Coastal Lagoons - Chapter 7 doc

Monitoring Program DesignEugeniusz Andrulewicz and Boris Chubarenko CONTENTS 7.1 Introduction 7.1.1 Definition of Environmental Monitoring7.1.2 Objectives of Environmental Monitoring7.1.

Monitoring Program Design

Eugeniusz Andrulewicz and Boris Chubarenko

CONTENTS

7.1 Introduction

7.1.1 Definition of Environmental Monitoring7.1.2 Objectives of Environmental Monitoring7.1.3 Some Examples of Current Monitoring Programs7.1.4 Issues Specific to Monitoring of Lagoons7.2 Monitoring System Design

7.2.1 Monitoring for Meteorologicaland Hydrodynamic Parameters7.2.2 Monitoring for Physical Parameters7.2.3 Monitoring for Chemical Parameters7.2.4 Monitoring for Biological Parameters7.2.5 Monitoring of Impact of Different Uses of Lagoons7.3 Monitoring-Related Programs

7.3.1 Monitoring Guidelines and Quality Assurance Program7.3.2 Data Formats and Data Banking

7.4 Relationship between Monitoring and Modeling

7.4.1 Perspective: Monitoring to Modeling7.4.2 Perspective: Modeling to Monitoring7.4.3 Short-Term Data Collection for Model Implementation7.4.4 Model-Accompanied Current Data Supply

7.4.5 Practical Recommendations for the Design

of Short-Term Data Collection7.5 Assessment of Monitoring Results and Forms of Presentation

7.6 Final Remarks and Conclusions

References

7.1 INTRODUCTION

Monitoring is the application of fundamental scientific methods of observation ofthe environment As a modern tool of water management, monitoring is deeplyrooted in science It is the assessment method of comprehensive determination ofthe current state of environmental conditions Monitoring measures are for descrip-tion rather than prediction; however, monitoring data are used for various purposes,including prediction scenarios/modeling

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In contrast, modeling is a relatively new method rooted in engineering, especiallyits modification as computer modeling, which aims to simulate the behavior andresponse of water conditions to external and internal impacts Monitoring is veryuseful for making an environmental assessment, while modeling is applied for animpact assessment Modeling predicts trends and effects of future actions (see

Chapter 6 for details)

This chapter first discusses what monitoring is and describes its various aspects.The relationships between monitoring and modeling as complementary tools forcurrent water quality management are presented

7.1.1 D EFINITION OF E NVIRONMENTAL M ONITORING

Monitoring has been defined by the United Nations Environment Program (UNEP)

as “the process of repetitive observing for defined purposes, of one or more elements

of the environment, according to prearranged schedules in space and in time and using comparable methodologies for environmental sensing and data collection.”1Implicit in this definition are a number of points:

• The purposes for undertaking monitoring vary, but it is understood thatinformation is collected for a defined purpose, and not simply because it

is available

• Information gathering is undertaken following a prearranged schedule,which identifies frequency of sample collection, locations, and what infor-mation is collected

• Monitoring involves repetitive, continuous sampling, resulting in a series

of three-dimensional, cross-sectional, longitudinal, lateral, and temporaldata

• Sampling, storage, preservation, and analysis must be done systematically,utilizing compatible methodologies following rigorous procedures, toensure that information is comparable

Monitoring is distinguished from data collection by its long-term, continuousnature Data collection efforts are sometimes referred to as short-term monitoring,but it is important to maintain a distinction from monitoring, because monitoringgenerally has different objectives than data collection

Every environmental monitoring program should contain the followingcomponents:

• Monitoring guidelines (for sample collection, storage, preservation, andanalysis)

• Quality assurance program (procedure of calibration and comparability

of results)

• Data formats (for preparing data and relevant information for a data bank)

• Data bank (for storage and processing of data)Monitoring is usually followed by environmental assessment, which is anindispensable step in decision making Monitoring and research are very often

treated as separate activities, but monitoring also should be regarded as a researchactivity The basic difference between monitoring and research is already included

in the definition of monitoring Monitoring is a research activity that has three

important features: “prearranged schedule,” “repetitive observing,” and

“compa-rable methodologies.”

