Aeronautical Engineer’s Data Book - part 3 pdf

48 Aeronautical Engineer’s Data Book 3.. 50 Aeronautical Engineer’s Data Book 3.3 Densities of liquids at 0°C See Table 3.3... 52 Aeronautical Engineer’s Data Book HF Fin span measured

46 Aeronautical Engineer’s Data Book

The parametric form of the equation is x =

a sec , y = b tan where  s the eccenteric

a

2π/b

0

Fig 2.13 Sine wave

Helix (see Figure 2.14)

A helix is a curve generated by a point moving

on a cylinder with the distance it transverses parallel to the axis of the cylinder being proportional to the angle of rotation about the axis:

47 Fundamental dimensions and units

2.9 Useful references and standards

For links to ‘The Reference Desk’ – a website containing over 6000 on-line units conversions

‘calculators’ – go to: www.flinthills.com/

~ramsdale/EngZone/refer.htm

United States Metric Association, go to: http://lamar.colostate.edu/~hillger/ This site contains links to over 20 units-related sites For guidance on correct units usage go to: http://lamar.colostate.edu/~hillger/correct.htm

Standards

1 ASTM/IEEE SI 10: 1997: Use of the SI

system of units (replaces ASTM E380 and

IEEE 268)

2 Taylor, B.N Guide for the use of the Inter­

national System of units (SI): 1995 NIST

special publication No 8111

48 Aeronautical Engineer’s Data Book

3 Federal Standard 376B: 1993: Preferred

Metric Units for general use by the Federal Government General Services Administra­

tion, Washington DC, 20406

Section 3

Symbols and notations

3.1 Parameters and constants

Speed of sound at sea level (a0)

Air pressure at sea level (p0)

6.6260755  10–34 J s 8.314510 J/mol/K 5.67051  10–8 W/m2 K4

9.80665 m/s2

(32.17405 ft/s2) –273.16°C (–459.688°F) 22.41 m3

6.023  1026/kg mol 340.29 m/s (1116.44 ft/sec)

760 mmHg

= 1.01325  105 N/m2

= 2116.22 lb/ft2

Air temperature at sea level (T0

Air density at sea level (0) 1.22492 kg/m3

slug/ft3) Air dynamic viscosity at sea 1.4607  10–5 m2/s level (µo) (1.5723  10–4 ft2/s)

50 Aeronautical Engineer’s Data Book

3.3 Densities of liquids at 0°C

See Table 3.3

Table 3.3 Densities of liquids at 0°C

0.72 0.899

51 Symbols and notations

Table 3.4 Continued

b3 Elevator hinge moment derivative with respect

to 

B Input matrix Number of blades on a propeller

c Wing chord Viscous damping coefficient Pitot tube coefficient

C D Total drag coefficient

C DO Zero lift drag coefficient

C f Frictional drag coefficient

C L Lift coefficient

C LW Wing lift coefficient

C LT Tailplane lift coefficient

C H Elevator hinge moment coefficient

C m Pitching moment coefficient

C MO Pitching moment coefficient about aerodynamic centre of wing

C n Yawing moment coefficient

C p Pressure coefficient Power coefficient forpropellers

C R Resultant force coefficient

C v Coefficient of velocity

CP Centre of pressure

D Drag Propeller diameter

D' Drag in a lateral-directional perturbation

D Direction cosine matrix Direct matrix

F Aerodynamic force due to incidence

F Elevator control force

g Acceleration due to gravity

G Controlled system transfer function

h Height Centre of gravity position on reference chord Enthalpy (specific)

h0 Aerodynamic centre position

hF Fin height co-ordinate above roll axis

h m Controls-fixed manoeuvre point position on reference chord

h' m Controls-free manoeuvre point position on reference chord

52 Aeronautical Engineer’s Data Book

HF Fin span measured perpendicular to the roll axis

H m Controls fixed manoeuvre margin

i x Moment of inertia in roll (dimensionless)

i y Moment of inertia in pitch (dimensionless)

i z Moment of inertia in yaw (dimensionless)

I x Moment of inertia in roll

I y Moment of inertia in pitch

I z Moment of inertia in yaw

J Propeller ratio of advance Moment of inertia

j (or i) The imaginary operator (–1)

k Spring stiffness coefficient Lift-dependent drag factor Interference factor

k cp Centre of pressure coefficient

k q u Axial velocity transfer function gain constant

w Normal velocity transfer function gain constant

 Pitch attitude transfer function gain constant

Turbo-jet engine gain constant

K Feedback gain Circulation Bulk modulus

K Feedback gain matrix

0 Circulation at wing mid-section

n Controls-fixed static stability margin

K' n Controls-free static stability margin

l Lift per unit span

d Disc loading (helicopter)

