NEUROVASCULAR MEDICINE - Pursuing Cellular Longevity for Healthy Aging Part 7 ppsx

Table 14.1 Regulatory T-cell PopulationsNatural Tregs Generated in the thymus, predominantly located in lymphoid organs, migrate toward sites of infl ammation CD4, CD25, Foxp3, CD45RBlo

Table 14.1 Regulatory T-cell Populations

Natural Tregs Generated in the

thymus, predominantly located in lymphoid organs, migrate toward sites of infl ammation

CD4, CD25, Foxp3, CD45RBlow, CD62L, CTLA-4 or CD152, GITR, ±CD127,

±CD38

Antigen specifi c, secrete IL-10 and/or TGF- β, suppressive activity, inhibit effector T-cell functions, contact dependent, require CD80 and CD86 ligands on target T cells

Hsieh et al 2004; Fontenot, Rudensky 2005; Ziegler 2006; Scalzo et al 2006

CD4, CD25, CD45RO

Target APC and T cells;

prevent autoimmune colitis and infl ammation of the digestive track mainly the gut, and are mainly involved in oral tolerance

Groux et al 1997; Graca

et al 2002; Chen et al 2003; Apostolou et al 2004; Cottrez, Groux 2004

Tr1 From naive CD4 T cells

in the presence of IL-10 and IFN- α

Secrete mainly IL-10, but also TGF- β, IL-5, and IFN-γ;

do not secrete IL-2 or IL-4;

inhibit Th1 and Th2 cell responses, regulate both naive and memory T cells, inhibit T-cell-mediated responses to pathogens and alloantigens and cancer; target APC

Groux et al 1997; Foussat et al 2003; Roncarolo et al 2003; Scalzo et al 2006

Th3 Through oral antigen

administration

Produce mainly TGF- β but also IL-10; suppress APC and T-cells, mainly Th2

Weiner 1997; Scalzo et al 2006

T helper 1 cells

(Th1)

Generated in the periphery from Th0 or Th2 cells mainly in the presence of IL-12

CD4, CD25, STAT-4, T-bet

Produce IL-2, IFN- γ, lymphotoxin- α; target Th2 cells; activate phagocytosis, opsonization, and comple- ment protection against intracellular antigens; respon- sible for autoimmunity and infl ammation

Mosmann, Coffman 1989; Boom

et al 1990; Le Gros et al 1990; Romagnani 1991, 1994, 1997; Hsieh et al 1993

T helper 2 cells

(Th2)

Generated in the periphery from Th0 cells or Th1 mainly in the presence of IL-4

CD4, CD25, STAT-6, GATA-3, c-maf

Secrete IL-4, IL-5, IL-9, IL-13;

target Th1 cells; induce B-cell function and eosinophil acti- vation; participate in allergic disorders

Abbas et al 1996; Annunziato

et al 2001; Smits et al 2001; Ghoreschi et al 2003; Szabo

et al 2003; Skapenko et al 2004; Scalzo et al 2006

T helper 17

cells (Th17)

Generated in the ery from naive T cells mainly in the absence

periph-of IFN- γ, IL-4, and IL-6 and in the presence of IL- β or TNF-α; IL-23 promotes their survival

CD4 Secrete IL-17A, F, IL-6, TNF- α,

IL-22; protect against lular microbes, responsible for autoimmune disorders, infl ammation, downregulate Treg function

extracel-Ye et al 2001; Murphy et al 2003; Nakae et al 2003; Langrish

et al 2005; Bettelli et al 2006; Harrington et al 2006; Iwakura, Ishigame 2006; Liang et al 2006; Reinhardt et al 2006; Tato, O’Shea 2006; Annunziato

et al 2007 CD8 regulatory

T cells

Generated in the thymus and also in the periph- ery (?), predominantly located in lymphoid organs, migrate toward sites of infl ammation

CD8, Foxp3, CD28 − , γδ subgroup

Induction of tolerance; inhibit

T cells; antigen-specifi c (MHC class Ib APC-dependent) sub- group and IFN- γ-secreting, nonantigen-specifi c subgroup;

CD8gdT cells secrete IFN- γ and IL-4 and inhibit APC and

Boyson et al 2002; Scalzo et al 2006; Godfrey, Berzins 2007; Novak et al 2007; Nowak, Stein-Streilein 2007 APC, antigen presenting cell; DC, dendritic cell; IL, interleukin; IFN, interferon; TGF, transforming growth factor; (?), not clear.

Chapter 14: Immunomodulation: Role of T Regulatory Cells 349

suppressive potential that are not able to accumulate and proliferate in the lymph nodes cannot suppress

or prevent disease (Tang, Henriksen, Bi et al 2004; Tarbell, Yamazaki, Olson et al 2004; Jaeckel, von

Boehmer, Manns 2005) Therefore, it seems that in vivo homing and proliferation of Tregs in the lymph nodes are important for these cells to exert their sup-pressive activity in the early phase of the immune response The migration of Tregs toward sites of infl ammation is essential for their suppression of

T effector cells, and it has been shown that activated Tregs change their homing receptors to accomplish this task (Huehn, Siegmund, Lehmann et al 2004)

It has also been demonstrated that natural Tregs are predominantly located in lymphoid organs, whereas another group of Tregs, Tr1 cells, tends to migrate toward sites of infl ammation (Graca, Cobbold, Waldmann 2002; Cottrez, Groux 2004)

Antigen exposure is very important for Tregs to initiate suppressive activity Interestingly, in vitro stud-ies have also shown that activated Tregs can inhibit the immune response, regardless of the antigen that causes it (Thornton, Shevach 2000) Furthermore, there is strong evidence that Foxp3-transduced CD4+

T cells specifi c for the OVA antigen are able to tect OVA-specifi c TCR-transgenic mice from GVHD

pro-(Albert, Liu, Anasetti et al 2005) There seems to be

antigen specifi city during the activation phase and a bystander suppression phenomenon in the effector suppressor phase

Although the exact suppression mechanism

remains largely unknown, in vitro and in vivo research

has shown a relative contribution of both cell-to-cell contact and soluble cytokine mechanisms Accessory molecules such as CTLA-4 and its ligands CD80, CD86, and GITR, which are expressed on the surface

of Tregs, have been implicated (Takahashi, Kuniyasu,

Toda et al 1998; Takahashi, Tagami, Yamazaki et al

2000; Suri-Payer, Cantor 2001; Piccirillo, Letterio, Thornton et al 2002; Shimizu, Yamazaki, Takahashi

et al 2002) In the GVHD murine model, CD4+CD25+

or CD4+CD25– T cells were unable to inhibit the opment of disease caused by effector T cells defi cient

devel-in CD80 or CD86 ligands, devel-indicatdevel-ing that suppression

of T-cell activation functions through CD80 and CD86 molecules on activated T cells and CTLA-4 on Tregs

(Paust, Lu, McCarty et al 2004) Furthermore,

stud-ies have implicated cell surface TGF-β1 in the nosuppressive effect of Tregs (Nakamura, Kitani, Strober 2001)

immu-Inducible or Adaptive Tregs

Another important group of regulatory T cells includes the T cells that can be induced by naive T cells in the periphery under low doses of antigenic stimulation or

has also been detected in activated CD4+CD25+ cells

with no regulatory action (Seidel, Ernst, Printz et al

2006)

CD127 (IL-7 receptor α chain) has been shown to

have a reverse relationship with the suppressive

func-tion of CD4+ Foxp3 T cells and is downregulated in

human T cells after activation Cells separated on the

basis of CD4 and CD127 expression were shown to be

anergic and to possess suppressive action compared to

CD4+CD25+ T cells (Huster, Busch, Schiemann et al

2004; Fuller, Hildeman, Sabbaj et al 2005; Boettler,

Panther, Bengsch et al 2006; Liu et al 2006a; Seddiki,

Santner-Nanan, Martinson et al 2006) Natural Tregs

develop in the thymus after positive selection on

cor-tical medullary epithelial cells (Bensinger, Bandeira,

Jordan et al 2001) The selection of CD4+CD25+

thy-mocytes requires an intermediate affi nity of TCRs for

self-peptides, since thymocytes with low-affi nity TCRs

do not yet undergo selection (Jordan, Boesteanu,

Reed et al 2001) However, a defect in this selection

process contributes to the enrichment of

autoreac-tive Tregs, as these precursors seem to be resistant

to clonal deletion (van Santen, Benoist, Mathis et al

2004; Romagnoli, Hudrisier, van Meerwijk 2005)

Nevertheless, this enrichment could be due to both

positive selection by self-ligands and the absence of

negative selection

Antigen specifi city is required for natural Treg

activation Studies with TCR-transgenic mice specifi c

for ovalbumin (OVA) have shown that protection

from graft-versus-host-disease (GVHD) is realized

only when the host T cells used for immunization

rec-ognize the antigen (Albert, Liu, Anasetti et al 2005)

Tregs also recognize pathogen antigens Tregs from

mice infected with Schistosoma or Leishmania produce

IL-10 in response to the same parasite antigens but

not other pathogens (Belkaid, Piccirillo, Mendez et al

2002; Hesse, Piccirillo, Belkaid et al 2004) In human

studies of asymptomatic human immunodefi ciency

virus–infected individuals, CD4+CD25+ peripheral

blood Tregs showed immunosuppressive properties

in an antigen-specifi c way (Kinter, Hennessey, Bell

et al 2004) The same phenomenon was observed in

Helicobacter pylori–infected patients (Raghavan,

Suri-Payer, Holmgren 2004)

The in vivo suppressive activity of Tregs requires

close contact with T effectors with certain antigen

specifi city Tregs seem to require strong

localiza-tion to parts of the body where antigenic stimulalocaliza-tion

occurs, like draining lymph nodes Furthermore, it

has been shown that suppression of activated T cells

occurs when the ratio of Tregs to T effectors is one

third Since the percentage of Tregs is only 2 to 3% of

total T cells, selective homing, as well as expansion, is

very important for a suppressive effect to be achieved

It has been shown in animal models that cells with

Furthermore, desmoglein 3–specifi c Tr1 cell tion requires the presence of IL-2; these cells function mainly through IL-10 and TGF-β secretion, indicating their critical involvement in tolerance homeostasis in response to the specifi c antigen (Beissert, Schwarz, Schwarz 2006).

induc-TH3 It has been shown in an experimental allergic/autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) model that the oral delivery of myelin basic protein (MBP) antigen generates a T-cell population that inhibits the infl am-matory reaction This population was identifi ed as the Th3 cell subgroup of T regulatory cells and produces high amounts of TGF-β and moderate amounts of IL-10, and has the ability to inhibit the development

of autoimmunity (Weiner 1997) Anti-TGF-β nal antibodies inhibit the suppressive effects of Th3 cells, indicating the importance of TGF-β in immu-nosuppression through Th3 cells Th3 cells have been shown to inhibit the proliferation and cytokine pro-duction of MBP-specifi c Th1 clones through TGF-β This suppression is antigen nonspecifi c and is medi-ated through TGF-β, indicating a bystander suppres-sion–based mechanism (Weiner 1997) Furthermore, suppression of Th2, as well as Th2 clones, by Th3 cells has also been demonstrated, suggesting a unique role for this orally induced Treg population

monoclo-Th1 and Th2 Regulation

For the last 20 years, the classical concept of the immune response included two main branches of the T-cell group, Th1 and Th2 cells, based mainly on the type of cytokines produced Th1 cells were found

to produce IL-2, IFN-γ, and lymphotoxin-α, and Th2 cells were found to produce IL-4, IL-5, IL-9, and IL-13 (Mosmann, Coffman 1989; Romagnani 1991) These two cell groups also differ in the transcription factors used for their regulation Th1 cells are regulated by transcription factors that include STAT-4 and T-bet, whereas Th2 development is regulated by factors such as STAT-6, GATA-3, and c-maf, which are also antagonistic to the transcription factors belonging to

the Th1 branch (Hsieh, Macatonia, Tripp et al 1993; Szabo, Sullivan, Peng et al 2003) Th1 transcription

factors STAT-4 and T-bet are usually activated in the presence of IL-12 or IFN-γ IL-12 is produced by den-dritic cells and IFN-γ is produced by NK cells when activation by highly conserved microbial products occurs Th2 transcription factors are activated when IL-4, instead of IL-12 or IFN-γ, is present (Le Gros,

Ben-Sasson, Seder et al 1990) Cytokines produced

by Th1 cells activate phagocytosis, opsonization, and complement protection against intracellular parasites, whereas Th2 cytokines induce mainly B-cell function and eosinophil activation (Romagnani 1994; Abbas,

in the presence of immunosuppressive cytokines like

TGF-β (Chen, Jin, Hardegen et al 2003; Apostolou

von Boehmer 2004; von Boehmer 2005) There are

two subgroups of inducible Tregs, Tr1 and Th3, and

they cannot be separated on the basis of their

pheno-type In addition, they are better characterized on the

basis of the cytokines they use as mediators Tr1 and

Th3 cells are similar—Tr1 cells are characterized by

their large amount of IL-10 secretion and their role

in preventing autoimmune colitis (Groux, O’Garra,

Bigler et al 1997) and Th3 cells play an important

role in oral tolerance through the secretion of TGF-β

(Chen, Kuchroo, Inobe et al 1994) None of these

sub-groups expresses Foxp3, and the suppression effect

on Th1 and Th2 cells mediated by TGF-β1 and IL-10

is MHC unrestricted and antigen nonspecifi c (Vieira,

Christensen, Minaee et al 2004).

