Mobile Virtual Work A New Paradigm phần 1 pot

A wider group of experts was invited to present their views on mobile virtual work and ideas about book chapters from different perspectives of working life.. 1 Emerging Mobile Virtual W

Mobile Virtual Work

J.H Erik Andriessen ´ Matti Vartiainen

Professor J.H Erik Andriessen

Delft University of Technology

Department of Work and Organisational Psychology

Jaffalaan 5

2628 Delft

The Netherlands

j.h.t.h.andriessen@tbm.tudelft.nl

Professor Matti Vartiainen

Helsinki University of Technology

Laboratory of Work Psychology and Leadership

P.O Box 5500

02015 TKK Espoo

Finland

matti.vartiainen@tkk.fi

ISBN-10 3-540-28364-1 Springer Berlin Heidelberg New York

ISBN-13 978-3-540-28364-5 Springer Berlin Heidelberg New York

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Dear Reader

This is a book about mobile virtual work It aims at clarifying the basic concepts and showing present practices and future challenges The roots of the book are in the collaboration of few European practitioners and re-searchers, who met each other under the umbrella of the Swedish SALTSA programme (see next page) in January 2002 in Stockholm The group was first called ‘ICT, Mobility and Work Organisation’ but redefined itself quickly as ‘Mobile Virtual Cooperative Work’ group The change of the name reflects the development of reasoning in the group We could not find much material on mobile work, certainly not systematic studies, al-though a growing interest in mobile technologies and services could be found Practices of telework and virtual organizations were better known, but we were convinced that the combination with mobile work was some-thing different and new Our main target became to understand what it was all about

The next step was an expert meeting in October 2004 at Rånäs Castle again in Sweden A wider group of experts was invited to present their views on mobile virtual work and ideas about book chapters from different perspectives of working life Some of the expertise could be found through the network of the AMI@Work family created by the New Working Envi-ronments unit of the European Commission’s Information Society Direc-torate-General Also close collaboration was developed with the related MOSAIC program

Today, much more is known about mobile work systems as can be seen

in the following chapters There are now many other researchers and titioners in this field Mobile business models are being developed, bring-ing along human, organizational and societal challenges

prac-With this book we realise our intention to present a ‘state of the art’ lection of knowledge on this subject We very much hope that you will find the discussion about present day reality and future challenges of mo-bile virtual work as exciting as we do It is possibly a new paradigm

VI Preface

SALTSA

A Joint Programme for Working Life Research in Europe

SALTSA is a programme for research on European working life run inclose co-operation by the National Institute for Working Life in Swedenand the Swedish Confederation of Trade Unions (LO), the Swedish Con-federation of Professional Employess (TCO) and the Swedish Confedera-tion of Professional Associations (SACO)

The aim of SALTSA is to generate applicable research results of highacademic standard and practical relevance Research is carried out in areaslike labour market and employment, labour law, work organisation andhealth and safety