f Fin arm

t Tail arm

L Lift Rolling moment Temperature lapse rate

c Lift due to camber

w Wing lift

F Fin lift

T Tailplane lift

 Lift due to incidence

m Mass Strength of a source or sink (fluid mechanics) Hydraulic depth

m' Rate of mass flow

M Mach number

0 Free stream Mach number

crit Critical Mach number

M Pitching moment

0 Wing–body pitching moment

Tailplane pitching moment

53 Symbols and notations

54 Aeronautical Engineer’s Data Book

z Transformed state vector

Z Normal force component

Throttle lever angle Downwash angle

 Rudder angle perturbation Damping ratio







e

(polar) Propeller helix angle

 Eigenvalue Wavelength Friction coefficient in a

55 Symbols and notations

Table 3.4 Continued

Subscripts

0 Datum axes Normal earth-fixed axes

Straight/level flight Free stream flow conditions Sea level

56 Aeronautical Engineer’s Data Book

3.5 The International Standard

Atmosphere (ISA)

The ISA is an internationally agreed set of assumptions for conditions at mean sea level and the variations of atmosphere conditions with altitude In the troposphere (up to

11 000 m), temperature varies with altitude at

a standard lapse rate L, measured in K (or °C)

per metre Above 11 000 m, it is assumed that temperature does not vary with height (Figure 3.1)

So, in the troposphere:

Temperature variation is given by:

Temperature, ˚C

Fig 3.1 The ISA; variation of temperature with altitude

57 Symbols and notations

In the stratosphere T = TS = constant so:

Table 3.5 International standard atmosphere (sea level conditions)

Specific heat (Cp) 1005 J/kg K 6005 ft lb/slug/°R

Specific heat (Cv) 717.98 J/kg K 4289 ft lb/slug/°R Ratio of specific 1.40 1.40

heats (

Gravitational 9.80665 m/s2 32.174 ft/s2

acceleration (g)

Table 3.5 Continued

Altitude Temperature Pressure ratio Density ratio Dynamic Kinematic a

(°C) (p/p o ) ( / o ) viscosity ratio viscosity ratio (m/s) (m) (ft) (µ/µ o ) (µ/µ o )

Table 3.5 Continued

Altitude Temperature Pressure ratio Density ratio Dynamic Kinematic a

(°C) (p/p o ) ( / o ) viscosity ratio viscosity ratio (m/s) (m) (ft) (µ/µ o ) (µ/µ o )

Table 3.5 Continued

Altitude Temperature Pressure ratio Density ratio Dynamic Kinematic a

(°C) (p/p o ) ( / o ) viscosity ratio viscosity ratio (m/s) (m) (ft) (µ/µ o ) (µ/µ o )

Table 3.6 US/COESA atmosphere (SI units)

µ (10 –6 kg/ms) 

(m 2 /s)