TR1 Tr1 cells were fi rst identifi ed in a murine model

in which CD4+ transgenic T cells generated Tr1 cells

after repetitive stimulation by their cognate peptide

in the presence of IL-10 (Groux O’Garra, Bigler et al

1997) Tr1 cells are characterized by the secretion

of large amounts of IL-10 and moderate amounts of

TGF-β, IL-5, and interferon γ (IFN-γ) These cells

do not secrete IL-2 or IL-4 (Groux O’Garra, Bigler

et al 1997) Although they show poor proliferative

ability after polyclonal or antigen-specifi c

stimula-tion, they can inhibit T-cell responses in vitro and in

vivo through mechanisms similar to bystander

sup-pression, as has been shown in the case of colitis Tr1

cells are capable of regulating the activation of naive

and memory T cells and also inhibit T-cell–mediated

responses to pathogens and alloantigens, as well as

cancer (Foussat, Cottrez, Brun et al 2003; Roncarolo,

Gregori, Levings 2003) Neutralizing IL-10

anti-bodies blocks most of the immunosuppressive effects

of Tr1, demonstrating the importance of IL-10 in Tr1’s

immunosuppressive function (Roncarolo, Bacchetta,

Bordignon et al 2001) It has also been shown that

complement can play a role in Tr1 induction Resting

CD4+ T cells treated with anti-CD3 and anti-CD46

antibodies in the presence of IL-2 resulted in the

induction of Tr1 cells CD46 is an important

comple-ment regulator that induces Tr1 through an

endoge-nous receptor–mediated event (Kemper, Chan, Green

et al 2003) Tr1 cells have been shown to be important

in controlling autoimmunity In the case of pemphigus

vulgaris, desmoglein 3–specifi c Tr1 cells maintained

and restored natural tolerance against the pemphigus

vulgaris antigen (Veldman, Hohne, Dieckmann et al

2004) Healthy individuals carrying the

pemphigus-associated human leukocyte antigen (HLA) class II

allele DRB1*0402 and DQB1*0503 were found to have

desmoglein 3–responsive Tr1 cells that secreted IL-10

although these cells were rarely found in patients

Chapter 14: Immunomodulation: Role of T Regulatory Cells 351

by lack of T-bet (Harrington, Mangan, Weaver 2006) Furthermore, TGF-β secreted from Tregs in the pres-ence of IL-6 was responsible for the differentiation of Th17 cells, and IL-1β or TNF-α addition signifi cantly increased the percentage of nạve T cells that differ-entiated into Th17 The presence of IL-23 seems to be important for the maintenance and survival of Th17 cells, although it was not necessary for their genera-tion (Reinhardt, Kang, Liang et al 2006)

Th17 cells are induced through the production

of IL-23 from dendritic cells and are involved in the pathogenesis of infl ammatory and autoimmune dis-eases such as rheumatoid arthritis, systemic lupus erythematosus, and EAE (Murphy, Langrish, Chen

et al 2003; Nakae, Nambu, Sudo et al 2003; Langrish, Chen, Blumenschein et al 2005) Th17 cells produce

IL-17 and IL-22, which is a member of the IL-10 family

(Ye, Rodriguez, Kanaly et al 2001; Tato, O’Shea 2006; Liang, Tan, Luxenberg et al 2006) These cytokines

induce fi broblasts and endothelial and epithelial cells, as well as macrophages, to produce chemok-ines that result in the recruitment of polymorphonu-clear leukocytes and the induction of infl ammation

(Ye, Rodriguez, Kanaly et al 2001) Thus, IL-17 may

play a protective role against extracellular bacteria, although, under certain circumstances, infl ammation

is induced by macrophages through the production

of IL-1, IL-6, and metalloproteinases (Cua, Sherlock,

Chen et al 2003; Park, Li, Yang et al 2005) Th17 cells

do not express Th1 or Th2 transcription factors such

as T-bet or GATA-3 (Dong 2006) Therefore, clarifi tion of the pathogenetic role of Th17 cells may provide more information on the role of other Th cell groups

ca-in protectca-ing agaca-inst different pathogens Murca-ine model experiments have suggested that Th17 cells are involved in autoimmune phenomena like infl amma-tory bowel disease and EAE Th17 originate through the production of IL-23 by dendritic cells, which has been shown to be due to the combined activity of IL-6 and TGF-β TGF-β is also involved in the generation of Tregs Furthermore, there is evidence for a functional antagonism between Th17 and Foxp3 Tregs (Bettelli,

Carrier, Gao et al 2006) Since the production of

Th17 cells is inhibited by IL-6, IL-4, and IFN-γ, there must be a regulatory point that separates the genera-tion of Th17 cells, which are pathogenic and induce autoimmunity, from Foxp3 Tregs, which inhibit auto-immunity (Iwakura, Ishigame 2006)

CD8+ and NK T cells (or NKT cells)

CD8+ T cells have also been shown to possess suppressive activity; this also results in the inhibition

immuno-of EAE (Jiang, Zhang, Pernis 1992) by inhibiting Th1 encephalitogenic cells These CD8+ T cells exert their suppressive activity only after being primed during

Murphy, Sher et al 1996) Currently, the Th1 branch

is considered to be mainly responsible for phenomena

such as autoimmunity, whereas the Th2 branch

par-ticipates in allergic disorders (Romagnani 1997) A

process known as immune deviation refl ects the mutual

regulation between the Th1 and Th2 responses The

presence of IL-12, IL-18, IFN-γ, and IFN-α induces

the development of Th1 cells while at the same time

inhibiting the development of Th2 cells Microbial

products induce the secretion of IL-12 and IFNs,

leading Th2 responses toward a Th0 or Th1 type

of response (Maggi, Parronchi, Manetti et al 1992;

Parronchi, De Carli, Manetti et al 1992; Manetti,

Parronchi, Giudizi et al 1993; Kips, Brusselle, Joos

et al 1996; Lack, Bradley, Hamelmann et al 1996; Li,

Chopra, Chou et al 1996) The presence of IL-12 is

important in the polarization of immune responses,

since it can shift even established Th2 responses

toward a Th1 response (Annunziato, Cosmi, Manetti

et al 2001; Smits, van Rietschoten, Hilkens et al 2001)

On the other hand, the presence of IL-4 inhibits

Th1-cell type development and can in turn shift established

Th1 responses toward a Th2 phenotype, although the

opposite phenomenon can occur just as easily (Boom,

Liebster, Abbas et al 1990; Ghoreschi, Thomas, Breit

et al 2003; Skapenko, Niedobitek, Kalden et al 2004)

Furthermore, some chemokines can interact with Th1

or Th2 cells and shift their balance in either

direc-tion, thus inducing the production of certain

cytok-ines (Karpus, Lujacs, Kennedy et al 1997).

Th17: Treg Antagonists?

Beyond the initially polarized forms of Th effector

T cells (Th1 and Th2, as well as Th0 CD4+ cells),

another subset has been identifi ed This subset, called

Th17, is distinct from Th1, Th2, and Th0 cells Th17

cells secrete IL-17A, IL-17F, IL-6, and tumor necrosis

factor α (TNF-α.) cytokines

Th17 cells are protective against extracellular

microbes but also seem to be responsible for

auto-immune disorders in mice (Annunziato, Cosmi,

Santarlasci et al 2007) Recent studies show that

these cells are probably a separate lineage of Th

cells and that they do not represent just another Th1

population that has undergone further

differentia-tion (Harrington, Mangan, Weaver 2006; Reinhardt,

Kang, Liang et al 2006) When naive CD4+ T cells

were cultured in the presence of anti-IFN-γ

mono-clonal antibody, induction of Th17 population was

observed This observation was stronger with IL-4

inhibition, which is an indication of Th17

inhibi-tion in the presence of IFN-γ and IL-4 (Reinhardt,

Kang, Liang et al 2006) The T-bet transcription

fac-tor seems to play an important role in Th1 cell

dif-ferentiation, but Th17 cell growth is not infl uenced

function of autoreactive cells or a decrease in the function of regulatory mechanisms, leading to auto-immunity However, a decrease in these regulatory mechanisms can lead to immunodefi ciency.

Autoimmunity targeting the nervous system has been studied extensively in animal models and human subjects (Mouzaki, Tselios, Papathanassopoulos et al 2004; Mouzaki, Deraos, Chatzantoni 2005; Owens, Babcock, Millward et al 2005; Boscolo, Passoni, Baldas et al 2006; Alaedini, Okamoto, Briani et al 2007; Cabanlit, Wills, Goines et al 2007; Cassan, Liblau 2007; Correa, Maccioni, Rivero et al 2007; Krishnamoorthy, Holz, Wekerle 2007; Tschernatsch, Gross, Kneifel et al 2007; Weber, Prod’homme, Youssef et al 2007) and a plethora of experimental and clinical observations indicate that all major types of immune cells together with cells of the central nervous system (CNS) are involved in the resulting damage to the nervous system mediated through direct cell-to-cell cytotoxicity and/or soluble mediators that include cytokines, chemokines, and antibodies (Table 14.2)

In the following paragraph immunomodulation

in the nervous system in relation to T-cell regulation will be analytically discussed with the use of multiple sclerosis (MS) as a prototype autoimmune disease of the nervous system (Toy 2006)

Immunomodulation in the Nervous System: The Paradigm of Multiple Sclerosis

MS is considered to be a chronic autoimmune elinating disease that results in axonal loss within the CNS

demy-MS is characterized by T cell and macrophage infi ltrates that are triggered by CNS-specifi c CD4

the fi rst episode of EAE There are indications that

these cells function through the nonclassical MHC

class Ib pathway, since their suppressive function can

be blocked by MHC class Ib Qa-1 antibodies Qa-1 cells

have the ability to present foreign and self-peptides to

CD8+ T cells (Hu, Ikizawa, Lu et al 2004).