7.1.2 O BJECTIVES OF E NVIRONMENTAL M ONITORING

Monitoring is not simply a scientific exercise —it is also a management tool It

is a crucial element in environmental decision support systems Basically, thepurpose of monitoring is to provide information that is needed by decisionmakers The information desired by decision makers should be identified in theearlier stages of the decision support system, corresponding to the top box in

Figure 7.1

Monitoring usually serves the purpose of generating information needed to solve

an environment-related problem Furthermore, monitoring must be designed to fulfillthe needs expressed in the lower portion of Figure 7.1; these needs relate to assess-ment of results and ultimate decision making Further assessment of the effects ofimplementation of decisions forms a feedback loop, where improvements in moni-toring programs are then identified Information should be presented in such a waythat it can be incorporated into decision making/implementation Assessment musttherefore reflect the ultimate needs of decision makers

Decision-making requirements are the driving forces behind monitoring programdesign as explained in Chapter 8 These requirements may include one or more ofthe following: information on the state of the environment, natural and anthropogenicpressures, and trend analysis including possibly comparison with background values

or other locations It is therefore important that decision makers are involved in themonitoring program development process The decision makers have the responsi-bility of defining clear, measurable goals and objectives

Also, because long-term series of regular measurements are crucial for modeling(see Chapter 6 for details) and assessment, repetitive measurements of main param-eters should be continued for a long period of time Good decisions can only bemade on the basis of long-term information

7.1.3 S OME E XAMPLES OF C URRENT M ONITORING P ROGRAMS

Perhaps the oldest marine monitoring program is related to biological resourceassessment, including monitoring of commercial fish species in the North Atlanticand adjacent marine waters Regular observations began under the InternationalCouncil for the Exploration of the Sea (ICES) in the early 1900s and are stillongoing

In the 1960s, when the effects of pollution started to become apparent, ICESexpanded its efforts to advise on the development of marine environmental moni-toring programs.2 Advice has been utilized by commissions representing differentwater bodies (Baltic Sea, North Sea, Arctic seas, etc.)

Examples of current international monitoring programs related to the marineenvironment are the Joint Assessment and Monitoring Program (JAMP), established

to monitor environmental quality throughout the North-East Atlantic; the ative Baltic Monitoring Program (COMBINE); the Arctic Monitoring and Assess-ment Program (AMAP); and the Monitoring and Research Program of the Medi-terranean Action Plan (MEDPOL) In addition to international monitoringprograms, various national monitoring programs serve different purposes according

Cooper-to national needs and specific environmental problems

FIGURE 7.1 Relationship of monitoring to the decision-making process.

Identification of environmental problems/

During the past 25 years, monitoring has evolved from physico-chemical lection of information to monitoring of ecosystems and biological effects Most ofthe present monitoring programs have become more integrated among disciplines(hydrology, chemistry, biology) and have expanded to cover effluents originatingfrom within catchment areas.3

col-7.1.4 I SSUES S PECIFIC TO M ONITORING OF L AGOONS

Lagoons are morphologically and ecologically complex, subject to constantly changingenvironmental conditions generally of much greater magnitude than is the case in theopen sea (see Chapter 2 for details) For example, temperature may range from iceconditions to very warm waters; salinity may range from freshwater to hypersalinity;wave action usually reaches the bottom, causing dynamic conditions and high energyhabitats; and current speed and direction may change frequently, particularly in inlets/out-lets of lagoons and in their vicinity Due to the transitional nature of lagoons, they usuallydisplay a number of specific features, which require development of monitoring methodsand techniques specifically tailored to the ecosystem In some cases, techniques utilized

in freshwater and/or saltwater bodies may not be applicable or relevant.4 These difficultiesare compounded by the variable, dynamic nature of many lagoons

Lagoons often contain a great variety of pelagic and benthic habitats (see Chapter

5 for details) For example, lagoons may include some or all of the following habitats:wetlands, marshes, sea grass meadows, intertidal flats, and upland areas, as well asothers Lagoons may have a variety of bottom sediment and sedimentation conditions.Due to great variability of conditions, organisms usually live under a significantamount of natural stress; therefore, anthropogenic stress is particularly troublesome

in such an environment

There is no general scheme for monitoring of lagoons Lagoon monitoring fore needs to be designed with the specific water body in mind A knowledge of thebasic parameters of the given lagoon is essential, including trophic status, waterexchange, morphology, salinity, annual variability, etc Some aspects, which may beimportant for lagoon monitoring system design, are discussed in the following sections

there-7.2 MONITORING SYSTEM DESIGN

There is no tradition of monitoring coastal areas as there is for monitoring open sea

or freshwater areas Monitoring system design for coastal zones is less advancedand in many cases needs to be developed from the beginning Design efforts canborrow elements from the monitoring of marine waters and fresh waters, wheremonitoring has been under way for some time.5,6