–2 1.2067E+0 1.2611E+0 1.0451 301.2 1.278E+5 1.478E+0 347.9 18.51 1.25E–5

0 1.0000E+0 1.0000E+0 1.0000 288.1 1.013E+5 1.225E+0 340.3 17.89 1.46E–5

2 8.2168E–1 7.8462E–1 0.9549 275.2 7.950E+4 1.007E+0 332.5 17.26 1.71E–5

4 6.6885E–1 6.0854E–1 0.9098 262.2 6.166E+4 8.193E–1 324.6 16.61 2.03E–5

6 5.3887E–1 4.6600E–1 0.8648 249.2 4.722E+4 6.601E–1 316.5 15.95 2.42E–5

8 4.2921E–1 3.5185E–1 0.8198 236.2 3.565E+4 5.258E–1 308.1 15.27 2.90E–5

10 3.3756E–1 2.6153E–1 0.7748 223.3 2.650E+4 4.135E–1 299.5 14.58 3.53E–5

12 2.5464E–1 1.9146E–1 0.7519 216.6 1.940E+4 3.119E–1 295.1 14.22 4.56E–5

14 1.8600E–1 1.3985E–1 0.7519 216.6 1.417E+4 2.279E–1 295.1 14.22 6.24E–5

16 1.3589E–1 1.0217E–1 0.7519 216.6 1.035E+4 1.665E–1 295.1 14.22 8.54E–5

18 9.9302E–2 7.4662E–2 0.7519 216.6 7.565E+3 1.216E–1 295.1 14.22 1.17E–4

20 7.2578E–2 5.4569E–2 0.7519 216.6 5.529E+3 8.891E–2 295.1 14.22 1.60E–4

22 5.2660E–2 3.9945E–2 0.7585 218.6 4.047E+3 6.451E–2 296.4 14.32 2.22E–4

24 3.8316E–2 2.9328E–2 0.7654 220.6 2.972E+3 4.694E–2 297.7 14.43 3.07E–4

26 2.7964E–2 2.1597E–2 0.7723 222.5 2.188E+3 3.426E–2 299.1 14.54 4.24E–4

28 2.0470E–2 1.5950E–2 0.7792 224.5 1.616E+3 2.508E–2 300.4 14.65 5.84E–4

30 1.5028E–2 1.1813E–2 0.7861 226.5 1.197E+3 1.841E–2 301.7 14.75 8.01E–4

32 1.1065E–2 8.7740E–3 0.7930 228.5 8.890E+2 1.355E–2 303.0 14.86 1.10E–3

34 8.0709E–3 6.5470E–3 0.8112 233.7 6.634E+2 9.887E–3 306.5 15.14 1.53E–3

36 5.9245E–3 4.9198E–3 0.8304 239.3 4.985E+2 7.257E–3 310.1 15.43 2.13E–3

38 4.3806E–3 3.7218E–3 0.8496 244.8 3.771E+2 5.366E–3 313.7 15.72 2.93E–3

40 3.2615E–3 2.8337E–3 0.8688 250.4 2.871E+2 3.995E–3 317.2 16.01 4.01E–3

42 2.4445E–3 2.1708E–3 0.8880 255.9 2.200E+2 2.995E–3 320.7 16.29 5.44E–3

44 1.8438E–3 1.6727E–3 0.9072 261.4 1.695E+2 2.259E–3 324.1 16.57 7.34E–3

46 1.3992E–3 1.2961E–3 0.9263 266.9 1.313E+2 1.714E–3 327.5 16.85 9.83E–3

48 1.0748E–3 1.0095E–3 0.9393 270.6 1.023E+2 1.317E–3 329.8 17.04 1.29E–2

50 8.3819E–4 7.8728E–4 0.9393 270.6 7.977E+1 1.027E–3 329.8 17.04 1.66E–2

52 6.5759E–4 6.1395E–4 0.9336 269.0 6.221E+1 8.055E–4 328.8 16.96 2.10E–2

54 5.2158E–4 4.7700E–4 0.9145 263.5 4.833E+1 6.389E–4 325.4 16.68 2.61E–2

56 4.1175E–4 3.6869E–4 0.8954 258.0 3.736E+1 5.044E–4 322.0 16.40 3.25E–2

58 3.2344E–4 2.8344E–4 0.8763 252.5 2.872E+1 3.962E–4 318.6 16.12 4.07E–2

60 2.5276E–4 2.1668E–4 0.8573 247.0 2.196E+1 3.096E–4 315.1 15.84 5.11E–2

62 1.9647E–4 1.6468E–4 0.8382 241.5 1.669E+1 2.407E–4 311.5 15.55 6.46E–2

64 1.5185E–4 1.2439E–4 0.8191 236.0 1.260E+1 1.860E–4 308.0 15.26 8.20E–2

66 1.1668E–4 9.3354E–5 0.8001 230.5 9.459E+0 1.429E–4 304.4 14.97 1.05E–1

68 8.9101E–5 6.9593E–5 0.7811 225.1 7.051E+0 1.091E–4 300.7 14.67 1.34E–1

70 6.7601E–5 5.1515E–5 0.7620 219.6 5.220E+0 8.281E–5 297.1 14.38 1.74E–1

72 5.0905E–5 3.7852E–5 0.7436 214.3 3.835E+0 6.236E–5 293.4 14.08 2.26E–1

74 3.7856E–5 2.7635E–5 0.7300 210.3 2.800E+0 4.637E–5 290.7 13.87 2.99E–1

76 2.8001E–5 2.0061E–5 0.7164 206.4 2.033E+0 3.430E–5 288.0 13.65 3.98E–1

78 2.0597E–5 1.4477E–5 0.7029 202.5 1.467E+0 2.523E–5 285.3 13.43 5.32E–1

80 1.5063E–5 1.0384E–5 0.6893 198.6 1.052E+0 1.845E–5 282.5 13.21 7.16E–1

82 1.0950E–5 7.4002E–6 0.6758 194.7 7.498E–1 1.341E–5 279.7 12.98 9.68E–1

84 7.9106E–6 5.2391E–6 0.6623 190.8 5.308E–1 9.690E–6 276.9 12.76 1.32E+0

86 5.6777E–6 3.6835E–6 0.6488 186.9 3.732E–1 6.955E–6 274.1 12.53 1.80E+0 65

Section 4

Aeronautical definitions

4.1 Forces and moments

Forces and moments play an important part in the science of aeronautics The basic definitions are:

Lift force (L)

Force component perpendicularly ‘upwards’

to the flight direction

Drag force (D)

Force component in the opposite direction

to flight Total drag is subdivided into

pressure drag and surface friction drag

Pressure drag

Force arising from resolved components of normal pressure Pressure drag is sub­ divided into boundary layer pressure or

form drag, vortex or induced drag, and wave

drag

Surface friction drag

Force arising from surface or skin friction between a surface and a fluid

Pitching moment (M)