NK T cells are innate cells that can be induced to

secrete both proinfl ammatory and anti-infl ammatory

cytokines immediately on exposure to activating

sig-nals and induced to regulate an ongoing immune

response, usually in conjunction with other

regu-latory T-cell types NK T cells recognize glycolipid

antigens presented by a monomorphic glycoprotein

CD1d Numerous works have shown that NK T cells

may serve as regulatory cells in autoimmune diseases

and are tolerogenic in conditions of prolonged

expo-sure to foreign antigen (e.g., in pregnancy) (Boyson,

Rybalov, Koopman et al 2002) However, recent

stud-ies have revealed that the presence of NK T cells

accel-erates some infl ammatory conditions, implying that

their protective role against autoimmunity is not

pre-determined (Godfrey, Berzins 2007; Novak, Griseri,

Beaudoin et al 2007; Nowak, Stein-Streilein 2007)

AUTOIMMUNITY AND T REGULATION

On the basis of what has been previously reported in

this chapter, immune tolerance as a whole is the result

of a very sensitive balance between naturally arising

autoreactive cells and the regulatory mechanisms

that regulate these autoreactive processes In terms

of immune regulation as discussed so far,

autoimmu-nity can be considered to be manifested by a loss of

balance among these functions This lack of balance

can result from either an increase in the number or

Table 14.2 Immune Disorders that Affect the Nervous System

Leukocyte recruitment to the

CNS, axon terminal degeneration,

hippocampal lesions, MS, EAE

CD4, CD8 T cells, NK cells, B cells, CD45CD11b

M Φ, microglia

IFN- γ, TNF-α, IL-1β, Abs, chemokine MCP-1/CCL2 expression by blood–brain barrier– associated glial cells

Mouzaki et al 2004; Owens et al 2005; Toy 2006; Cassan, Liblau 2007

MS, EAE, reduced suppressive

activity of Tregs

Th1 and Th17 cells recognizing MBP, PLP, MOG self-peptides

IFN- γ, TNF-α, IL-17 Mouzaki et al 2004, 2005; Langrish

et al 2005; Haas et al 2005; Huan

et al 2005; Bettelli et al 2006; Cassan, Liblau 2007

Infl ammation, Alzheimer’s disease,

MS, viral or bacterial infections,

ischemia, stroke, encephalopathy

Brain/hypothalamus Agonists: IL-1β, IFN-γ

Antagonists: IL-4, TGF-β

Toy 2006; Correa et al 2007

Myasthenia gravis, Lambert—

Eaton myasthenic syndrome,

Guillain—Barre syndrome,

paraneoplastic cerebellar

degener-ation, generalized neuropathies

B cells Antibrain Abs, antigliadin

Abs, Abs to glial antigens

Boscolo et al 2006; Alaedini

et al 2007; Cabanlit et al 2007; Tschernatsch et al 2007

CNS, central nervous system; MS, multiple sclerosis; EAE, experimentally induced autoimmune encephalomyelitis; M Φ, macrophage;

Ab, antibody.

Chapter 14: Immunomodulation: Role of T Regulatory Cells 353

organ system for the induction of immune responses based on the following facts:

The limited renewal and mitotic nature of neurons

• protect the CNS from immune pathology

The blood–brain barrier does not allow traffi cking

•

of resting lymphocytes, whereas it does allow the entrance of activated cells (Hickey, Hsu, Kimura 1991)

The fact that only a few cells within the CNS

consti-• tutively express MHC molecules makes it diffi cult for immune responses to develop (Perry 1998)

A functional silencing or elimination of T cells

• that manage to enter the CNS occurs through the expression of CNS Fas-ligand, TGF-β, and prosta-glandin E2 (Zhu, Anderson, Schubart et al 2005; Liu, Teige, Birnir et al 2006b).

Nevertheless, recent evidence has proved that there is access to the CNS, although limited, and naive

T cells have been shown to traffi c within the infl amed tissue (Krakowski, Owens 2000; Aloisi, Pujol-Borrell 2006) Studies in animal models have also shown that naive CD4+ and CD8+ T cells are able to patrol nonlym-phoid tissues including the CNS (Brabb, von Dassow,

Ordonez et al 2000; Cose, Brammer, Khanna et al

2006) Although these cells are allowed to circulate

T cells The prominent autoimmune etiology of MS

is considered to be the aberrant activation of

IFN-γ-producing Th1 cells that recognize self-peptides

of the myelin sheath, such as MBP, proteolipid

pro-tein (PLP), and myelin oligodendrocyte glycopropro-tein

(MOG) (Mouzaki, Tselios, Papathanassopoulos et al

2004)

There is a heterogeneous pathophysiology of this

disease that remains unclear and includes an infl

am-matory response characterized by CD4+ CD8+ T cells

and macrophages MBP, PLP, and MOG components

of the myelin sheath are the main specifi c targets of

T cells and B cells that are directed against these

self-peptides (Olsson, Sun, Hillert et al 1992; Genain,

Cannella, Hauser et al 1999; Bielekova, Goodwin,

Richert et al 2000; Berger, Rubner, Schautzer et al

2003; Bielekova, Sung, Kadom et al 2004; Sospedra,

Martin 2005) The etiology for the immune system,

triggering such an infl ammatory response against

self-antigens of the CNS, remains largely unknown,

similar to most autoimmune diseases

The proposed mechanism for the

pathophysiol-ogy of this disease based on what we know so far is

described in Figure 14.2 and Table 14.3

Our knowledge of CNS dynamics and function so

far gives the impression that the CNS is a privileged

Figure 14.2 Treg implication in multiple sclerosis pathogenesis BBB, blood brain barrier; CNS, central nervous system; MΦ, macrophage; APC, antigen presenting cell; IFN, interferon; TNF, tumor necrosis factor.

Autoreactive T cells that

have escaped central or

peripheral tolerance

Autoantigen presentation by an APC within the CNS

Anergy IL-1, IL-4, IL-10

Activation proliferation

Epitope spreading

Release of new CNS

‘‘sequestered’’

antigens

Inflammatory environment

CNS injury

B-cell and complement activation CNS

3

1 2

CTLA-4 costimulation

costimulation CD28

Cytokine production

IF N-γ TNF- α

M activation

IFN- γ TNF- α

Central tolerance failure/T autoreactive toward Treg shift failure Treg-reduced suppressive activity

3 1 2

Another dendritic cell phenomenon that has been shown to occur within the CNS is epitope spreading, which leads to the induction of immune reactivity against more self-epitopes during chronic infl amma-

tion (McMahon, Bailey, Castenada et al 2005; Miller,

McMahon, Schreiner et al 2007) These data, along with the fact that vessel-associated dendritic cells have also been found in active MS lesions, indicate that reactivation of incoming T cells is possible within the

CNS (Kivisakk, Mahad, Callahan et al 2004; Greter, Heppner, Lemos et al 2005) TGF-β is known to play an important regulatory role and is now being implicated in pathogenic processes TGF-β has been shown to promote, in an infl ammatory cytokine envi-ronment, the differentiation of CD4+ T cells toward the pathogenic lineage Th17, which is characterized,

as explained in the preceding text, by the secretion

of IL-17 (Langrish, Chen, Blumenschein et al 2005; Bettelli, Carrier, Gao et al 2006).

within the CNS without causing an unwanted effect,

their entry requires more than the activation of

myelin-specifi c T cells, since additional signals are

needed, such as those triggered by specifi c microbial

components through the Toll-like receptors (TLRs)

(Brabb, Goldrath, von Dassow et al 1997; Waldner,

Collins, Kuchroo 2004)

Although there are no professional APCs in the

CNS, antigen presentation does occur in the CNS

There is evidence that MHC class I molecules are

present on oligodendrocytes and neurons when

they are exposed to an infl ammatory environment

that allows for antigen presentation to CD8+ T cells

Presentation to both CD8+ and CD4+ T cells can be

realized by astrocytes and microglial cells, which have

been shown to express both MHC class I and class II

molecules As has been shown in an EAE model,

den-dritic-like cells are needed to reactivate CD4+ T cells

within the CNS (Greter, Heppner, Lemos et al 2005)

Table 14.3 Immune Cells and Soluble Mediators Involved in the Pathogenesis of Multiple Sclerosis

Th1 cells, CD8 T cells, NK cells IFN- γ M Φ and MN activation, disease

exacerbation

Mouzaki et al 2004*; Chatzantoni

et al 2004; Scalzo et al

2006; Cassan, Liblau 2007*; Krishamoorthy et al 2007* Th1 cells, M Φ TNF- α M Φ and T-cell activation, disease

exacerbation Th2 cells IL-4 Symptom alleviation, ±anaphylactic

shock Th2 cells IL-13 Symptom alleviation

CD4CD25 ± Foxp3 T cells,

Th3 cells

TGF- β Th2 cell response, anti-infl ammatory

activity, differentiation of CD4 T-cells towards the Th17 lineage

Hafl er 2004; Sakaguchi 2004; Langrish et al 2005; Lim et al 2005; Bettelli et al 2006 CD4CD25 ± Foxp3 T cells,

Tr1 cells, M Φ

IL-10 Th2 cell response, anti- infl ammatory

activity

Hafl er 2004; Sakaguchi 2004; Lim et al 2005

CD11b(+)CD11c(+)CD45(hi)

myeloid dendritic cells (mDCs)

TGF- β1, IL-6, IL-23 Drive epitope spreading, enhance

Th17 cell activity

Miller et al 2007

DC IL-23 Th17 cell production Langrish et al 2005; Bettelli

et al 2006 Th17 cells IL-17 Disease exacerbation, anti-Foxp3

Treg activity

In vivo and in vitro treatments anti-CD25 Ab Disease exacerbation in EAE,

inactivation ±depletion of Tregs

Stephens et al 2005;

Cassan et al 2006 anti-CD3 Ab+anti-

CD28 Ab+IL-2+IL-4, Ag-loaded DCs

Expansion of Tregs Yamazaki et al 2003; Thornton

et al 2004; Masteller et al 2005; Fisson et al 2006; Ochi et al 2006; Tischner et al 2006 Glatiramer acetate,

other copolymers

Expansion of Tregs Stern et al 2004; Hong et al

2005 Immature DCs+Ag+CD4 T cells

+TGF- β; murine neurons +

encephalitogenic CD4 T-cells;

human CD4 T-cells.

Conversion of CD4 T cells to Tregs Chen et al 2003; Kretschmer et al

2005; Weber et al 2006; Liu et al 2006a,b

*Papers describing in detail the animal models used to study the pathogenesis of multiple sclerosis.

Ab, antibody; DC, dendritic cell; M Φ, macrophage.

Chapter 14: Immunomodulation: Role of T Regulatory Cells 355

the thymus of both mice and humans (Derbinski, Schulte, Kyewski et al 2001) Recent results in mice indicate that there is very limited expression in the thymus, and this expression does not seem to be suf-

fi cient to induce tolerance (Delarasse, Daubas, Mars

et al 2003; Linares, Mana, Goodyear et al 2003; Fazilleau, Delarasse, Sweenie et al 2006).

In addition to myelin oligodendrocyte antigens other CNS antigens are expressed in the thymus For example, S100β, which is synthesized by astrocytes

in the CNS, has been detected in the thymus of

ani-mal models (Kojima, Reindl, Lassmann et al 1997)

Thymic expression of αΒ-crystallin, a heat-shock tein expressed by astrocytes and oligodendrocytes, has been associated with the inability of peripheral lymphocytes to respond to autologous αΒ-crystallin

pro-(van Stipdonk, Willems, Plomp et al 2000).