As previously mentioned, the most important consideration regarding monitoringsystem design is the need to establish clear goals These goals will then lead todetermining what information is needed to fulfill the goals However, this may beproblematic due to differences in problem definition, understanding of cause/effectrelationships, the interjurisdictional nature of problems, etc

Monitoring should be designed to account for the unique characteristics of a lagoonecosystem (see Chapters 2 and 5) and the specific environmental problems and thesocio-economic systems (see Chapter 8) encountered in the lagoon watershed There is

also a large variety of different uses of lagoon ecosystems which should be consideredfor monitoring, such as tourism, fishery and mariculture, coastal technical developments,land reclamation, coastal defense, sand and gravel extraction, dredging and dumping,waste discharges, transportation, and other uses specific to the location Uses within thedrainage area also must be considered, e.g., agriculture (use of fertilizers and pesticides),industry (emissions to air and water), and settlement (domestic sewage).

Anthropogenic pressure is more evident on coastal lagoons than on open seaareas It is generally agreed that the major environmental problems, includingeutrophication, bacterial contamination, toxic compounds contamination, pressure

on living resources and mineral resources, dumping of dredged materials, treatedand untreated sewage discharges, and coastal erosion, are typical for many lagoons.Other problems, such as invasion of alien species, toxic species, and transport-relatedproblems, may be specific to certain lagoons

Developing a monitoring system involves trade-offs The most obvious one isbetween “cost” and “power” of the information gathered A greater frequency ofobservations will decrease the likelihood of erroneous results, all other things beingequal However, it must be kept in mind that costs of a monitoring program willincrease as well Consideration of costs is therefore critical during the monitoringprogram design phase Another trade-off is between “power” and “time.” A longertemporal string of measurements will likely flatten out abnormalities, but time isalways limited for decision making

Once the goals of the monitoring program are established, a number of nical” issues remain to be addressed These include:

“tech-• Spatial frequency of sampling—In a large-scale monitoring program, asufficient number of stations must be selected to generate sufficient datafor analysis Depending on the goals of the program, stations may berandomly chosen or chosen based on hypotheses or results of preliminarymodeling studies

• Temporal frequency of sampling—In cases where biotopes are relativelyunchanging, infrequent sampling (once every 5 years, e.g., for deep basinsediment) is usually adequate If the ecosystem is very dynamic, morefrequent sampling (at least 4 times per year, e.g., to characterize seasonalvariations) is necessary

• What is to be sampled—Information relevant to determining tal quality of marine resources is manifested in the water column, inbiota, and in sediment A large-scale monitoring program should includeall three to ensure that biological effects of anthropogenic activities arecovered

environmen-Monitoring programs should be regularly reviewed to ascertain that they havegood quality control and are meeting established goals, basically providing theinformation needed for decision making In addition, it may be wise to update amonitoring program based on availability of new technology or new information.Any changes in a monitoring program must take into account the importance ofcomparability of temporal data; thus, revisions that would result in breaks in temporaldata should be limited to those that are absolutely necessary

7.2.1 M ONITORING FOR M ETEOROLOGICAL

AND H YDRODYNAMIC P ARAMETERS

Hydrodynamic models are the basis for ecosystem modeling They include thebackground chemical and biological processes in the lagoon ecosystem: transportprocesses, internal water mixing and water exchange with adjacent open areas,vertical mixing, and interaction with the bottom

Hydrodynamic modeling is the furthest developed type of modeling, but in thecase of lagoons the implementation of models is rather difficult due to the technicaldifficulties in obtaining enough field data to calibrate the model for any type ofapplication The high variability of current patterns, its local peculiarities because

of bathymetry variations, the complicated nature of water exchange between lagoons,and the adjacent open water body—all of these factors cause a dramatic increase inmonitoring data needed for implementation of 2D and especially 3D hydrodynamicmodels as described in Chapter 6 An optimal monitoring strategy aimed at bothfuture model applications and type of modeled processes is the key issue for reachingreasonable model precision at a reasonable price