Preface V

Part 1 Concepts and Prevalence 1

1 Emerging Mobile Virtual Work 3

Erik Andriessen and Matti Vartiainen 3

1.1 Fundamental changes and driving forces 3

1.2 What is Mobile Virtual Work? 6

1.3 Objectives and general design of a research program 8

1.4 The contributions to this book 9

References 12

2 Mobile Virtual Work – Concepts, Outcomes and Challenges 13

Matti Vartiainen 13

2.1 Emergence of new concepts 13

2.2 What is mobile? 14

2.2.1 Mobile spaces and places as working contexts 15

2.2.2 Mobile subject 17

2.2.3 Mobile tools 17

2.2.4 Mobile object of work 18

2.2.5 Mobility in organisations and business models 19

2.3 What is virtual? 20

2.4 What is Telework? 21

2.5 Forms of physical and virtual mobility 22

2.5.1 Emergence of eWork 22

2.5.2 Types of physically mobile employees 24

2.6 Mobile work systems in distributed organisations 26

2.6.1 Complexity of tasks 28

2.6.2 Complexity of context 28

2.6.3 Internal processes of individual and collective subjects 37

2.7 Outcomes and challenges 38

Acknowledgements 42

References 42

VIII Contents

3 Mapping the Mobile eWorkforce in Europe 45

Karsten Gareis, Stefan Lilischkis and Alexander Mentrup 45

3.1 eWork and physical mobility 45

3.2 Drivers 47

3.2.1 Drivers of worker mobility 47

3.2.2 Physical and virtual mobility 49

3.2.3 ICTs as drivers of mobile work 49

3.3 Conceptualising mobile eWork 51

3.4 Mobile work and mobile eWork today 54

3.4.1 Mobile work 54

3.4.2 Mobile eWork 57

3.4.3 Tele-collaboration: "virtually mobile eWork" 63

3.5 Conclusions and outlook 63

Statistical annex 65

References 67

4 New Forms of Work in Labour Law 71

Minna Helle 71

4.1 New forms of work as legal challenges 71

4.2 Mobile and virtual work in labour legislation 73

4.3 The European framework agreement on telework 75

4.3.1 Purpose and background 75

4.3.2 The definition of a teleworker 76

4.4 Employment relationship and entrepreneurship 78

4.5 Employment conditions in mobile and virtual work 80

4.5.1 The outline of employment conditions 80

4.5.2 The principle of equal treatment 81

4.5.3 Working time 82

4.5.4 Equipment – costs and liability issues 83

4.5.5 Health and safety 84

4.5.6 Data protection 85

4.5.7 Privacy issues 85

4.6 Contractual issues 86

4.6.1 Individual contracts in mobile and virtual work 86

4.6.2 Particularities of mobile and virtual work 86

4.6.3 The need for specific contracts in different situations 87

4.6.4 The content of a specific contract 90

4.7 Conclusions 91

References 93

Contents IX

Part 2 Mobility in Work 95

5 Virtually Connected, Practically Mobile 97

Mark Perry and Jackie Brodie 97

5.1 Chapter outline 97

5.2 Designing mobile technology to ‘fit’ the work 98

5.3 On being mobile 99

5.3.1 Addressing Mobile Virtual Work 99

5.3.2 ‘Mobility’ in the research literature 101

5.3.3 Articulating mobile work: ‘mobilisation work’ 102

5.4 Examining mobility 104

5.4.1 Data collection methods 104

5.4.2 Primary data collection 105

5.4.3 Technology probes and user evaluation 106

5.5 Analysis 106

5.5.1 Cognitive activity and planning behaviour 107

5.5.2 Social interaction and home/work relationships 110

5.5.3 Mechanisms of interaction in mobilising work 112

5.6 Technology probes: design and functionality 112

5.6.1 Design of the probes 112

5.6.2 VMail 113

5.6.3 Dynamic-List 114

5.6.4 Connect-Talk 116

5.7 Probe evaluation and implications for design 118

5.7.1 Supporting awareness 118

5.7.2 Supporting effective communication 119

5.7.3 Transforming work relationships 120

5.7.4 Building and maintaining social and domestic bonds 121

5.7.5 Privacy and ‘user control’ 121

5.7.6 Technological implications 122

5.8 Discussion and conclusion 124

References 126

6 Collaboration in Mobile Virtual Work: a Human Factors View 129

John R Wilson 129

6.1 Starting position 129

6.2 Future work, mobility and virtuality 130

6.3 Collaboration 133

6.4 Examining mobility 135

6.4.1 Social and organisational support 135

6.4.2 Technical systems support 138

X Contents

6.5 Methodological considerations in studying collaborative work141

6.6 Cases of collaborative working 142

6.6.1 Collaborative virtual environments 142