Although there seems to be a negative selection process for CNS antigens in the thymus, there are circulating CNS autoreactive T cells in the periphery, both in healthy individuals and MS patients, that are related to MS pathogenesis Therefore, there must be another level of regulation in the secondary lymphoid organs that limit the action of these autoreactive cells

in healthy individuals

Experimental fi ndings in the last few years have demonstrated the important role of Tregs in CNS autoimmunity (Hafl er 2004; Sakaguchi 2004; Lim, Hillsamer, Banham et al 2005) Recovery of EAE is accompanied by Treg accumulation within the CNS and, when isolated, these cells showed signifi cant suppressive ability in vitro Furthermore, transfer

of these cells in low numbers reduced EAE (Kohm,

Carpentier, Anger et al 2002; McGeachy, Stephens,

Anderton et al 2005) Disease activity in Rag–/– MBP TCR-transgenic mice was reduced after the transfer of CD4+ or CD4+CD25+ T cells from wild type animals

(Hori, Haury, Coutinho et al 2002) On the other

hand, injection of anti-CD25 monoclonal antibody before EAE induction, which leads to the inactivation

or depletion of Tregs, resulted in higher activation

of autoaggressive T cells (Stephens, Gray, Anderton

et al 2005; Cassan, Piaggio, Zappulla et al 2006)

Typically resistant C57BL/6 mice become susceptible

to reinduction of disease when depletion of Tregs is performed after the acute phase of EAE (McGeachy,

Stephens, Anderton et al 2005) The infl uence of

Tregs on disease progression is also indicated by the fact that depletion of Tregs in remitting-relapsing EAE models increases acute phase severity and pre-

vents secondary remissions (Zhang, Reddy, Ochi et al

2006)

Research investigating the presence of a tative defect in the Treg population of MS patients has shown that there is no difference whatsoever,

quanti-on the basis of CD4 CD25 expressiquanti-on, between the

The fi rst step in CNS self-reactive regulation occurs

in the thymus during thymic ontogeny where T cells

expressing high-affi nity receptors for self-antigens

undergo apoptosis (Siggs, Makaroff, Liston 2006)

Until recently, it has been thought that thymocytes

spe-cifi c for CNS-spespe-cifi c self-antigens were spared during

negative thymic selection, whereas eliminated T cells

recognized only ubiquitous or blood-born antigens

Current research data indicate that many of these

self-antigens, which were once believed to be tissue

restricted, are expressed in the thymus and are

there-fore eliminated by negative selection These antigens

are expressed by cortical and medullary thymic

epi-thelial APCs (Derbinski, Schulte, Keywski et al 2001)

There are a variety of CNS self-antigens expressed in

the thymus, several of which are related to MS

patho-genesis Several thymic cell types have been shown to

synthesize MBP mRNA and proteins (Feng, Givogri,

Bongarzone et al 2000; Liu, MacKenzie-Graham, Kim

et al 2001) Experiments in animal models have clearly

shown that MBP+/+ mice demonstrate a strong negative

selection of that particular self-antigen in the thymus,

although it seems that bone marrow–derived cells play

a more important role in this process (Huseby, Sather,

Huseby et al 2001; Perchellet, Stromnes, Pang et al

2004) Expression of several MBP isoforms was shown

to be associated with reduced development of EAE in

animal models (Liu, MacKenzie-Graham, Kim et al

2001) Nevertheless, MBP-specifi c T cells are present

in the periphery of both mice and humans, which is

an indication of the importance of not only the

pres-ence of thymic expression but also the extent of that

expression (Kuchroo, Anderson, Waldner et al 2002;

Sospedra, Martin 2005)

DM20, a splice variant of PLP, was found to be

con-stitutively expressed chiefl y by cortical and medullary

thymic cells (Anderson, Nicholson, Legge et al 2000;

Klein, Klugmann, Nave et al 2000; Derbinski, Schulte,

Kyewski et al 2001) In SLJ mice, an animal model with

susceptibility to PLP-induced EAE, CD4+

encephalito-genic T cells are specifi c for the PLP139–151 peptide,

which is not transcribed in the thymus (Anderson,

Nicholson, Legge et al 2000) Nevertheless, it has

been shown that thymic stromal cells expressing

PLP can induce the tolerance of PLP-specifi c T cells

(Klein, Klugmann, Nave et al 2000) Other

experi-ments showing that the introduction of PLP peptides

in the thymus can induce tolerance to these specifi c

peptides indicate that there can be tolerance to PLP

peptides as long as they are expressed in the thymus

(Anderson, Nicholson, Legge et al 2000) Although

MOG does not represent an important percentage of

the myelin proteins, it seems to be a very important

target in cases of EAE in experimental models and

MS in humans (Adelman, Wood, Benzel et al 1995)

There was limited detection of MOG expression in

dendritic cells would be more useful and has already

been achieved (Yamazaki, Iyoda, Tarbell et al 2003; Masteller, Warner, Tang et al 2005; Fisson, Djelti, Trenado et al 2006) Another approach is aimed

at the in vitro conversion of CD4+ T cells to Tregs, which requires cultures of immature dendritic cells

in the presence of low doses of antigen The ence of TGF-β in this culture system seems to be of great importance for the switching of one cell type to

pres-another (Chen, Jin, Hardegen et al 2003; Kretschmer, Apostolou, Hawiger et al 2005; Weber, Harbertson, Godebu et al 2006) It has also been reported that

co-culturing murine neurons with encephalitogenic CD4+ T cells can lead to their conversion to Tregs, which have been shown to be effective in control-ling autoimmunity The expression of TGF-β and CD80 CD86 costimulatory factors seems to be very important for this conversion, but the fact that neu-rons are able to produce factors that lead to such a conversion and thus induce a protective response is

of great importance (Liu, Teige, Birnir et al 2006b)

There have also been attempts to induce the sion of Foxp3 on CD4+ T cells to convert them to Tregs Such an attempt in mice using a retroviral vector encoding Foxp3 resulted in cells with regula-tory properties and protective function against auto-immunity (Bettelli, Dastrange, Oukka 2005) In the last few years, many similar attempts have focused on the human system and expansion of natural Tregs

expres-has been achieved (Liu, Putnam, Xu-Yu et al 2006a)

Polyclonal, as well as antigen-specifi c, conversion

of CD4+ T cells to Tregs has also been achieved in the human system, but the extent of the suppressive activity of these Foxp3-expressing cells requires fur-

ther investigation (Grossman, Verbsky, Barchet et al 2004; Allan, Passerini, Bacchetta et al 2005; Walker, Carson, Nepom et al 2005).

Despite the promising results of these attempts, the best way to use Treg properties as a possible thera-peutic approach for autoimmunity is the direct expan-sion of Tregs in vivo It has been observed that Tregs proliferate strongly when they encounter their specifi c

antigen in vivo (Fisson, Djelti, Trenado et al 2003)

Glatiramer acetate , a drug approved and largely used for MS, seems to have the ability to induce Tregs The expansion of Tregs after injection of copolymers has been shown to occur in both mice and humans

(Stern, Illes, Reddy et al 2004; Hong, Zhang, Zheng

et al 2005).

In animal models, oral administration of CD3 monoclonal antibodies or treatment with anti-CD28 monoclonal antibodies led to prevention of EAE and induction of the Treg population, along with an increase in their regulatory properties (Ochi,

anti-Abraham, Ishikawa et al 2006; Tischner, Weishaupt, van den Brandt et al 2006).

blood of MS patients and healthy individuals (Huan,

Culbertson, Spencer et al 2005; Venken, Hellings,

Hensen et al 2006) No difference has been shown

for the proportion of Tregs in the peripheral blood

and cerebrospinal fl uid of MS patients (Haas, Hug,

Viehover et al 2005).

Tregs from remitting-relapsing MS patients showed

reduced suppressive activity in vitro (Haas, Hug,

Viehover et al 2005; Huan, Culbertson, Spencer et al

2005) This reduction in Treg activity is associated

with reduced Foxp3 mRNA and protein expression in

MS CD4+CD25+ peripheral blood T cells compared

to those of healthy individuals (Huan, Culbertson,

Spencer et al 2005) It is not yet clear whether this

defect is due to decreased expression at the cellular

level or due to the lower incidence of Tregs among

CD4+CD25+ T cells This phase of the disease seems

to be of great importance in Treg function, since

patients with secondary progressive MS show normal

levels of Foxp3 expression among CD4+CD25high T

cells, and normal suppressive activity in vitro (Venken,

Hellings, Hensen et al 2006) In contrast, there is no

correlation between relapses and the defective

sup-pressive activity of Tregs from remitting-relapsing MS

patients (Haas, Hug, Viehover et al 2005).

As has been previously described and reported

from experiments in animal models, the presence of

self-antigen in the thymus is very important for the

development and maintenance of Tregs for this

anti-gen, as well as for the reduction of the ratio between

T cells and Tregs (Kyewski, Klein 2006; Grajewski,

Silver, Agarwal et al 2006) It has been reported

spe-cifi cally for CNS antigens that SJL mice, which have

a greater susceptibility to EAE than the B10.S strain,

have stronger thymic expression of the PLP

anti-gen and a lower frequency of Tregs specifi c for this

antigen (Reddy, Illes, Zhang et al 2004) This is an

indication of the relationship between high thymic

expression of an antigen and the generation of Tregs

specifi c for this antigen It can be concluded that

thy-mus plays an important role in immune tolerance

against CNS-restricted self-antigens, not only through

negative selection but also through the induction of

Tregs

Although manipulation of the Treg population

has proved to be quite diffi cult, such an attempt could

be useful for the manipulation of CNS autoimmune

diseases based on what is known so far about the

func-tion of this T-cell populafunc-tion

Beyond the natural hyporesponsiveness of Tregs,

their clonal expansion occurs upon stimulation with

anti-CD3 and anti-CD28 monoclonal antibodies in

the presence of IL-2 and IL-4 (Thornton, Piccirillo,

Shevach 2004) Nevertheless, since antigen-specifi c

Tregs have been shown to be better able to control

autoimmunity, their expansion with antigen-loaded

Chapter 14: Immunomodulation: Role of T Regulatory Cells 357

also involved in shaping the size and composition of

the atherosclerotic lesions (Xu, Dietrich, Steiner et al 1992; Xu, Willeit, Marosi et al 1993; George, Afek, Gilburd et al 1998; George, Shoenfeld, Afek et al

1999; Frangogiannis, Smith, Entman 2002; Kariko, Weissman, Welsh 2004; Hahn, Grossmana, Chena

et al 2007) Further evidence showed a considerable number of Th1 cells present in human and murine plaques, some of which were reactive with oxidized low-density lipoprotein (LDL) (Jonasson, Holm,

Skalli et al 1986; Zhou, Stemme, Hansson 1996).

Attenuation of the induction of atherosclerosis has been shown to be possible through induction

of Tregs; the extent of the disease can be reduced

by induction of oral tolerance with proatherogenic

antigens (Maron, Sukhova, Faria et al 2002; Harats, Yacov, Gilburd et al 2002; George, Yacov, Breitbart

et al 2004) Furthermore, cytokines secreted by Tregs

are antiatherogenic (Hansson 2005)

Ischemic stroke and cardiovascular disease are mainly caused by atherosclerosis, which involves plaques and lesions of the arteries These plaques and lesions are composed of cell debris and lipids, mainly cholesterol, as well as infl ammatory cells such as macrophages and T cells, collagen and smooth mus-cle cells, and sites of old hemorrhage, angiogenesis, and calcium deposits (Stary 2005) Acute ischemia

is created when a thrombus is formed, a non precipitated by activation of these plaques (Falk, Shah, Fuster 1995) Together with risk factors such as

phenome-Although selective induction and expansion of

CNS-specifi c human Tregs has a strong potential for

controlling the manifestations of CNS

autoimmu-nity based on our knowledge so far, a few obstacles

must be considered The fi ne specifi city of Tregs has

an impact on their effi cacy, especially when this

pop-ulation is very limited and hardly identifi ed on the

basis of the markers known so far Autoantigens vary

among patients and in the same patient during

differ-ent phases of the disease As Tregs have been shown

to be nonfunctional in an infl ammatory environment,

they cannot be used to block an already ongoing

dis-ease (Cassan, Liblau 2007)

Immunomodulation in the Vascular System

Diseases of the vascular system such as atherosclerosis

have been proved by experimental evidence to

impli-cate aspects of the immune system that are important

for innate immunity and infl ammatory mechanisms

(see Table 14.4)

These mechanisms are not only implicated in

situ-ations such as atherosclerosis, but can also initiate

vas-cular ischemic damage to prevent and treat vasvas-cular

disease and even induce ischemic tolerance There is

also evidence of autoimmune involvement in

athero-sclerotic individuals, since these patients have higher

titers of autoantibodies against HSP60/65, which are

related to ischemia Such autoimmune situations are

Table 14.4 Immune System Involvement in Vascular Disorders

Immune Cells

and Molecules

Th1 cells Reactive with oxidized LDL, Hsp, β2 glycoprotein 1;

activation by specifi c antigens, secretion of IFN- γ leading to further activation of M Φ, EC

