This know l e d g e ecology influences the enterprise know l-edge culture, since successful enterprises must participate in knowledge sharing and exchange that transcends the bound-aries
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Learners participate in learning
experi-ences in cohorts of 25, facilitated by a
faculty or mentor, as appropriate Mo s t
of their interactions are with the other
learners, the re p o s i t o ry of learning objects
and the knowledge management system
To acquire new insight, they interact with
their primary faculty/ mentor, other
faculty/mentors who are available, and/or
with artificial intelligence agents that
syn-t h e s i ze responses based on passyn-t quessyn-tions
and answers on particular topics
In upgrading the environmental sciences
offering, the community of practice
decided the extent of the upgrade, the
changes in content and tradecraft to
include, and the mechanisms for prov i
d-ing just-in-time knowledge The know
l-edge management and instru c t i o n a l
d e velopment staff provided insight on
h ow to incorporate these materials into
learning objects and the knowledge
man-agement system
Unleashing Creativity and
C reating New Patterns of Work and Learn i n g
Communities of practice are deploy i n g
n ew technologies to enable new means of social interaction and coord i n a t i o n
To d a y, proof-of-concept versions of these
n ew communities are being deve l o p e d and refined Over time, they will deve l o p
e ven greater amenity These new com-munities combine powe rful know l e d g e management tools with new interf a c e s and interactivity tools that make it easier
to engage in a wide range of community activities Examples such as Community Intelligence Labs (www.co-i-l.com) illus-trate how they facilitate the community interaction pro c e s s
With time, the new forms of social inter-action and coordination will unleash the
c reativity of the community members and the distributed intelligence that
resides in communities of practice in tactic, explicit, and evolving forms In turn, this will enhance the new patterns
of work and learning that will be emerg-ing from advances in knowledge sharemerg-ing This circular process is self-re i n f o rc i n g ;
n ew forms of social interaction, cre a t i
v-i t y, and patterns of work and learnv-ing accelerate the development and applica-tion of new technologies, which re s t a rt the cycle all over again
Evolving a Distinctive Knowledge Culture
While all enterprises have a distinctive
k n owledge ecology, they also are part of
a greater knowledge ecology that extends
b e yond their boundaries This know l e d g e ecology influences the enterprise know l-edge culture, since successful enterprises must participate in knowledge sharing and exchange that transcends the bound-aries of the enterprise Howe ve r, eve ry
I n f r a s t ru c t u res, Processes, Ca pabilities, and Culture s
Vi rtuous Circ l e
Adapted from: Co m m u n i t y Intelligence Labs, 2002.
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1 1 8
enterprise knowledge culture has
distinc-t i ve elemendistinc-ts For example, Richard Hames believes that enterprises are
char-a c t e r i zed by char-a distinctive blending of competing knowledge metaphors, mixing elements of “the cathedral” and “the café.”
To some extend, this blending is a sort of
“ b r a n d” portraying the role and flow of
k n owledge in the enterprise and beyo n d
O ver the next decade, successful enter-prises will change the dynamics of their
k n owledge ecosystems To do so will
re q u i re new levels of individual and orga-nizational competencies and changes in
l e a d e r s h i p, processes, infrastru c t u res, and
c u l t u res as summarized below
I n f r a s t ru c t u res, Processes, Capabilities, and Cultur e s
People-first organizations, not
task-first ones, spawn hot
groups that focus tirelessly on
tasks
Harold J Leavitt and Jean
Lipman-Blumen
O rdained leaders
S a c red dogma Code and pro t o c o l s
P rescribed culture The “official story ”
Leaders at all levels
H e retical ideas and passion Open source activity
Networked community
E m e rgent stories
Adapted from: Richard Hames, 2002.
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Becoming successful Knowledge Age
enterprises is a substantial deve l o p m e n t a l
challenge It will re q u i re a commitment
to individual and organizational learning
far beyond today’s norms And it will
re q u i re a commitment to understanding,
b u i l ding, and measuring new capabilities
—the capacity of individuals and
organi-zations to deve l o p, acquire, share, and
d e p l oy just-in-time knowledge to drive
decision making, strategy setting, pro d u c t
and service development and
enhance-ment, and customer satisfaction
Education in the twenty-first
century will be about who can
DO what not who KNOWS what.