6.6.2 Studies of planners and schedulers 144

6.6.3 Railway maintenance 145

6.6.4 Multiple decoupled interaction in virtual environments 146

6.7 Concluding discussion 147

Acknowledgements 149

References 149

7 Model-based Design of Mobile Work Systems 153

Ludger Schmidt and Holger Luczak 153

7.1 Introduction 153

7.2 Trends of mobile work in Europe 154

7.3 Mobile work in the context of industrial engineering 156

7.4 Design space model for mobile work systems 159

7.5 Case study on augmented reality work 163

7.6 Application of the model based design process 165

7.6.1 Requirements analysis of the objective 166

7.6.2 Identification of interconnections and conception 168

7.6.3 Integration and prototyping of design solutions 170

7.6.4 Evaluation and verification 171

7.7 Conclusion 173

References 174

8 Usability in IT Systems for Mobile Work 177

Niklas Johansson, Torbjörn Lind and Bengt Sandblad 177

8.1 Usability in mobile IT systems 177

8.2 Usability aspects and criteria 179

8.2.1 General usability in IT-support systems 179

8.2.2 Mobility specific usability criteria 181

8.2.3 Design for mobile systems 185

8.3 Assessment of usability in mobile systems 186

8.3.1 Method 186

8.3.2 Results 188

8.3.3 Case study – the ambulance system CAK-net 191

8.4 Design for usability in mobile systems for home care 193

8.4.1 Background 193

8.4.2 Seminars for requirement gathering 194

8.4.3 Specification of future work 195

8.4.4 Design of mobile work support systems 197

8.4.3 Case conclusions 199

Contents XI

8.5 Conclusions 200

Acknowledgements 201

References 201

9 Participative Design for Home Care Nursing 203

Marion Wiethoff, Thierry Meulenbroek, Hans Stafleu and Rogier van Boxtel 203

9.1 Home health care as mobile work 203

9.2 ICT, mobile workers and the chronically ill 204

9.3 User involvement in design 205

9.3.1 Design approaches 206

9.4 Application of the ESE design approach 211

9.4.1 Stage B: Analysis present situation and problems 211

9.4.2 Stage C: Defining the input for textual scenarios 213

9.4.3 Stage D: Developing textual scenarios 214

9.4.4 Stage E: Defining the input for pictorial scenarios 221

9.4.5 Stage F: Developing pictorial scenarios 222

9.5 Discussion and conclusions 226

References 228

10 Well-being and Stress in Mobile and Virtual Work 231

Peter Richter, Jelka Meyer and Fanny Sommer 231

10.1 Challenge of well-being in mobile virtual work 231

10.2 A framework to mental workload and mental strain 232

10.2.1 Summary 236

10.3 Task-related and organisational factors of mental workload 237

10.3.1 Individual work in virtual settings 237

10.3.2 Aspects of collaboration in mobile virtual work 240

10.3.3 The role of resources 247

10.4 Conclusions 248

References 249

11 Building Scenarios for a Globally Distributed Corporation 253

Veli-Pekka Niitamo 253

11.1 Challenge of global working 253

11.2 Drivers, motivation and context of change 254

11.3 Globally distributed mobile work environment 255

11.4 Drivers and benefits of flexible working solutions 261

11.5 Scenario challenges 262

11.6 Conclusion 264

References 265

XII Contents

12 Case Descriptions of Mobile Virtual Work in Practice 267

Robert M Verburg, Stefania Testa, Ursula Hyrkkänen and Niklas Johansson 267

12.1 Setting the scene 267

12.2 MVW in practice: customs control in the Netherlands 268

12.2.1 Mobile setting 268

12.2.2 Implementation 269

12.2.3 Benefits and drawbacks 270

12.2.4 Conclusion and lessons learned 271

12.3 MVW in practice: providing facility services in Italy 272

12.3.1 Mobile setting 272

12.3.2 Implementation 273

12.3.3 Benefits and drawbacks for the organisation 274

12.3.4 Benefits and drawbacks for employees 274

12.3.5 Conclusions and lessons learned 275

12.4 MVW in practice: mobile servicemen in Finland 276

12.4.1 Mobile settings 276

12.4.2 Mobile reporting with the Palm computer 278

12.4.3 Implementation 279

12.4.4 Benefits and drawbacks 279

12.4.5 Conclusions 281

12.5 MVW in practice: IT-support for home care in Sweden 282

12.5.1 Intended use 283

12.5.2 The system implemented in another environment 283

12.5.3 Performance and outcomes 284

12.5.4 Unanticipated use of the system 285