Jonasson et al 1986; Zhou et al 1996; Mach

et al 1998; Nicoletti et al 1998; Stary 2005;

Hahn et al 2007 Tregs Induction of oral tolerance with proatherogenic

antigens leading to disease inhibition Antiatherogenic cytokine secretion, atherosclerosis inhibition through IL-10 and TGF- β secretion

Harats et al 2002; Maron et al 2002;

Robertson et al 2003; George et al 2004;

Hansson 2005 CD8 T cells, NK

T cells

Disease acceleration, CTL activity Shresta et al 1998; Robertson et al 2003

M Φ Transformation to foam cells in atherosclerotic

lesions; promotion of infl ammation in the arteries

Schmitz, Drobnik 2002; Miller et al 2003;

Edfeldt et al 2004; Stary 2005

MN Recruited by secreted chemokines, transformation

of proinfl ammatory cytokines IL-1, IL-6, IL-8, activation of neutrophils, microglia

Melguizo et al 1997; Streit 2000;

Hansson 2005; Hahn et al 2007

M Φ, macrophage; MN, monocyte; EC, endothelial cell; Ab, antibody; Hsp, heat-shock protein.

models (Sheikine, Hansson 2004) Under the infl ence of monocyte colony stimulating factor (M-CSF), monocytes migrating into vascular tissues transform

u-to macrophages, which in turn take up the terol contained in LDL particles These particles accumulate in macrophages and induce their trans-formation to foam cells, the prototypic cells of athero-sclerotic lesions (Schmitz, Drobnik 2002) In addition

choles-to these macrophages that transform incholes-to foam cells and die either from apoptosis or from necrosis and thus release cholesterol, other macrophages pro-mote infl ammation in the arteries Toll-1-like recep-tors expressed in lesions bind to endotoxins and endogenous molecules TNF and IL-1 produced by vascular and immune cells trigger signal transduc-tion pathways that lead to the secretion of cytokines, chemokines, and proteases The risk of atherothrom-botic diseases and polymorphisms of TNF and IL-1 genes has been epidemiologically identifi ed (Miller,

Chang, Binder et al 2003; Edfeldt, Bennet, Eriksson

et al 2004) Although T cells migrate similarly to

mac-rophages, there is need for specifi c antigens for T cells

to be activated Th1 cells are the most common culating T cells in the lesion and they are activated

cir-hypercholesterolemia, hypertension, and cigarette

smoking, immunity also seems to play an important

role in the pathogenesis of atherosclerosis (Hansson

2005) (Fig 14.3)

During hypercholesterolemia and hypertension,

levels of LDL, a major transport particle for

choles-terol, are increased and vascular endothelium infl

am-mation is initiated (Skalen, Gustafsson, Rydberg

et al 2002) Oxygen radicals and enzymes chemically

modify LDL protein and lipids in the intima, and

the resultant phospholipids that are released activate

endothelial cells that express the vascular cell

adhe-sion molecule-1 (VCAM-1) (Cybulsky, Gimbrone 1991;

Witztum, Berliner 1998) Monocytes and lymphocytes

that display the very late antigen (VLA-4) are recruited

in this way to the endothelium VCAM-1 expression is

further induced by oscillating fl ow (Dai,

Kaazempur-Mofrad, Natarajan et al 2004) Activation of vascular

cells induces the signals provided by secreted

chemok-ines to recruit monocytes and T cells to the lesion

These include monocyte chemoattractant protein-1

(MCP-1), fractalkine, and others Blocking of

leuko-cyte adhesion molecules or chemokines by

antibod-ies leads to reduction of atherosclerosis in animal

Figure 14.3 Cerebrovascular disease and implicated immune system mechanisms MN, monocyte; MΦ, macrophage, EC, endothelial cell; APC, antigen presenting cell; TNF, tumor necrosis factor; IL, interleukin; VCAM, vascular cell adhesion molecule; M-CSF, monocyte colony stimulating factor; LDL, low-density lipoprotein; IFN, interferon, APC, antigen-presenting cell; TGF, transforming growth factor.

EC activation VCAM-1

A: Resting APC

B: Activated APC

Vascular cell activation

Risk factors Plaque

Recruitment

MN Lymphocytes VLA-4

Cytokines Chemokines Proteases

LDL cholesterol M-CSF M

IFN-γ

M

Cholesterol release

Death by apoptosis or necrosis

Foam cells

Induction of acute-phase proteins Complement activation IL-1, IL-6, IL-8 Activation of neutrophils

Suppression Treg

Tr1

Foxp3 expression

Inflammatory cytokines

activation

Antigen activation

T cells MN

Foxp 3 expression

Blocking of Treg suppressive activity IL-6

TGF-β IL-10

Phospholipid

release from

LDL ChemokinesTNF-α, IL-1

Chapter 14: Immunomodulation: Role of T Regulatory Cells 359

in the CNS and periphery increases after stroke

(Herrmann, Vos, Wunderlich et al 2000) There is

evidence of humoral immune responses to CNS gens after a stroke and the possibility of autoimmu-nity occurrence is very strong Furthermore, although myocardial antigens have unrestricted access to peripheral lymphoid organs, myocardial antibodies have been detected in patients after myocardial isch-emia (Melguizo, Prados, Velez et al 1997)

anti-The microenvironment of the tissue at the time

of immune response generation is very important Under normal conditions, costimulatory signals nec-essary for lymphocyte priming are not expressed at adequate levels in the brain (Dangond, Windhagen,

Groves et al 1997) Immune responses in other areas,

such as those after a microbial infection, might occur This could lead to an induced expression of costimula-tory molecules and a cytokine ratio shift phenomenon that increases the potential for autoimmunity (Becker,

Kindrick, Relton et al 2005) Treg suppression of the

activation of antigen-specifi c T cells is inhibited by the induction of TLRs and IL-6 expression (Oyama, Blais,

Liu et al 2004) It has been shown in animal models

that animals with the capacity for brain antigen ognition have the worst outcomes after brain injury

rec-as opposed to animals that do not have autoreactive

T cells Also, T lymphocytes from animals after spinal cord injury possess encephalitogenic properties when

injected into naive animals (Jones, Basso, Sodhi et al

2002) Immune damage in the brain or heart can also occur via direct cell killing by lysis or apoptosis through CTL action, or by the secretion of neurotoxic cytokines by activated lymphocytes (Shresta, Pham,

func-in effective treatment strategies of autoimmune and infl ammatory disorders, and recent attempts to har-ness the immunoregulatory activities of the different regulatory cell populations for therapeutic purposes have met with relative success

Nevertheless, there are still many unknowns in the development and function of regulatory T cells For example, population studies are needed to determine

by antigens such as oxidized LDL and microbial

anti-gens, leading to secretion of cytokines such as IFN-γ

and further activation of macrophages and

endothe-lial cells Animal models that lack CD4+ T cells and

IFN-γ receptors or in which these are blocked in

immune activation showed a reduction in

atheroscle-rosis (Nicoletti, Kaveri, Caligiuri et al 1998; Mach,

Schonbeck, Sukhova et al 1998) The disease process

also includes NK T cells; CD8+ T cells, which seem

to accelerate the disease; and Tregs, which have been

shown to inhibit atherosclerosis through secretion of

IL-10 and TFG-β (Robertson, Rudling, Zhou et al

2003) Tregs are altered numerically as well as

func-tionally in patients with acute coronary syndromes

(Hallenbeck, Hansson, Becker et al 2005) Oral

toler-ance induction in animal models is associated with the

attenuation of atherosclerotic lesions (Harats, Yacov,

Gilburd et al 2002; Maron, Sukhova, Faria et al 2002;

George, Yacov, Breitbart et al 2004) Furthermore,

cytokines classically secreted by Tregs are reduced in

humans with unstable angina (Heeschen, Dimmeler,

Hamm et al 2003) Recent evidence from animal

mod-els is indicative of a possible protective role of Tregs in

atherosclerosis (Ait-Oufella, Salomon, Potteaux et al

2006) Purifi ed Tregs from acute coronary syndrome

patients showed reduced expression of Foxp3 along

with downregulation of CTLA-4 mRNA expression

(Hallenbeck, Hansson, Becker et al 2005).

Systemic immune responses also occur Antibodies

reactive to oxidized LDL have been detected along

with acute-phase reactants such as C-reactive protein

(CRP), pentraxin, and others (Hansson 2005) There

are indications that proinfl ammatory cytokines

pro-duced in the plaques induce the acute phase proteins

(Liuzzo, Biasucci, Gallimore et al 1994; Peri, Introna,

Corradi et al 2000).

The progression of cellular injury during

acute ischemia also includes the participation of

immune mechanisms (Iadecola, Alexander 2001;

Frangogiannis, Smith, Entman 2002) Activation of

complement; release of proinfl ammatory cytokines

such as IL-1, IL-6, and IL-8; as well as activation of

neutrophils occurs Microglial activation just after the

episode induces neutrophil traffi cking to the ischemic

area Inhibition of this response has been shown to

decrease the infract volume and improve

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monocytes, and lymphocytes were not thought to

be involved in the immune response during such

episodes until 2 to 3 days later, recent evidence has

shown that there is a much earlier contribution of

these mononuclear cells to the immune response, and

when it occurs early enough it can improve

neurologi-cal outcome (Becker, Kindrick, Relton et al 2001).

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The possibilities to modulate immune responses by

manipulating immunoregulatory cells are hindered

by many obstacles such as the antigenic specifi city of

Tregs, which infl uences their effi cacy; the need for

autologous Treg therapy; and their limited function

in an infl ammatory environment

Beyond those diffi culties, an optimal scenario

for Treg usage in the treatment of autoimmune or

infl ammatory conditions exists Thymus-derived or

peripherally induced Tregs have the potential of

being activated and expanded in the lymphoid tissue

and migrate to the infl amed tissues to control the

pathogenic immune responses

The central role of Tregs in controlling the

activa-tion of effector T cells, and therefore, the worsening

of infl ammation and immune activation in vascular

ischemic diseases, directs to a potential therapeutic

role of these cells

As underlined in this chapter, to reach a level of

controlling regulatory T-cell numbers and activity,

the mechanisms of their function need to be

under-stood, more stable and exclusive markers need to be

established, and Treg cellular frequency and

func-tion in the context of a given disease needs to be

determined

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PA R T IV

Translating Novel Cellular Pathways into Viable Therapeutic Strategies

C h a p t e r 15

ALZHEIMER’S DISEASE—IS IT CAUSED BY CEREBROVASCULAR

DYSFUNCTION?