In lagoons, the major driving forces are usually wind stress, water level changesrelated to tides and wind action, density gradient of different origins, and directatmospheric pressure (see Chapter 3 for details) Therefore, for hydrodynamic mod-els, the following meteorological measurements are crucial:

• Flows, salinity, and temperature through the lagoon entrance

• Discharges and water temperature from all rivers and artificial outlets

• Level variation at the open lagoon entrance

• Level variation at some points remote from lagoon entrances

• Current, salinity, and temperature vertical profiles at monitoring pointsinside the lagoon

• Spatial variation of salinity and temperature in the lagoon

• Wind wave height and spreading direction

• Parameters related to turbulent mixing

• Tidal characteristics of the adjacent marine areaThe most critical hydrodynamic parameter is water exchange at entrances fromthe open sea There are different types of water flows, including steady flows, pulsing

flows, and backflows More than one flow in different directions may occur in thewater column at one time These flows may be subject to considerable temporalvariation and have a tremendous influence on lagoon hydrodynamics (e.g., for tidallagoons).

The equipment needed includes standard meteorological and hydrological ment; furthermore, a number of new technical developments should be applied tomeasuring hydrodynamic parameters, including the use of unattended equipment onbuoys which relay continuous data records and remote sensing techniques In fact,hydrodynamic modeling has been made possible due to technical development ofmeasuring equipment

equip-Hydrodynamic modeling is a crucial component for the development of mosttypes of emergency decision support systems Currently, considerable effort is beingdevoted to developing hydrodynamic models for operational aspects in oceanographysuch as the Global Ocean Observing System (GOOS) and the High ResolutionOperational Model of the Baltic Sea (HIROMB)

7.2.2 M ONITORING FOR P HYSICAL P ARAMETERS

Physical parameters are usually related to identification of three-dimensional properties

of water masses These properties usually include parameters defining water densitystructure (water salinity and temperature), which should be measured as vertical pro-files at the lagoon entrances and at monitoring points given in the above section

In addition, monitoring of the following optical parameters may be necessaryfor some modeling aspects at the entrances and inside the lagoon:

• Depth attenuation of solar radiation

• Secchi depth

• Water turbidity

• Inorganic suspended matterMethodology for measuring these physical parameters is discussed in variousguidelines for monitoring programs.7–9

Remote sensing is a useful tool applied for such parameters as water temperature,turbidity, surface water color, and ice cover

7.2.3 M ONITORING FOR C HEMICAL P ARAMETERS

Chemical parameters given below relate to eutrophication and contamination ofwater masses and are usually recorded as:

• Oxygen

• Hydrogen sulphide (under anoxic conditions)

• pH

• Alkalinity

• Total inorganic carbon

• Nutrients (nitrogen and phosphorus compounds and sometimes silicates)

• Particulate and dissolved organic carbon

This is because most of the problems experienced in lagoons are related toeutrophication, nutrient enrichment/high primary productivity: unusually highorganic carbon and nutrient concentrations, particularly after accumulation periods,high pH during productive season, large amount of suspended matter, and oversat-uration with oxygen in productive layers But due to the highly dynamic nature ofsome lagoons, it is very difficult to monitor nutrient fluxes The effect of mostimportant kinetic processes explained in Chapter 4 varies significantly between theintermediate mixing zone and the rest of the lagoon, and these variations createproblems for effective monitoring.

Many examples show that morphology of the area and local hydrological ditions are important factors affecting behavior of nutrients Inputs of nutrients can

con-be severely influenced by tidal phenomena Given the above considerations, it seemsthere is no universal, simple approach to monitoring of nutrients It is unrealistic todevelop a general monitoring strategy for nutrient exchange In the case of riverinelagoons, gross nutrient flux from rivers should be determined Satisfactory nutrientbudget will require many cruises and sampling stations, which is often unrealistic

in the long term A short-term, intensive project is recommended; modeling willhelp plan the special scheme of measurements

