 4–18.

2.82 Wojnarovits, I Behavior of glass fibers in strong acidic and

alkaline media J Am Ceram Soc 1983, 66 (12), 896–898.

2.83 Hench, L.L Bioactive glasses help heal, repair and build

human tissue Glass Res 2002–2003, 12 (1–2), 18.

2.84 White, J.E.; Day, D.E Rare earth aluminosilicate glasses for

in vivo radiation delivery In Rare Elements in Glasses; Key

Engineering Materials; Shelby, J.E., Ed.; Trans Tech Pub., Switzerland, 1994; Vols 94–95, 181–208.

2.85 Oda, K.; Yoshio, T Properties of Y2O3-Al2O3-SiO2 glasses as

a model system of grain boundary phase of Si3N4 ceramics,

Part 2: Leaching characteristics J.Ceram Soc Jpn 1991, 99

(11), 1150–1152.

2.86 Erbe, E.M.; Day, D.E In Proceedings: Science & Tech of

New Glasses; Sakka, S., Soga, N., Eds.; Ceram Soc Japan:

Tokyo, 1991.

2.87 Conzone, C.D.; Brown, R.F.; Day, D.E.; Ehrhardt, G.J In

vitro and in vivo dissolution behavior of a dysprosium lithium

borate glass designed for the radiation synovectomy treatment

of rheumatoid arthritis J.Biomed Mater Res 2002, 60 (2),

260–268.

2.88 Day, D.E Reactions of bioactive borate glasses with

physiological liquids Glass Res 2002–2003, 12 (1–2),

21–22.

2.89 Bauer, J.F Corrosion and surface effects of glass fiber in

biological fluids Glass Res 2000, 9 (2), 4–5.

2.90 Kubaschewski, O.; Hopkins, B.E Oxidation of Metals and

Alloys; Butterworths: London, 1962.

2.91 Readey, D.W Gaseous corrosion of ceramics In Ceramic

Transactions, Corrosion and Corrosive Degradation of

Ceramics; Tressler, R.E., McNallan, M., Eds.; Am Ceram.

Soc., Westerville, OH, 1990; Vol 10, 53–80.

2.92 Yokokawa, H.; Kawada, T.; Dokiya, M Construction of chemical potential diagrams for metal-metal-nonmetal systems: Applications to the decomposition of double oxides.

J Am Ceram Soc 1989, 72 (11), 2104–2110.

2.93 Grimley, R.T.; Burns, R.P.; Inghram, M.G Thermodynamics

of vaporization of Cr2O3: Dissociation energies of CrO, CrO2and CrO3 J Chem Phys 1961, 34 (2), 664–667.

2.94 Graham, H.C.; Davis, H.H Oxidation/vaporization kinetics

of Cr2O3 J Am Ceram Soc 1971, 54 (2), 89–93.

2.95 Pilling, N.B.; Bedworth, R.E The oxidation of metals at high

temperature J Inst Met 1923, 29, 529–591.

2.96 Jorgensen, P.J.; Wadsworth, M.E.; Cutler, I.B Effects of oxygen partial pressure on the oxidation of silicon carbide J Am.

Ceram Soc 1960, 43 (4), 209–212.

2.97 Engell, H.J.; Hauffe, K Influence of adsorption phenomena

on oxidation of metals at high temperatures Metall 1952, 6,

285–291.

2.98 Langmuir, I Evaporation of small spheres Phys Rev 1918,

12 (5), 368–370.

2.99 Tichane, R.M.; Carrier, G.B The microstructure of a

soda-lime glass surface J Am Ceram Soc 1961, 44 (12),

606–610.

2.100 Simpson, H.E Study of surface structure of glass as related

to its durability J Am Ceram Soc 1958, 41 (2), 43–9.

2.101 Tichane, R.M Initial stages of the weathering process on a

soda-lime glass surface Glass Technol 1966, 7 (1), 26–29.

2.102 Burggraaf, A.J.; van Velzen, H.C Glasses resistant to sodium vapor at temperatures to 700°C J Am Ceram Soc 1969,

52 (5), 238–242.

2.103 Johnston, W.D.; Chelko, A.J Reduction of ions in glass by

hydrogen J Am Ceram Soc 1970, 53 (6), 295–301.

2.104 Gibson, A.S.; LaFemina, J.P Structure of mineral surfaces In

Physics and Chemistry of Mineral Surfaces; Brady, P.V., Ed.;

CRC Press: New York, 1996; 1–62.

2.105 Hochella, M.F Jr.; White, A.F Mineral-Water Interface

Geochemistry; Rev Mineral; 23 pp.

2.106 Washburn, E.W Note on a method of determining the distribution of pore sizes in a porous material Proc Natl Acad Sci 1921, 7, 115–116.

2.107 Smithwick, R.W.; Fuller, E.L A generalized analysis of hysteresis in mercury porosimetry Powder Technol 1984,

38, 165–173.

2.108 Conner, W.C Jr.; Blanco, C; Coyne, K.; Neil, J.; Mendioroz, S.; Pajares, J Measurement of morphology of high surface area solids: Inferring pore shape characteristics In

Characterization of Porous Solids; Unger, K.K., et al., Ed.;

Elsevier Science Publishers: Amsterdam, 1988; 273–281 2.109 Moscou, L.; Lub, S Practical use of mercury porosimetry

in the study of porous solids Powder Technol 1981, 29,

45–52.

2.110 Lapidus, G.R.; Lane, A.M.; Ng, K.M.; Conner, W.C Interpretation of mercury porosimetry data using a pore-throat

network model Chem Eng Commun 1985, 38, 33–56.