Christian Humpel

ABSTRACT

Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is a progressive chronic

disorder and is characterized by β-amyloid plaques,

tau pathology, cell death of cholinergic neurons,

and infl ammatory responses The reasons for this

disease are not known, but one hypothesis suggests

that cerebrovascular dysfunctions play an important

role This chapter summarizes the most important

hypotheses: the role of the β-amyloid cascade, tau

pathology, the role of cerebrovascular damage, the

infl uence of glutamate-induced cell death, silent

stroke and acidosis, the cell death of cholinergic

neu-rons, the neurovascular unit, growth factor effects,

and infl ammation Vascular risk factors are discussed

by focusing on the idea that the cerebrovascular

dysfunction triggers the development of the disease

Finally, a common hypothesis tries to link the

dif-ferent pathologies of the disease Difdif-ferent forms of

dementia, such as mild cognitive impairment,

vascu-lar dementia, and fi nally AD may overlap at certain

stages

Keywords: vascular system, Alzheimer, vascular

dementia, hypothesis, cascade

ALZHEIMER’S DISEASE, VASCULAR DEMENTIA, AND OTHER FORMS

OF DEMENTIA

Sporadic Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is a

progres-sive chronic neurodegenerative disorder (at least 95% of all cases are nongenetic), and is characterized by severe β-amyloid deposition (senile plaques), tau pathology, cell death of choliner-gic neurons, microglial activation, and infl ammation The causes for AD are yet unknown, but several risk factors may trigger this disease AD is the most aggres-sive form of dementia and is distinguished from vas-cular dementia (vaD) This differentiation of vaD from AD has been based on evidence of a cerebro-vascular disorder However, pure cases of vaD without neurodegenerative changes are very rare and autopsy

of some cases clinically diagnosed as vaD showed that they had pathological signs for AD (Sadowski, Pankiewicz, Scholtzova et al 2004) In addition, mild cognitive impairment (MCI) has been defi ned as the earliest form of dementia, which partly converts into

AD (approximately 15% to 30% per year) Two tional forms of degenerative nonreversible forms of

addi-dementia have been described, Lewy body addi-dementia

and frontotemporal dementia, which can be

distin-guished from AD and vaD In addition, other

nonspe-cifi c forms of dementia are seen during, for example,

HIV, Parkinson’s disease, or alcohol-related diseases

Among all forms of dementia, AD is the most frequent

pathological fi nding (approximately 60%), followed

by vascular dementia (approximately 15%), Lewy

body dementia (approximately 15%), frontotemporal

dementia (approximately 5%), and other

degenera-tive forms of dementia (Gearing, Mirra, Hedree et al

1995; Barker, Luis, Kashuba et al 2002; Heinemann,

Zerr 2007) (Fig 15.1)

This chapter discusses the most prominent

hypotheses and tries to fi nd a link, especially putting

forward the role of the cerebrovascular system for vaD

and AD

β-AMYLOID CASCADE

So far, the β-amyloid cascade (Fig 15.2) is the

most prominent hypothesis (Selkoe 1998; Atwood,

Obrenovich, Liu et al 2003; Tanzi, Moir, Wagner

2004; Wirths, Multhaup, Bayer 2004; Marchesi 2005;

Schroeder, Koo 2005) and is thought to be the

pri-mary event that triggers the pathological cascade in

AD (Selkoe 1998) The amyloid-precursor protein

(APP) is cleaved by secretases into β-amyloid peptides

(40, 42, or 43 amino acids), and these peptides

aggre-gate under certain conditions and are deposited as

β-amyloid plaques (Figs 15.3A, B) It is hypothesized

that the accumulation of β-amyloid in the brain causes

the AD pathology and a dysbalance between β-amyloid

production and clearance results in other hallmarks of

the disease The β-amyloid cascade hypothesis (Hardy,

Selkoe 2002; Tanzi, Bertram 2005) favors the model

that insoluble fi brillar β-amyloid triggers the

neuro-nal degeneration Evidence is now accumulating that

soluble activated monomers, soluble oligomers (dimer,

trimer, tetramer), and protofi brils could be responsible

for triggering the pathology in AD (Walsh, Klyubin,

Fadeeva et al 2002; Canevari, Abramov, Duchen 2004)

The exact mechanism by which β-amyloid induces

Lewy body dementia (15%)

Vascular dementia (15%)

Alzheimer’s disease (60%)

Frontotemporal dementia (5%)

Other forms of dementia (5%)

Figure 15.1 Etiology of degenerative forms of dementia From

Heinemann, Zerr 2007.

cell death is not known, but “channel hypothesis” gests that certain fi brillar forms of the peptide cause neurodegeneration by forming ion channels that are generally large, voltage independent, and relatively poor selective (Wirths, Multhaup, Bayer 2004; Marchesi 2005) Soluble β-amyloid levels in the cortex correlate with the degree of synaptic loss in dementia, and it becomes more and more clear that AD is primarily caused by dysfunction of nerve axons and synapses (Selkoe 2002)

sug-In AD, axonal degeneration may depend on β-amyloid levels, but not on plaque deposition, which means that nerve damage occurs before deposition of plaques

TAUOPATHIES

Tau protein is a microtubule-associated protein that

is highly expressed in neurons in the brain Tau is enriched in axons, where it directly binds to micro-tubuli In AD tau is hyperphosphorylated at a variety

of serine and threonine residues and loses its ability

to bind to microtubuli Such abnormal phorylated tau is a major event involved in the forma-tion of neurofi brillary tangles (Figs 15.3C, D) in the

hyperphos-AD brain (Mandelkow, Mandelkow 1998; Spillantini, Goedert 1998; Smith, Drew, Nunomura et al 2002; Iqbal, Alonso Adel, Chen et al 2005) An imbalance between protein kinases and phosphatases may play a role in hyperphosphorylation (Fig 15.4) Interestingly, enhanced tau is a diagnostic marker in cerebrospinal

Figure 15.2 The β-amyloid cascade hypothesis suggests that a dysfunction of amyloid-precursor protein (APP), caused by muta- tion or other defects, results in axonal damage and synaptic dys- function This causes β-amyloid accumulation in cortex Resulting from plaque deposition, infl ammatory and excitatory processes occur, which result in neuronal cell death The infl ammatory processes include the release of interleukin-1 β (IL-1β) and tumor necrosis factor α (TNF-α), microglial activation, and tau pathology, which are all symptoms of AD.

APP dysregulation (mutation, defects)

Hypothesis 1: b-amyloid cascade

Synaptic dysfunction/axonal damage

β-Amyloid accumulation in cortex => Plaques

Microglia and reactive gliosis/

oxidative stress

Release of proinflammatory cytokines

(IL-1β, TNF-α)

Chapter 15: Alzheimer’s Disease 371

CEREBROVASCULAR DAMAGE AND BLOOD–BRAIN BARRIER BREAKDOWN

There is increasing evidence that vascular risk factors (Fig 15.5) contribute to the pathogenesis of AD (de la Torre 1999, 2002; Kudo, Imaizumu, Tanimukai et al 2000; Iadecola 2004; Zlokovic 2005) and a cerebrovas-cular hypoperfusion (decreased cerebral blood fl ow, lower metabolic rates of glucose and oxygen) could be the initial event in AD (Farkas, Luiten 2001; Iadecola 2004) Thus, cerebrovascular diseases and AD may share common risk factors (Fig 15.5), which indicate that their pathogenic mechanism could be related (de la Torre 2002) Evidence comes from epidemio-logical studies that these risk factors are hypertension, diabetes, hypercholesterolemia, hyperhomocysteine-mia, and the apolipoproteinE4 (ApoE4) genotype (de la Torre 2002) In fact it is hypothesized that neurodegeneration in AD may arise from a chronic mild cerebrovascular dysregulation (Fig 15.6) caused

by continuous exposure to the risk factors over years (Humpel, Marksteiner 2005), which precedes hypop-erfusion (de la Torre, Stefano 2000; Iadecola 2004)

A very high percentage (70%–90%) of AD patients show amyloid pathology in their vessels (Fig 15.3E), which narrow the vessels and produce hypoperfu-sion (Farkas, Luiten 2001; Cullen, Kocsi, Stone 2006; Hardy, Cullen 2006) This cerebral amyloid angiopa-thy can result in hemorrhagic and (possibly) ischemic forms of stroke (Armstrong 2006; Haglund, Kalaria, Slade et al 2006; Soffer 2006; Boscolo, Folin, Nico

et al 2007) The cerebral amyloid angiopathy is

fl uid for different forms of neurodegeneration

(e.g., Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease) and may strongly

cor-relate to any other form of neurodegeneration and not

just AD Different forms of tau dysregulation

(tauopa-thies) have been described in the literature and are

thought to play a role not just in AD

Dementia/Alzheimer’s disease

Microglia and reactive gliosis/inflammation/excitotoxicity

β-Amyloid accumulation in cortex => plaques

Synaptic damage—cell death of cholinergic neurons

Reduced neuronal transport Dsyfunctional binding to microtubuli

Hyperphosphorylated Tau Protein kinase activity enhanced or phosphatase activity reduced

Hypothesis 2: Tau pathology

Figure 15.4 The tau hypothesis suggests that initially tau is

hyperphosphorylated, caused by enhanced protein kinase or

decreased phosphatase activity Reduced axonal transport causes

axonal damage and subsequent neuronal cell death This results

in β-amyloid accumulation and plaque deposition, accompanied

by infl ammatory and excitatory processes and fi nally AD.

Figure 15.3 β-Amyloid depositions (plaques) are seen in an Alzheimer brain (A, B) Plaques consist of a dense amyloid core and an outer amyloid corona (B) Phospho-tau positive neurofi brillary tangles are intensively found in an Alzheimer brain (C, D) A typical tangle is shown close to dystrophic neurites (D, arrow) β-Amyloid is also concentrated along a brain vessel (E, star) Figures were kindly provided

by Prof Josef Marksteiner (Department of Psychiatry, Innsbruck).

Amyloid corona

E B

A

Amyloid core

expression after cholesterol infl ux (see below) In addition, an enhanced infl ux of blood-derived serum albumin into the brain is seen after BBB disrupture and may induce neurodegeneration (see Moser, Humpel 2007).

EXCITOTOXICITY

Glutamate is the most important excitatory rotransmitter in the brain and plays an important role in learning and memory (Figs 15.2, 15.5, 15.6) Enhanced activity of glutamatergic function, accom-panied by massive intracellular calcium infl ux, is often related with cell death of neurons (Coyle, Puttfarcken 1993) In addition, a rapidly growing body of evidence indicates that increased oxidative stress from reactive oxygen radicals is associated with increased glutamate activity (Olanow 1993; Beal 1996) Oxidative damage induced by free radicals target intracellular structures such as DNA, lipids, or proteins and these free radi-cals, generated through mitochondrial metabolism, can act as causative factors of abnormal function and cell death These oxidative changes can arise from the normal aging process, head trauma, increased levels of heavy metals (iron, aluminum, and mercury), and possibly the aggregation of β-amyloid Thus, glutamate-excitotoxicity and oxidative stress play an important role during the aging process and in differ-ent age-related degenerative disorders (Aliev, Smith, Obrenovich et al 2003; Hynd, Scott, Dodd et al 2004) including AD

neu-In AD oxidation of DNA, proteins and fatty acids occur in different brain areas Some of theoxidation

common in AD and is also associated with cerebral

atherosclerosis (Farkas, Luiten 2001; de la Torre 2002;

Attems, Lintner, Jellinger 2004) and with the

devel-opment of cognitive defi cits (Thal, Ghebremedhin,

Orantes et al 2003; Solfrizzi, Panza, Colacicco et al

2004) As a consequence of cerebrovascular

dysfunc-tion the breakdown of the blood–brain barrier (BBB)

may occur This breakdown may have several effects

on neurons, such as cell death after infl ux of

excito-toxic amino acids (e.g., glutamate) or enhanced APP

• High serum homocysteine

• High blood pressure

Figure 15.5 Age (>65 years) is the most important risk factor for

sporadic AD Many risk factors have been identifi ed and many of

them are also vascular risk factors.

Figure 15.6 The hypothesis of

cere-brovascular dysfunction suggests that chronic cerebrovascular damage and/

or BBB breakdown causes two events: damage of the NVU with subsequent axonal degeneration and cell death of cholinergic neurons and hypoperfu- sion of mainly cortical areas, resulting in cholesterol infl ux and subsequent dys- regulation of the APP and subsequent β-amyloid dysfunction Tau pathology and infl ammatory and excitatory pro- cesses are caused by neuronal cell death ending fi nally in AD.