Roger Shank, 2002
Making Capability Development
an Organizational Priority
This challenge is greatest for enterprises that have not taken an enterprise-wide
a p p roach to the development of personal and organizational competencies T h e systems, processes and pro c e d u res
neces-s a ry to neces-support competency deve l o p m e n t
a re the heart of an enterprise approach to strategic learning
Firms that understand how to translate the power of communities into successful knowledge
organizations will be the architects of tomorrow—not only because they will
be more successful in the marketplace, but also because they will serve as a learning laboratory for exploring how
to design the world as a learning system.
Etienne Wenger, Richard McDermott, and William M Snyder, 2002
I n f r a s t ru c t u res, Processes, Capabilities, and Culture s
The more original a discovery, the more obvious it seems afterwards.
Arthur Koestler
Focusing on key business processes that are closely linked
to strategic imperatives may offer better returns —at least at the outset —than attempted all-encompassing, enterprise-wide initiatives
Deloitte Consulting Building Individual and Organizational Capabilities
O rg a n i z a t i o n a l I n d i v i d u a l
Flexible delivery
Brand X-Port a l
Corporate/enterprise knowledge
Systems perspective
Defined palette of off e r i n g s
Data-centric service models
Knowledge management:
s t reamlining workflow and
management of knowledge capital
Flexible access
M y - P o rtal Individual learning and expert i s e Functional perspective
Open palette of choice Needs-based service models
L e a rning management: easy integration of disparate
i n f o rmation and communications
s o u rc e s / s e rv i c e s Balancing Organizational & Individual Perspectives on Knowledge
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1 2 0
De veloping enterprise and individual capabilities are different issues They have
d i f f e rent orientations and mechanisms
The dramatic enhancement of individual and organizational capabilities to acquire and share knowledge is the major human
re s o u rces challenge—and opport u n i t y —
of the twenty-first century The challenge can be met in small stages, each of which
is easily possible today As an example, one of the barriers to sharing know l e d g e
is the present re q u i rement that someone should add metadata to each “know l e d g e
o b j e c t” before it is placed in a database
This is rightly perc e i ved as a chore, ye t much of the effort is unnecessary
Simple solutions abound As an illustra-tion, we know of one computer network administrator who added some software to the print server that handled all re q u e s t s for printed documents The software kept copies of each document on the network The identity of the originator of the print request was known from their login details, there f o re it did not need to be re
-k e yed (enter data only once, then re - u s e it) If the document was not on the list of
p reviously printed documents, the
soft-w a re automatically created metadata for the document, by analyzing its content for key words and phrases The originator of the print request re c e i ved an automatic email telling them where they could find the copy of their printed document, if they wanted to reprint it, and also what metadata had been added to it This pro-vided each person with a personal database
of their own documents plus annotations
They could also choose whether to add the document to the department's know l-edge base, comprising documents explic-itly made available for sharing
Cascading cycles of development of such practices, along with powe rful content recognition and patterning software to
s u p p o rt them, will soon facilitate e-know l-edge pro c e s s e s
Knowledge sharing is becoming the central driver of the twenty-first century economy Among the many companies which now recognize their stock of human capital as the major asset to business success; access to knowledge and just-in-time learning
a re more important than ever before those countries, sectors, and
organizations that can adapt will be the winners of the 21st century.
Steve Denning, Michel Pommer, Lesley Schneier, 2002
In conclusion, enterprises of all kinds must change their knowledge ecologies if
e - k n owledge is to be transformed En t e r-prise strategies should include a know l-edge strategy that identifies the salience of
e - k n owledge to strategic relationships and
h ow the enterprise plans to use e-know l-edge to establish competitive adva n t a g e Enterprise initiatives dealing with eve ry aspect of knowledge ecology—infrastru
c-t u res, processes, capabilic-ties, and culc-ture — must be shaped in the image of the
e n t e r p r i s e’s knowledge strategy All enter-prises are affected—corporations, colleges and universities, trade associations and
p rofessional societies, government agen-cies, and other non-profits
I n f r a s t ru c t u res, Processes, Capabilities, and Cultur e s
Specs matter you indirectly
commit to specs when you go
online.
Tim Berners-Lee
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C H A P T E R
Best Practices, Business
Models, and Strategies
• Best Practices in Changing Ti m e s
• Time Frames for e-Knowledge
• Experiencing Continuous Reinvention
6 The next several years will witness dramatic advances in Web
technologies, standards, e-knowledge marketplaces, enterprise infrastructures, processes, as well as individual and organizational capabilities to handle e-knowledge
As a result enterprises will experience cascading cycles of reinvention in their best practices for e-learning and knowledge management e-Learning and knowledge management will be pervasive, integrated into enterprise activities, and for all practical purposes, fused These cycles of reinvention are starting today in leading-edge enterprises They will accelerate and continue for decades Many of the new practices will come from new competitors and from outside North America.