Special methodology is often necessary in the case of lagoons, due to theirspecific nature For example, the analytical techniques utilized in measuring eutroph-ication parameters in marine areas or fresh waters are sometimes not applicable tolagoons, due to factors such as intermediate salinity, possibility of the presence ofhumid substances, differing water color, and presence of a large amount of suspendedmaterial A further point to be considered is that lagoons are often remote, at a greatdistance from laboratories Prior to analysis samples, which are usually gathered from

a small research boat, must be preserved taking into consideration long distances andtime

Analyses of nutrients are based on spectrophotometric methods, so water color

is an important consideration Water color may vary in lagoons due to, for example,local events or the absence or presence of humic substances Interpretation of resultsmust therefore consider both temporal and spatial variability in water color Resultsfrom spectrophotometric analysis will likewise be affected by the presence of sus-pended matter, which may be present in lagoons, but is seldom encountered in thewater column in the open sea Filtering or centrifugation (in the case of ammoniadetermination) is therefore necessary

There is usually a need for immediate analysis, which could be problematic in thecase of isolated lagoons Strictly followed preservation methods are necessary for somechemical measures, although immediate analysis is definitely preferred If this is not

a possibility, samples should be kept cool or frozen In the case of biogenic salts,samples can be stored safely up to 6 h at 0°C, and for a longer time if stored below–20°C Preservation methods with addition of chemicals (chlorophorm, mercury,sulfuric acid), which have been used historically, are not recommended

Automatic analytical methods may not be possible in a dynamic lagoon subject tovarying water properties and concentrations, a typical feature of lagoons Analysts mustcarefully consider calibration in such cases Concentrations beyond the calibration

range should be diluted High levels of organic or particulate matter may introducebias into results.

For contamination by harmful substances in water, biota, and sediment, thefollowing parameters are usually determined:

• Trace metals (mercury, cadmium, copper, chromium, zinc)

• Pesticides, particularly chlorinated compounds such as trichloroethane (DDT), hexachlorocyclohexanes (HCHs), and hexachloro-cydobenzene (HCB)

dichlorodiphenylo-• Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs)

• Petroleum hydrocarbons (total hydrocarbons: PAHs)Methodology is provided in various guidelines and specialized papers, althoughpreference is given to ICES development and existing guidelines, e.g., the Helsinki

and/or OSPAR.9 These guidelines have been developed for marine areas and includevery useful precise measurement schemes, including sampling, sample preservation,sample pretreatment, and instrumental measurements These guidelines can be usedfor measuring chemical parameters in lagoons, however, with some modificationsbecause of specific conditions of the lagoon

7.2.4 M ONITORING FOR B IOLOGICAL P ARAMETERS

Biological parameters will depend on the specifics of the monitoring program Inthe case of eutrophication, the following parameters are usually included:

• Primary production

• Chlorophyll a

• Phytoplankton (species composition and biomass)

• Zooplankton (species composition and biomass)

• Macrophytes (depth range, species composition, and biomass)

• Macrozoobenthos (species composition and biomass)

• IchthyiofaunaSimilar to other monitoring parameters, biological determinants should be espe-cially well calibrated and agreed upon by participants This is usually done throughworkshops where methodology and equipment are agreed upon

Workshops on taxonomic determinations are under way in various internationalcommissions They are currently involved in unifying monitoring approaches Guide-lines are available for many monitoring programs, although none is comprehensive(e.g., HELCOM,8 OSPAR,9 JAMP, and COMBINE)

Various sampling equipment is adopted for monitoring phytoplankton, zooplankton,and zoobenthos This is usually calibrated within one monitoring program, i.e., usingthe same mesh size, counting methods, etc The intermingling of freshwater and marineorganisms in samples originating from brackish lagoons may cause difficulties in lab-oratories, which may have capabilities in one or the other type of organism, but notboth Likewise, samples from hypersaline waters may contain organisms that are not

easily identifiable by some laboratories In general, lagoons have a large number oftaxa, relatively high diversity, and a relatively high abundance of biomass There islikewise a large amount of periphyton, which hampers analysis In general, biologicalsampling in lagoons requires more time than required for the open sea and also requires

a greater degree of knowledge about the ecosystem

7.2.5 M ONITORING OF I MPACT OF D IFFERENT U SES OF L AGOONS

Coastal lagoons are characterized by intensive exploitation; therefore, they aresubjected to various physical, biological, and social interactions (as explained inChapter 8) In some lagoons, the presence of such activities may require themonitoring of additional parameters These activities include tourism, sewage

discharges, fisheries, mariculture, transport/shipping, coastal defense, dredging

and dumping of dredged material, sand and gravel extraction, and other coastalengineering activities