Hypothesis 3: Cerebrovascular dysfunction

Dementia/Alzheimer’s disease

Microglia and reactive gliosis/inflammation/

excitotoxicity Tau pathology

Retrograde cell death of cholinergic neurons

Synaptic dysfunction/axonal damage

Damage of the neurovascular unit

Cerebrovascular damage BBB breakdown

Hypoperfusion Cholesterol influx

APP dysregulation β-Amyloid accumulation in cortex

Plaques

Chapter 15: Alzheimer’s Disease 373

ACIDOSIS

It is now widely accepted that acidosis is an important component of the pathological event that leads to ischemic brain damage (Siesjo 1988, 1992) Acidosis is

a result of either an increase in tissue CO2 or an mulation of acids produced by dysfunctional metabo-lism (Rehncrona 1985) Severe hypercapnia (arterial

accu-CO2 around 300 mmHg) may cause a fall in tissue pH

to around 6.6 without any morphological evidence of irreversible cell damage (Rehncrona 1985) In severe ischemia and tissue hypoxia, anaerobic glycolysis leads

to accumulation of acids, for example, lactate, ing a decrease in pH to around 6.0 (Rehncrona 1985) with strong signs of irreversible damage This cellu-lar damage seems to be mediated by free radicals but not by a perturbation of cell calcium metabolism (Li, Siesjo 1997) It is well known that acidosis enhances iron-catalyzed production of reactive oxygen species, probably by releasing iron from its binding to trans-ferrin, ferritin, or other proteins (Li, Siesjo 1997) At the cellular level, hypercapnic stimulation activates different transcription factors, which may play a role

caus-in counteractcaus-ing acidosis Hypercapnic stimulation

activates c-jun terminal kinase cascade via infl ux of

extracellular calcium through voltage-gated calcium channels (Shimokawa, Dikic, Sugama et al 2005) Some transmembrane proteins have been implicated

in regulation of H+ sensitivity and brain mediated metabolism (Shimokawa, Dikic, Sugama

acidosis-et al 2005)

The role of lactate in the brain is divergent, it is

a metabolic product and reduces pH, but it is also involved in neuronal metabolism and energy bal-ance In the brain, lactate is increased after various forms of mild stress (accumulation, handling, cold exposure) after 6 to 7 minutes, which slowly returns

to baseline levels over a period of 40 minutes (Fillenz 2005) However, evidence from in vivo experiments does not support the postulate that lactate produced

by astrocytes is oxidized by neurons (Fillenz 2005) There is no evidence that under physiological condi-tions, lactate serves as a signifi cant source of energy for activated neurons (Fillenz 2005) Cerebral intrac-ellular acidosis is endogenous and arises when lactate accumulates, which occurs after epileptic seizures, hypoxia, and ischemia, resulting in a moderate or pronounced decrease in pH (Siesjo 1982) In sei-zure states, accumulation of lactate is usually mod-erate (about 10 µmol/g), but in severe ischemia and hypoxia, the accumulation of lactate is markedly enhanced (30 to 60 µmol/g) accompanied by irreve-rsible damage

Acidosis occurs in the brain during ischemia and plays a role in damaging neuronal environments We have shown that acidosis causes massive cell death of

products have been found in the neurofi brillary

tan-gles and senileplaques (Markesbery, Carney 1999)

and these oxidative modifi cations are closely

associ-ated with aninfl ammatory process in the AD brain

(Butterfi eld, Griffi n, Munch et al 2002).Markers of

oxidative damage are increased in patients with AD

(Engelberg 2004) and correlate with decreased levels

of plasma antioxidants (Mecocci, Polidori, Cherubini

et al 2002) In fact, oxidative stress and vascular

lesions may show an intimate relationship (Aliev,

Smith, Obrenovich et al 2003) It seems quite clear

that vascular hypoperfusion induces dysfunction of

mitochondria in AD with subsequent RNA oxidation,

lipid peroxidation, or mitochondrial DNA deletion

(Marcus, Thomas, Rodriguez et al 1998; Nunomura,

Perry, Pappolla et al 1999; Engelberg 2004; Zhu,

Smith, Perry et al 2004) In fact, patients with AD and

vaD showed similar plasma levels of antioxidants and

levels of biomarkers of lipid peroxidation (Polidori,

Mattioli, Aldred et al 2004) It was suggested that

β-amyloid induces oxidative stress (Behl 1997) and

can exert a deleterious effect on endothelial nitric

oxide by inhibiting nitric oxide synthetase activity

(Venturini, Colasanti, Persichini et al 2002), which

can lead to an alteration of intracellular calcium

homeostasis (Gentile, Vecchione, Maffei et al 2004)

SILENT STROKE

Cerebrovascular disease and ischemic brain injury

secondary to cardiovascular diseases are common

causes of dementia and cognitive decline in the elderly

(Erkinjuntti, Roman, Gauthier et al 2004) Territorial

infarct, old age, and low educational level were

iden-tifi ed as predictors of cognitive disorders after stroke

(Rasquin Verhey, van Oostenbrugge et al 2004) Stroke

may account for as many as 50% AD cases in old age

(Kalaria 2000), and it is known that ischemic events

induce APP, β-amyloid, and tau pathology (Kalaria

2000) Approximately 35% of AD patients show

proven vascular infarcts and 60% show white matter

lesions There exists an association between stroke

and AD that may be due to an underlying systemic

vascular disease process or, alternatively, due to the

additive effects of stroke and AD pathologic features,

leading to an earlier age at onset of disease (Honig,

Tang, Albert et al 2003) Several longitudinal studies

report an association between stroke and cognitive

decline (Langa, Foster, Larson 2004; Linden, Skoog,

Fagerberg et al 2004; Roman 2004; Zhou, Wang, Li

et al 2004) Such small ischemic lesions (“silent stroke,”

cortical microinfarcts; Kovari, Gold, Herrmann et al

2007), which in isolation would not alter cognition,

substantially aggravate dementia, indicating that

cere-bral ischemia may interact with AD pathology

involved in neuronal energy metabolism and synapse function (Iadecola 2004) and neuronal processes are closely associated with cerebral blood vessels (Iadecola 2004) Interestingly, nerve terminals from the cho-linergic neurons of the basal nucleus of Meynert interact with astrocytic end feet of the BBB via mus-carinic acetylcholine receptors (Vaucher, Hamel 1995; Farkas, Luiten 2001) Thus the NVU provides

a direct link between the cerebrovascular system and cholinergic neurons in the brain (Fig 15.7) Since the NVU provides the fi rst line of defense against delete-rious effects of cerebral ischemia and other forms of injury (Iadecola 2004), the NVU may display a very sensitive (pH dependent) link to the brain In fact, conditioned medium collected from microvessels of

AD patients has been shown to kill neurons in vitro, pointing to selective neurotoxic factors derived from brain capillary endothelial cells (Grammas, Moore, Weigel 1999) This is in agreement with our own pre-vious study, where we found that rat primary capillary endothelial cells secreted factors into the medium, which killed cholinergic neurons (Moser, Reindl, Blasig et al 2004)

It seems likely that the NVU is very sensitive for changes in pH, which may infl uence cholinergic neu-rons In fact, cholinergic neurons interact with cor-tical microvessels in the rat (Vaucher, Hamel 1995; Farkas, Luiten 2001), and the interaction between vas-cular structures and cholinergic nerve fi bers should

be considered as a critical element in ration, especially in the view of long-standing sugges-tions that vessels are lost in the aging brain and that low pH may mediate this cell death In addition, brain capillary endothelial cells react very sensitively to pH changes, and it is known that acidosis regulates vas-cular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) expression and angiogenesis in human cancer cells (Fukumura,

neurodegene-cholinergic neurons in vitro in brain slices (Pirchl,

Marksteiner, Humpel 2006), pointing to a potent

role of low pH in the AD brain However, Cronberg

et al (2005) have shown that acidosis selectively

protected CA3 pyramidal neurons during in vitro

ischemia Furthermore, it is highly interesting to

note that β-amyloid processing is markedly affected

by low pH, which could link acidosis to AD Brewer

(1997) reported that lactate caused a dose- dependent

increase in cellular β-amyloid immunoreactivity in

hippocampal neurons but acidosis did not affect

secretion of β-APP Atwood et al (1998) showed that

a marked Cu2+-induced aggregation of β-amyloid

emerged when the pH was lowered to 6.8, indicating

that H+ induced conformational changes unmask a

metal-binding site on β-amyloid that mediates

revers-ible assembly of the peptide that could have relevance

for plaque deposition in AD Matsunaga et al (1994)

showed that β-amyloid (15–22) may control both

aggregation of β-amyloid (1–42) at acidic pH and

its proteolytic activity at neutral pH Prolonged

aci-dosis may in fact contribute to the dysregulation of

β-amyloid and subsequent plaque deposition and

cell death of cholinergic neurons We have recently

shown that under acidic conditions (pH 6.0 + ApoE4)

cholinergic neurons degenerate in brain slices that

is accompanied by aggregated β-amyloid peptides

(Marksteiner, Humpel 2007)

THE NEUROVASCULAR UNIT: THE MOST

SENSITIVE NETWORK?

The neurovascular unit (NVU) (Fig 15.7) defi nes the

cellular interaction between brain capillary

endothe-lial cells (forming the BBB), the astrocytic end feet,

and neuronal axons (Iadecola 2004) Astrocytes are

Basolateral Apical

Cholinergic nBM synapse

The neurovascular unit

Astrocytic end foot with muscarinic ACh receptors

Figure 15.7 The NVU defi nes a network of

the BBB with astrocytes and axonal processes Cholinergic neurons in the basal nucleus of Meynert send their axons into the cortex, where they connect to the brain capillaries Cholinergic nerve fi bers interact with astro- cytes on the endothelial cells via muscarinic cholinergic receptors.

Chapter 15: Alzheimer’s Disease 375

(Mufson, Kroin, Sendera et al 1999) Furthermore, angiogenic growth factors, such as VEGF (Fukumura,

Xu, Chen et al 2001; Tarkowski, Issa, Sjögren et al 2002), are increased, resulting in enhanced micro-vascular density in developing AD It has been shown that in AD angiogenesis occurs accompanied by an upregulation of the transcription factor HIF1-α and VEGF (Vagnucci, Li 2003), which may be of impor-tance in rearranging the capillary network

However, besides NGF and VEGF, other growth factors contribute to the AD pathology or are dys-regulated Platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF) has been found to upregulate APP in the hippocampus

by inducing secretases (Gianni, Zambrano, Bimonte

et al 2003; Zambrano, Gianni, Bruni et al 2004; Lim, Cho, Hong et al 2007) Insulin-like growth factor-I (IGF-I) regulates β-amyloid levels and displays protec-tive effects against β-amyloid toxicity (Carro, Trejo, Gomez-Isla et al 2002; Aguado-Llera, Arilla-Ferreiro, Campos-Barros et al 2005) Fibroblast growth factor-2 (FGF-2) has common binding sites with β-amyloid fi brils in heparan sulfate from cerebral cortex (Lindahl, Westling, Gimenez-Gallego et al 1999) and plays a role in β-amyloid toxicity (Cantara, Ziche, Donnini 2005) Finally, members of the trans-forming growth factor-β (TGF-β) family interact with β-amyloid mediating its toxicity (TGF-β2; Hashimoto, Chiba, Yamada et al 2005; Hashimoto, Nawa, Chiba

et al 2006) or are a risk for cerebral β-amyloid

angiopathy due to polymorphism of the TGF-ß1 gene

with cerebral amyloid (Greenberg, Cho, O’Donnell

et al 2000; Lesne, Docagne, Gabriel et al 2003; Hamaguchi, Okino, Sodeyama et al 2005)

INFLAMMATION AND MICROGLIA

Infl ammation is an important trigger of eration during aging (“Infl ammaging”) (Franceschi, Valensin, Bonafe et al 2001) and is consi dered

neurodegen-as a major factor of neurodegeneration in AD (Figs 15.2, 15.4, 15.6) Infl ammation is a potential target for AD therapy and anti-infl ammatory drugs may delay AD (Perry, Bell, Brown et al 1995; Moore, O’Banion 2002) Indeed, cholinergic neurons of the basal nucleus of Meynert are very sensitive for infl ammatory insults (Wenk, McGann, Mencarelli

et al 2000; Wenk, McGann, Hauss-Wegrzyniak et al 2003) Chronic release of pro-infl ammatory cytok-ines, such as interleukin-1β, tumor necrosis factor