12.5.5 Conclusions and lessons learned 286

12.6 Overall conclusion 287

Acknowledgement 288

References 288

Part 3 Organisational Strategies 289

13 Knowledge Sharing in Mobile Work 291

Mariano Corso, Antonella Martini, Luisa Pellegrini 291

13.1 The KMS challenge in mobile context 291

13.2 Research framework and methodology 295

13.3 Field research results 298

13.3.1 Mapping the MW phenomenon: the survey results 298

13.3.2 Cause and effect links: three explicative case studies 302

13.4 Conclusions and implications 315

References 317

Contents XIII

14 Factors Influencing the Diffusion of New Mobile Services 319

Sven Lindmark, Mats Magnusson and Filippo Renga 319

14.1 Mobile work and mobile services 319

14.2 Development and diffusion of innovations 320

14.2.1 Strategic issues related to resources and capabilities 321

14.2.2 Technological issues 323

14.2.3 Economic issues 324

14.2.4 Marketing issues 324

14.2.5 Summary 325

14.3 Vehicle telematics in West Sweden 326

14.4 Methods used 328

14.5 Empirical observations 329

14.5.1 Overview 329

14.5.2 Case illustration: Vehco and the Co-Driver 330

14.5.3 Encountered benefits, problems and firm responses 331

14.6 Discussion 337

Acknowledgements 341

References 341

15 Mobile Workplaces and Innovative Business Practice 343

Hans Schaffers, Liz Carver, Torsten Brodt, Terrence Fernando and Robert Slagter 343

15.1 The challenge of mobile workplaces 343

15.2 Mobility and collaborative working 344

15.3 Current perspectives in mobile collaborative work 347

15.4 Mobile work and new business practice 352

15.4.1 Automotive industry 352

15.4.2 Aerospace industry 353

15.4.3 Building and construction industry 355

15.4.4 Prospects for new ways of mobile working 357

15.5 Introducing mobile collaborative work 357

15.6 Towards a roadmap and innovation agenda 361

15.6.1 Future scenarios 361

15.6.2 An initial roadmap for mobile collaborative workplaces 362 15.7 Final remarks 366

References 367

XIV Contents

16 Mobile Virtual Work: What Have We Learned? 369

Matti Vartiainen and Erik Andriessen 369

16.1 Introduction 369

16.2 MVW is among us 370

16.2.1 Mobile Virtual Work is strengthening 370

16.2.2 A typology of MVW 372

16.3 Specific conclusions and implications 375

16.4 Scenarios for the future 383

16.4.1 A European vision 384

16.5 Conclusion 385

Index 387

List of Contributors 389

Part 1

Concepts and Prevalence

1 Emerging Mobile Virtual Work

1.1 Fundamental changes and driving forces

Something new is happening in the nature of organisations and the role of employees, a change that may be indicated by the concept of ‘Mobile and Virtual Work (MVW)’ This type of work is already a reality in different business areas with mobile customer services, such as sales, logistics, maintenance, and professional services like consulting or health care These developments do not only take place in the commercial world, but also in public and non-profit sectors

A number of driving forces let us expect that this type of work is rapidly gaining momentum in working life worldwide Some of the driving forces are related to reducing costs and increasing economical outcomes Others grow out of the needs and preferences of employees The driving forces form an interwoven set of relationships They can be clustered into a) so-cietal forces including technology and b) organisational and individual choices

A driving force is the competition in the markets and new business tices, e.g a globalised business is not possible with a local organisation Ongoing globalisation of markets and businesses leads to higher mobility requirements and widely distributed international cooperation Customers

prac-of a product and talents needed to create a product or a service are globally dispersed Products and services are getting more and more complex and are, to an increasing extent, being based on knowledge from different do-mains and disciplines This means that they require growing efforts to bring together and combine multiple expertises and competences in order

to create specific customer solutions Customer orientation as a strategic business perspective requires higher efforts in exploring customer needs,