• Settlements and tourism—Human population tends to concentrate incoastal areas, particularly around lagoons In addition, seasonal tourismmay bring a growth in population amounting to a multiple of the perma-nent population as happens in Venice Lagoon (Italy) and in Mar MenorLagoon (Spain) In many cases, this growth is beyond the carrying capac-ity of the environment as well as the capacity of local infrastructure.Consequently, such activity may create serious environmental damage,particularly since not many countries are able or willing to efficientlyregulate tourism activities Tourism tends to gravitate toward nature andlandscape conservation areas as well as toward precious and pristine spots,consequently destroying the tourist amenities

Environmental monitoring in such cases is related to the pressure of tourism andestimating the carrying capacity of the environment and the negative effects oftourism Tourism and recreational activity usually destroy or make unintendedchanges in habitats, have effects on species diversity and rare species, cause changes

in quality of bathing waters, etc Modeling can be applied to demonstrate differentscenarios of pressure effects of tourism on the lagoon ecosystem

• Sewage discharges—The relationship between sewage discharges andmicrobiological pollution and the effects on sanitary conditions are evi-dent Species of pathogenic bacteria are found in the vicinity of sewageoutflows Monitoring is often undertaken to determine bathing water qual-ity, utilizing established techniques based on concentrations of coliformbacteria Distribution of microbiological pollution along the coast is often

a subject of modeling activity

• Fisheries—Lagoons are usually very productive and are often intensivelyexploited as fishery sites They also are highly sensitive to overexploita-tion The pelagic system as well as the bottom system may be adversely

affected by changes in the relative number of species, through removal

of commercial species, mortality of nontarget species, physical bance of the bottom, fish discards, and use of antifouling paints It isimportant to restrict fisheries to “safe biological limits” and to takemeasures to eliminate and/or restrict potential negative effects of over-harvest on the ecological community, which is what occurred in DalyanLagoon, Turkey Estimation of total allowable catches (TACs) and esti-mation of “safe biological limits” for fisheries are based on monitoring

distur-of fish resources and environmental conditions for fish reproduction andgrowth Commercial fish species are well monitored to secure commer-cial catches for the future; however, monitoring of impacts on noncom-mercial fish species and on the environment is usually neglected and evenpoorly understood

• Mariculture—Lagoons are often utilized for mariculture, partly due totheir shallow nature and shelter from the open sea Mariculture can have

a great effect on the ecosystem, due to excess of nutrient supply andintroduction of contaminants such as pesticides and antibiotics For exam-ple, the Ria Formosa Lagoon, Portugal, is experiencing these effects.Mariculture should be kept under control through management and regularmonitoring of its environmental effects

• Transport/Shipping—Commercial shipping, including ferry boat traffic,causes input of hazardous substances by cleaning tanks, illegal discharges

of fuel and bilge oil, burning of fossil fuels, discharges of waste water,introduction and transfer of marine species (mostly by the discharge ofballast water), use of antifouling paints, and loss of cargo and refusedumping Thus, monitoring is required not only for organic chemicals butalso for organisms Violation of the environment in coastal areas andlagoons (e.g., illegal discharges) seems to be less frequent in lagoons than

in the open sea and off-shore areas Such cases are most often detectedand punished In some areas the use of antifouling paints, particularlythose containing organo-tin compounds, has caused serious biologicaleffects, including mortality of commercial and natural oyster beds andsome other mollusk species

• Introduction of alien species—Although occasionally the result of naturalmigration, introduction of new species into lagoons is mostly of anthro-pogenic origin, often the result of discharge of ballast water The effects

in lagoons are often greatly magnified compared with similar events inthe open sea For example, the effects of the spread of the zebra mussel

(Dreissena polymorpha) has been devastating in coastal and semienclosed

water bodies throughout the northern hemisphere There are ecosystemmodels for invasive species illustrating the ecosystem impact and trophiccumulative effects of some introduced species in the Great Lakes and theMediterranean Sea.10 The models aim at emphasizing effects other thanjust prediction and competition for food, effects that are often less obvious

in the ecosystem, by incorporating quantitative data on abundances,growth and uptake rates, etc