Moment tending to raise the nose of an aircraft up or down It acts in the plane defined by the lift force and drag force

67 Aeronautical definitions

Lift force (L)

D) Pitching moment (+M)

W

Drag force ( Aircraft climbing

Lift (+L)

x

Nose yaws to right (+N)

Drag (+ Lateral (+

68 Aeronautical Engineer’s Data Book

Rolling moment (LR)

Moment tending to roll an aircraft about its nose-to-tail axis (i.e to raise or lower the wing tips)

Yawing moment (N)

Moment tending to swing the nose of an aircraft to the left or right of its direction of flight

Figure 4.1 shows the basic sign conventions that are used Motions are often also referred to by

their relation to x-, y-, z-axes: See Table 4.1

Table 4.1 The general axis system

Tail span

Wing dihedral Γ

Wheel track Upper surface

Lower surface Leading edge

Trailing edge

Fig 4.2 Basic aircraft terminology





70 Aeronautical Engineer’s Data Book

4.2 Basic aircraft terminology

Table 4.2 Basic aircraft terminology (see also Figure 4.2)

Aspect ratio (A) A measurement of the

‘narrowness’ of the wing form Camber line A line joining the locus of points

situated midway between the upper and lower surfaces of a wing

Dihedral (2) Upward or downward (anhedral)

angle of the wing

Leading edge (LE) Front edge of the wing

Mean aerodynamic A chord parameter defined as:

it meets the fuselage

Standard mean A chord parameter given defined chord (SMC) or as

Sweepback ( or ) Lateral orientation of a wing

measured between the lateral



(y) axis and the wing leading

edge LE or LE), or the 1/4 chord position (1/4 or 1/4), or the wing trailing edge (TE or

TE)

Tip chord (ct) Chord length of the wing at its

tip

Trailing edge (TE) Rear edge of the wing

Wing (gross) area (SG) The plan area of the wing,

inclusive of the continuation within the fuselage

Wing (net) area (SN) The plan area of the wing

excluding any continuation within the fuselage

Wing plan form The shape of the plan view of the

wing

Wingspan (b) Distance between the extreme

tips of the wings

71 Aeronautical definitions

4.3 Helicopter terminology

Table 4.3 Helicopter terminology and acronyms

72 Aeronautical Engineer’s Data Book

Table 4.3 Continued

4.4 Common aviation terms

Table 4.4 Aviation acronyms

3/LMB 3 Light Marker Beacon 360CH 360 Channel Radio

720CH 720 Channel Radio

AC or AIR Air Conditioning

73 Aeronautical definitions

Automatic Direction Finder

Airborne Flight Info System

Air Frame Total Time (in hours) Autopilot

Auxiliary Power Unit

Air Speed Indicator

Automatic Terminal Information Service (a continuous broadcast of recorded non-control information in selected high activity terminal areas)

Automatic Weather Observation Service Certificate of Airworthiness

Counter Rotation (propellers)

Calibrated Air Speed

Cylinder Head Temperature Gauge Com Radio

Conversion/Modification (to aircraft) Directional Gyro

Distance Measuring Equipment

Electronic Flight Instrument System Exhaust Gas Temperature Gauge Emergency Locator Transmitter

Air Traffic Control Encoder

Global Positioning System

Ground Proximity Warning System Ground Speed

High Frequency Radio

Horizontal Situation Indicator

Head Up Display

Indicated Air Speed

Has Anti-Icing Equipment

Instrument Flight Rules

Instrument Landing System

Calibrated air speed (Knots)

Indicated air speed (Knots)

KNOWN ICE Certified to fly in known icing conditions

LRF Long Range Fuel

MLS Microwave Landing System

N/C Navigation and Communication Radios

74 Aeronautical Engineer’s Data Book

Radio Magnetic Indicator

Area Navigation (usually includes DME) Roberson STOL Kit

Since Major Overhaul

Since Propeller Overhaul

Since Top Overhaul

Short Takeoff and Landing Equipment Stormscope

Takeoff (weight)

True Air Speed

Time Between Overhauls

Traffic/Collision Avoidance Device Traffic Alert and Collision Avoidance System

Thrust Reversers

Total Time

Time Since New

Transcribed Weather Broadcast Transponder

Safe operating speed

Safe operating speed (flaps extended) Visual Flight Rules

Safe operating speed (landing gear extended)

Vertical Navigation computer

‘Never exceed’ speed

Maximum cruising ‘normal operation’ speed

Very High Frequency Omnidirectional Rangefinder

Stalling speed

Vertical Speed Indicator

Stalling speed in landing configuration Speed for best angle of climb

Speed for best rate of climb

Transponder