α, or TGF-β1, indicate a powerful role in infl tion, pathology, and neuronal dysfunction associated with AD (Perry, Bell, Brown et al 1995; Grammas, Ovase 2002; Wenk, McGann, Hauss-Wegrzyniak et al 2003) These infl ammatory processes include activa-tion of microglia and subsequent neuroinfl ammatory

amma-Xu, Chen et al 2001) It has been shown that in AD

angiogenesis occurs accompanied by an upregulation

of the transcription factor HIF 1α and subsequently

VEGF (Vagnucci, Li 2003), which may be of

impor-tance for rearranging the NVU at the BBB Thus it

seems possible that lowering pH may play a role to

maintain brain capillary endothelial cells in

degen-erative diseases, such as in AD and dementia This is

in agreement with a fi nding that acidosis blocks

apop-tosis of endothelial cells (D’Arcangelo, Facchiano,

Barlucchi et al 2000)

CELL DEATH OF CHOLINERGIC NEURONS

In AD a marked reduction of cholinergic neurons in

the basal forebrain (septum and nucleus basalis of

Meynert) is found in advanced stages (Whitehouse

et al 1983; Wilcock, Esiri, Bowen et al 1982), which

leads to cholinergic hypothesis in AD (Francis, Palmer,

Snape et al 1999; Humpel, Weis 2002) Cholinergic

activity directly correlates with cognitive activity and

a lack of acetylcholine is a hallmark in dementia and

AD It is not known, why these cholinergic neurons

die, but it seems possible that the direct interaction

with the cerebrovascular system may contribute to

cholinergic decline In fact, damage of the NVU

pos-sibly via oxidative stress or infl ammation may result in

degeneration of nerve terminals and subsequent

ret-rograde cell death of cholinergic neurons However,

neurodegeneration in AD also results in

dysregula-tion of other neurotransmitter systems in the brain,

such as serotonin, noradrenaline, or glutamate

GROWTH FACTORS

Among all growth factors, nerve growth factor (NGF)

is the most potent growth factor to counteract cell

death of cholinergic neurons in vitro and in vivo

(Thoenen, Barde 1980; Levi-Montalcini 1987) In

fact NGF was thought to play a role in development

of AD, but transgenic NGF knockout mice did not

show cognitive defi cits However, NGF was

consid-ered to be a candidate for treating AD and purifi ed

mouse NGF was infused in some AD patients (Seiger,

Nordberg, Von Holst et al 1993) Interestingly, NGF

is upregulated in brains of AD patients (Fahnestock,

Michalski, Xu et al 2001) and in cerebrospinal fl uid

(Hock, Heese, Müller-Spahn et al 2000), while the

high- affi nity NGF receptor trkA is downregulated

(Mufson, Ma, Dills et al 2002; Counts, Nadeem, Wuu

et al 2004) It can be explained that enhanced cortical

(target-derived) NGF is enhanced but cannot be

ported to neuronal somata, because the axonal

trans-port is destructed and the receptors are not functional

and (2) trans-sulfuration (rev Troen 2005) In the methylation pathway, homocysteine and 5-methyltet-rahydrofolate generate methionine (vitamin B12 depen-

dent), which is converted to S-adenosylmethionine and acts as a methyl donor S-adenosylhomocysteine

is then formed and hydrolyzed to homocysteine and adenosine In the trans-sulfuration pathway, homo-cysteine and serine generate cystathionine, which is involved in generation of cysteine, taurine, and inor-ganic sulfates The rapid removal of homocysteine is

of importance to the maintenance of a normal lation process

methy-Three hypothetical mechanisms of cysteinemia have been reported (Fig 15.8):

hyperhomo-1 Damage of the cerebrovascular system:

Hyperhomocysteinemia induces endothelial damage, mitochondrial swelling and disintegration, swelling

of pericytes, basement membrane thickening, and perivascular detachment (Weir, Molloy 2000; Kim, Lee, Chang 2002; rev Troen 2005); all patholo-gies are also seen in vaD and AD The intracellular effects of homocysteine are very divergent: it induces, for example, caspase-8 and subsequent apoptosis,

it stimulates monocyte chemoattractant protein-1/interleukin-8 and subsequent infl ammation, and

it enhances oxidative stress (via activation of ferent oxidases), inhibits endothelial nitric oxide synthetase, and generates peroxynitrite with subse-quent cell death (Faraci 2003; Lee, Borchelt, Wong

dif-et al 2004; Skurk, Walsh 2004) Furthermore, cysteine decreases capillary endothelial nitric oxide synthetase (Faraci 2003) and glucose transporter and transiently changes different cell adhesion molecules (Lee, Borchelt, Wong et al 2004)

homo-2 Direct excitotoxic effect on neurons:

Homo-cysteine and its derivative homocysteic acid are atory amino acids Lipton et al (1997) have shown that 10 µM homocysteine directly induces cell death

excit-of cerebrocortical-isolated neurons after 6 days This cell death was blocked by 10 µM MK-801 and 12 µM

processes (Gonzalez-Scarano, Baltuch 1999) However,

it is not clear if infl ammation is a result of β-amyloid

dysre gulation (Moore, O’Banion 2002) or if infl

am-mation itself is the primary cause in initiation of AD

Infl ammation of brain capillary endothelial cells

may play a potent role, and it is well known that

endo-thelial cells strongly respond to infl ammatory stimuli

(Moser, Reindl, Blasig et al 2004), especially involving

production of reactive oxygen species (Iadecola

2004)

WHAT IS THE TRIGGER FOR

CEREBROVASCULAR DAMAGE?

The risk factors and the pathology in AD are well

known; however, it is not clear which factors trigger

the development of the different forms of dementia

that fi nally may end in AD On the basis of

cerebro-vascular hypothesis, different initial cerebro-vascular triggers

can be identifi ed

Hyperhomocysteinemia

Cerebrovascular diseases and AD share common risk

factors, such as hyperhomocysteinemia, which

indi-cate that their pathogenic mechanism could be

con-nected It is well established that elevated plasma levels

of the amino acid homocysteine increase the risk for

atherosclerosis, stroke, myocardial infarction, and AD

(Shea, Lyons-Weiler, Rogers 2002; Faraci 2003; Flicker,

Martins, Thomas et al 2004; Gallucci, Zanardo, De

Valentin et al 2004; Skurk, Walsh 2004; Ravaglia,

Forti, Maioli et al 2005; rev Troen 2005) It has been

reported that plasma homocysteine levels >15 µM

increase the risk for vaD and AD (Clarke, Smith, Jobst

et al 1998; McCaddon, Davies, Hudson et al 1998;

Hogervorst, Ribeiro, Molyneux et al 2002; McIlroy,

Dynan, Lawson et al 2002; Seshadri, Beiser, Selhub

et al 2002; Luchsinger, Tang, Shea et al 2004) In

humans the effective concentration results from total

levels of homocysteine and its oxidation product

disul-fi de homocysteine (Lipton, Kim, Choi et al 1997) In

an in vivo rat model, hyperhomocysteinemia provokes

a memory defi cit in the Morris water maze task, clearly

indicating that hyperhomocysteinemia causes

cogni-tive dysfunction (Streck, Bavaresco, Netto et al 2004)

In rat models of hyperhomocysteinemia plasma levels

vary between 19 and 26 µM, which highly correlates

with plasma levels found in vaD and AD (Kim, Lee,

Chang 2002; Lee, Borchelt, Wong et al 2004)

Metabolism of Homocysteine

Homocysteine is a nonprotein forming sulfur amino

acid involved in two important pathways: (1) methylation

Damage of the cerebrovascular system

Homocysteine

SH

Direct excitotoxic effect on neurons

Metabolic disruption and oxidative stress

Cognitive dysfunction

H C NH2COOH

Figure 15.8 Effects of hyperhomocysteinemia in the brain.

Chapter 15: Alzheimer’s Disease 377

affects the age of onset, (2) intracellular cholesterol stimulates γ-secretase and APP/β-amyloid process-ing, (3) cholesterol- lowering drugs (statins) reduce the prevalence of AD, and (4) elevated plasma cholesterol in midlife is associated with an increased risk for AD Interestingly, rabbits fed with a 2% cho-lesterol diet display an accumulation of intracell-ular immunolabeled β-amyloid after 4 to 8 weeks (Sparks, Scheff, Hunsaker et al 1994) and hypercho-lesterolemia accelerates the amyloid pathology in a transgenic mouse model (Refolo, Pappolla, Malester

et al 2000; Shie, Jin, Cook et al 2002)

Cholesterol does not pass the BBB and is thesized locally in the brain and degraded to 24-hydroxy-cholesterol, which is transported outside the brain into the bloodstream (Fig 15.9) Cholesterol regulates γ-secretase with enhanced processing of β-amyloid (1–42) It is hypothesized that a break-down of the BBB causes infl ux of cholesterol, with subsequent activation of γ-secretase and enhanced β-amyloid (1–42) production (Fig 15.9) Under spe-cifi c conditions (high ApoE4, low pH, metals, and dysfunctional clearance) the β-amyloid (1–42) pep-tides may aggregate in the brain β-amyloid is pre-sent in the brain and in the blood and is transported through the BBB via two important receptor trans-port systems (Fig 15.9): the receptor for advanced glycosylation end products (RAGE) and low-density lipoprotein-related protein (LRP) (Tanzi, Moir,

syn-memantine, indicating involvement of

N-methyl-d-aspartate receptors in vitro However, it is unclear if

brain levels of homocysteine may reach µM

concen-trations and exert direct toxic effects In fact,

homo-cysteine levels in cerebrospinal fl uid in the brain are

in the nM range (rev Troen 2005)

3 Metabolic disruption and oxidative stress:

Accumulation of homocysteine increases

intracellu-lar S-adenosylhomocysteine, which is a potent

inhibi-tor of many methylation reactions (rev Troen 2005),

including methylation of biogenic amines and

inhi-bition of catechol-O -methyltransferase (Zhu 2002)

Chronic hyperhomocysteinemia induced by

methion-ine administration enhanced lipid peroxidation and

decreased glutathione, suggesting the involvement of

oxidative stress (Baydas, Ozer M, Yasar et al 2005)

These dysfunctions were accompanied by cognitive

impairment and could be counteracted by the

anti-oxidant melatonin (Baydas, Ozer, Yasar et al 2005)

Hypercholesterolemia

Cholesterol is increasingly recognized to play a

major role in the pathogenesis of AD (Raffai,

Weisgraber 2003; Wellington 2004; Wolozin 2004)

This is based on four lines of investigation: (1) the

lipoprotein ApoE4 coordinates the mobilization

and redistribution of cholesterol in the brain and

Cholesterol + ApoE

Cholesterol-rich lipid-rafts with APP

ApoE

Degradation:

Microglia Enzymes (NEP)

Cholesterol

24-OH-cholesterol

Cholesterol BBB

Figure 15.9 Role of cholesterol on metabolism of β-amyloid Cholesterol does not pass the blood–brain barrier (BBB) and is synthesized locally in the brain and degraded to 24-OH-cholesterol, which is transported into the bloodstream Cholesterol regulates γ-secretase with enhanced processing of the amyloid-precursor protein (APP) to β-amyloid (Aβ) This peptide is degraded by different enzymes (e.g., neu- tral endopeptidase [NEP]) or transported to the blood via low-density lipoprotein-related proteins (LRP) The concentration of β-amyloid

in the brain is regulated by steady-state clearance of infl ux via receptor for advanced glycosylation end products (RAGE) and effl ux via LRP It is hypothesized that a breakdown of the BBB causes infl ux of cholesterol, with subsequent activation of γ-secretase and enhanced β-amyloid (1–42) production Under specifi c conditions (high apolipoprotein E [ApoE], low pH, metals, and/or dysfunctional clearance) the β-amyloid (1–42) peptides may aggregate in the brain.