4 Erik Andriessen and Matti Vartiainen

in shaping and streamlining products and services according to these needs, and in providing comprehensive after sales services for maintaining their effectiveness

Technology is a driving force or at least an important enabler logical changes, particularly the developments in mobile and wireless in-formation and communication technologies (ICT), create possibilities to work in any place and time This driver is closely related to the business driver, because of economical benefits it potentially implies The European Information Technology Observatory (2004) forecasts that although many mobile applications and services are still in their infancy, the demand of technology and services will grow, because of the following reasons: the number of mobile employees is to increase in Europe sharply in the com-ing years, the number and features of hand-held equipments increase as well, wireless LAN spreads, Bluetooth replaces cables, 3G is implemented, and operators develop their assortment, when broadband networks are widely implemented Mobile technology opens a new perspective to prod-ucts, services, work and organisation by increasing possibilities to select more freely the place of working, and by allowing higher mobility than

Techno-“wired” technologies Salesmen, auditors, consultants, patrolling police, truck drivers, ambulance staff, on-site customer service and repair and maintenance groups are some of the most common examples of physically mobile workers using mobile technologies and services Many other pro-fessions have a strong mobile element as their job content

A driving force may even be a new strategic thought or a theoretical construct, e.g an idea of developing a virtual community to increase mu-tual learning and creativity may start the design of new technology to sup-port it, and later create new business opportunities When Marshall McLu-han forecasted the “global village” in the 1960s, he was, in fact, speaking

of the dispersed, virtual workplace

The role and significance of people and their needs and habits cannot be underestimated Needs and benefits of citizens – customers in the case of companies – are in the end a decisive factor in the implementation of both mobile technologies and forms of organisations

These drivers constitute some of the major forces in this arena In the following chapters more specific factors are discussed (see e.g the chap-ters of Gareis and of Schaffers in this volume) The market side together with the technological changes stimulate the demand side, i.e what needs

to be done and how Demographic and social changes influence the supply side, i.e the kind of workers that are available The impacts of the major changing forces on the world of work are mediated by inter-organisational structures and strategies; and the interaction between all these forces takes place in a larger political-economic-societal context

1 Emerging Mobile Virtual Work 5

Altogether, the implications of these rather general and lasting trends for work requirements sum up to increased shares of MVW in business and work processes The direct consequence of this all is to be found in the growth of distributed work processes, network organisations, physical mo-bility of workers and intensive interaction through various ICT tools The development of mobile virtual work can, therefore, be highly attractive, both for companies who in this way can become more flexible, effective and innovative, and for those employees who prefer dynamic work envi-ronments or a more flexible integration of work and private life

At the same time, we see indications of more fundamental and times negative developments The possibilities for professional develop-ment and learning of employees who do not meet colleagues face-to-face may be limited Working in a dispersed and mobile manner requires new skills and competences both from employees and leaders The social cohe-sion (social capital) in organisations may face large gaps when workers are not only geographically distributed, but also have less fixed contractual re-lations with companies The management of work may become quite diffi-cult when intellectual and social capital is threatened by new organisa-tional arrangements On the other hand, new technologies make the monitoring and control of employees often much easier, even from afar This requires a new deal between employers and employees And well-being may suffer from work under high time pressure without social sup-port If one works at varying places new social and emotional requirements are needed The balance of work and family life may be shaken, because work is brought to home There are also some signs of the increasing digi-tal divide not only between continents and countries but also inside coun-tries For example, statistics show that big companies have better resources than small- and medium-sized companies to invest on new technologies One of the main reasons not to implement wireless and mobile technolo-gies and to increase working outside the main office is the issue of secu-rity The weaknesses in the security of transferring information and confi-dential knowledge in the Internet are real challenges, which slow down the development of e-business models

some-Summarising, it appears that the trends toward mobile and virtual work processes are central in a wider process A process, in which organisations become less integrated, both geographically and in terms of employment, and a process, in which people may become more independent but possi-bly also isolated both socially and contractually It is a trend toward less bureaucracy and more interaction in terms of communities But the new possibilities can bring risks, and short-term effectiveness may conflict with long-term sustainability Before organisations become too optimistic about the alleged virtues of mobile and virtual work processes they may consider