2.111 Conner, W.C.; Lane, A.M Measurement of the morphology

of high surface area solids: Effect of network structure on

the simulation of porosimetry J.Catal 1984, 89, 217–225.

2.112 Van Brakel, J.; Modry, S.; Svata, M Mercury porosimetry:

State of the art Powder Technol 1981, 29, 1–12.

2.113 Rootare, H.M.; Nyce, A.C The use of porosimetry in the measurement of pore size distribution in porous materials.

Int J Powder Metall 1971, 7(1), 3–11.

2.114 Smith, C.S.Grains, phases, and interpretation of

microstructure Trans AIME 1948, 175 (1), 15–51 2.115 White, J Magnesia-based refractories In High Temperature

Oxides, Part 1: Magnesia, Lime and Chrome Refractories.

Alper, A.M., Ed.; Refractory Materials: A Series of

Monographs; Margrave, J.L., Ed.; Academic Press: New York,

1970; Vol 5–1, 77–141.

2.116 Inomata, Y Oxidation resistant Si-impregnated surface layer on reaction sintered articles Yogyo Kyokaishi 1975,

83 (1), 1–3.

2.117 Messier, D.R Use of Ti to enhance wetting of reaction-bonded

Si3N4 by Si In Ceramic Engineering and Science Proceedings;

Smothers, W.J., Ed.; Am Ceram Soc Westerville, OH, 1980,

1 (7–8B), 624–633.

2.118 Puyane, R.; Trojer, F Refractory wear and wettability by glass

at high temperatures Glass 1980, 57 (12), 5–8.

2.119 Carre, A.; Roger, F.; Varinot, C Study of acid/base properties

of oxide, oxide glass, and glass-ceramic surfaces J.Colloid

Interface Sci 1992, 154 (1), 174–183.

2.120 Gaskell, D.R Introduction to Metallurgical Thermodynamics,

2nd Ed.; McGraw-Hill: New York, 1981.

2.121 Swalin, R.A Thermodynamics of Solids Wiley & Sons Inc.:

Reference Data, Vol 14, Suppl No 1, JANAF

Thermochemical Tables, 3rd Ed., Parts I & II, Am Chem.

Soc & Am Inst Phys., 1985.

2.124 Kubaschewski, O.; Evans, E.L.; Alcock, C.B Metallurgical

Thermodynamics Pergamon Press: Oxford, 1967.

2.125 Krupka, K.M.; Hemingway, B.S.; Robie, R.A.; Kerrick, D.M High temperature heat capacities and derived thermodynamic properties of anthophyllite, diopside, dolomite, enstatite, bronzite, talc, tremolite, and wollastonite Am Mineral 1985,

70, 261–271.

2.126 Eriksson, G Thermodynamic studies of high temperature equilibria XII SOLGASMIX, a computer program for calculation of equilibrium compositions in multiphase

systems Chem Scr 1975, 8, 100–103.

2.127 Latimer, W.M The Oxidation States of the Elements and

Their Potentials in Aqueous Solutions; Prentice-Hall:

Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1952.

2.128 Brenner, A The Gibbs-Helmoltz equation and the EMF of galvanic cells, II Precision of its application to concentration cells J Electrochem Soc 1975, 122 (12), 1609–1615.

2.129 Livey, D.T.; Murray, P The stability of refractory materials In

Physicochemical Measurements at High Temperatures;

Bockris, J O’M., et al., Ed.; Butterworths Scientific Publications: London, 1959; 87–116.

2.130 Luthra, K.L Chemical interactions in ceramic and

carbon-carbon composites In Materials Research Society

Symposium Proceedings: Materials Stability and Environmental Degradation; Barkatt, A Verink, E.D., Jr.,

Smith, L.R., Eds.; Mat Res Soc.: Pittsburgh, PA, 1988; Vol.

125, 53–60.

2.131 Ellingham, H.J.T Reducibility of oxides and sulfides in

metallurgical processes J Soc Chem Ind 1944, 63, 125.

2.132 Richardson, F.D.; Jeffes, J.H.E The thermodynamics of substances of interest in iron and steel making from 0°C to

2400°C; I Oxides J Iron Steel Inst 1948, 160, 261 2.133 Darken, L.S.; Gurry, R.W Physical Chemistry of Metals;

McGraw-Hill: New York, 1953; 348–349.

2.134 Lou, V.L.K.; Mitchell, T.E.; Heuer, A.H Review—Graphical displays of the thermodynamics of high-temperature gas- solid reactions and their application to oxidation of metals

and evaporation of oxides J Am Ceram Soc 1985, 68

(2), 49–58.

2.135 Quets, J.M.; Dresher, W.H Thermochemistry of the hot

corrosion of superalloys J Mater 1969, 4 (3), 583–599 2.136 Barret, P., Ed.; Reaction Kinetics in Heterogeneous Chemical

Systems; Elsevier: Amsterdam, 1975.

2.137 Sharp, J.H.; Brindley, G.W.; Narahari Achar, B.N Numerical data for some commonly used solid state reaction equations.

J Am Ceram Soc 1966, 49 (7), 379–382.

2.138 Frade, J.R.; Cable, M Reexamination of the basic theoretical model for the kinetics of solid-state reactions J Am Ceram.

Soc 1992, 75 (7), 1949–1957.

2.139 Freeman, E.S.; Carroll, B The application of thermoanalytical techniques to reaction kinetics The thermogravimetric evaluation of the kinetics of the decomposition of calcium

oxalate monohydrate J Phys Chem 1958, 62 (4), 394–397.

2.140 Sestak, J Errors of kinetic data obtained from