6 Erik Andriessen and Matti Vartiainen

whether this development is really essential for their business or not What

is needed is the design and implementation of high-performance work processes By high-performance we mean processes that are effective and sustainable at the same time: They are effective in that production and in-novation are according to intentions, with controlled effort; and they are sustainable in that they regenerate rather than consume individual and so-cial resources needed and used in work

In our view, this implies an integrated socio-technical approach mation and communication technology is the instrument and medium through which MVW is enabled, but not determined In contrast, we con-sider the forms and requirements of the task and of the social interaction of the workers collaborating in MVW as shaping the actual work process and determine the performance and quality of the business they are designed for Consequently, computer technology has to meet work-oriented social requirements in order to be a support rather than a hindrance for work, while, at the same time, the functionality of the networked ICT systems impose specific action requirements on the collaborating workers

Infor-1.2 What is Mobile Virtual Work?

Is there a difference between MVW and the traditional concept of work? The chapters of Gareis and Helle will show that there is quite some overlap But the term telework is often associated to home-based telework and is strongly related to an individual’s preference to do the work on an-other place than the traditional office The concepts of mobile and virtual are, however, to be associated with the work content and with a change in organisational processes, which makes mobile and virtual work necessary The definition of Mobile Virtual Work and related terms is taken up in several of the following chapters (see particularly the chapter by Vartiai-nen) As will become clear, one has to distinguish between mobile work-ers, mobile work and mobile technology Mobile workers are employees that work at and move between different work places The concept of mo-bile work has two meanings, i.e in a stricter sense the documents and tasks that move, either physically or digitally, but in a wider sense it is also used

tele-to refer tele-to the work of mobile worker The concept of mobile technology is also used in two different ways It may refer both to portable ICT tools (e.g laptops) and to all the tools and infrastructures (e.g the Internet) that support mobile workers and work

1 Emerging Mobile Virtual Work 7

The term mobile is often associated with individuals, although of course

a team can be mobile to a certain degree in the sense that all or some of its members are sometimes physically mobile during their work

Virtual is a concept that is used in various frameworks, such as virtual working space and virtual group or organisation Virtual space is an Inter-net-based or intranet-based electronic working environment, in which documents, messages and images and even representations of people, i.e avatars, are stored, exchanged, retrieved and worked Virtual spaces are used for communication and collaboration

The ‘virtual group’ concept signifies that a number of persons are to a certain extent dispersed in space, sometimes in time, and that a substantial part of their communication is through the media The concept of virtual organisation may be understood in the same way In fact, being virtual is a matter of degree A virtual group or a virtual organisation is not so much a pure form as a continuum for describing a range of relationships along the dimensions of space, time, culture and organisational boundary Relative

to the traditional organisation, relationships in the virtual organisation are more geographically distributed, more asynchronous, more multicultural, and more likely to extent outside the firm There is, however, also litera-ture that considers a virtual organisation as a network of legally independ-ent companies that acts as one organisation vis a vis a client Thus, virtual organisations can be classified into levels of networks, companies, pro-jects, teams and dyads

Apart from space, time and ICT use, other dimensions are sometimes also parts of an author’s concept of virtuality, such as the diversity of members, e.g different cultural background and language, and the loose-ness of contractual binding of the members (see also the chapter by Vartia-inen) Mobility is a feature closely related to the use of different spaces and tools for communication and collaboration However, for many au-thors in this book these aspects are not considered and discussed in their analysis

The focus on mobile virtual work implies that we are generally ested in settings were physically distributed and mobile people interact through digital infrastructures and mobile tools to perform their tasks in an organisational context that has a mobility oriented structure and culture Strictly speaking this definition may also apply to the traditional physician that calls his assistant by telephone, while being at a patient’s home The phenomenon of mobile virtual work becomes, however, only interesting and challenging when dealing with new forms of mobility and when deal-ing with new forms of technological support, in the framework of flexible work arrangements, and network organisations