New business models and strategies will emerge that capitalize on the changing value nets for knowledge The new business models will reduce the unit cost of content and knowledge and create new combinations of knowledge, experience, and performance that can command market premiums from users.
As revenue streams are readjusted, enterprises will need to aggressively open new marketplaces for their knowledge Communities of practice will become the dominant
organizational form for creating and stewarding knowledge, spawning new mechanisms for creating insights and synthesis
In the process of these cycles of reinvention, enterprises will reinvent their knowledge ecosystems—
infrastructures, processes, competencies, and cultures.
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1 2 2
Cascading Cycles of Reinvention:
The dual forces of new Web technologies and e-knowledge standards and seamless, portalized enterprise applications infrastructures will accelerate the reinvention of processes and practices for e-knowledge Iterative cycles of
reinvention will cascade for decades
Best Practices: What does best
practice mean during a period of reinvention and transformative change?
It means existing conceptions of “best practice” will be challenged by new alternatives Given the wide range of global knowledge environments, best practice will likely take radically different forms around the globe
Business Models:The business models for e-knowledge are the combination of services, experiences and prices offered to acquire e-knowledge These are likely to change significantly Already, the unit cost
of e-content is being driven downward
Low-cost e-learning practices are being developed in Asia, and those practices will likely be adapted to application in developed markets in North America and Europe
S t r a t e g i e s :Enterprises will need to develop enterprise-wide strategies for knowledge and for their various activities supported by e-knowledge Enterprise strategies for e-learning, for opening new secondary marketplaces for e-knowledge, and for using knowledge as an instrument
of competitive advantage will become important
Knowledge Management Strategy:
Enterprises develop strategies for developing the infrastructure, processes, and capacities necessary to maximize the stewardship of their knowledge assets
Knowledge Strategy:Articulates the centrality of knowledge to the enterprise’s mission, vision, and competitive position
It presents the enterprise’s strategy for deploying its knowledge to establish competitive advantage
Automatic Tagging and Automatic
S e q u e n c i n g :Use of automated tools to assess content/context and automatically determine tags for reusable learning objects
P o rtfolio of Initiatives:
Every enterprise has a portfolio of initiatives, with various levels of risk and transformation potential ranging from improvement to incremental reinvention
to radical transformation
Enterprise Plans and Initiatives:
The organization’s regular business plan and initiatives which must explicitly reflect the enterprise knowledge strategy
Best Practices, Business Models, and Strategies
Vision is the art of
seeing things invisible.
Jonathan Swift
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During changing times, we experience the
past, present, and future, all at the same
time How can we engage the differe n t
visions, sights, and sounds? And how can
we each understand, in terms meaningf u l
to our individual frames of re f e rence and
experience, what the future for e-know
l-edge may hold? The future is not a
message to be conve yed from the pre s c i e n t
to eve ryone else; it is visions and
experi-ences to be engaged in an evo c a t i ve
manner by eve ry b o d y
In this new world, the search for
simplicity is tantamount to coming to
the core understanding of how
something is I find the old cliché,
‘You don’t really understand
something until you can say it in a
simple way,’ to be incredibly true and
unbelievably useful And I think
today, in the era where the economy
of attention reigns supreme, the
ability to get to the very essence of
what’s going on very rapidly also
provides tremendous leverage.
The power of saying simply makes all
the difference in the world The key to
me is learning how to craft evocative
objects: they could be metaphors,
sayings, or experiences which rapidly
help the other person rapidly
construct their own understanding.
Again, not provocative as much as
evocative, so that it evokes the right
kind of ideas in the listener Great
learners are, of course, great listeners,
and if you learn how to listen to and
through an evocative object, you learn
how to leverage your emotional side
as well as your cognitive side.
John Seely Brown
The future is conditional, not determinis-tic It depends on what we do, as well as major trends, external forces, and deve l o p-ments We have the power to derail the
f u t u re as well as enable it Over the next
s e veral years, advances in the tradecraft of
e - k n owledge will enable significant re i n-vention in e-learning and knowledge man-agement, but only among those enterprises and practitioners who have the means, the vision, and the will to make it so
The only way to predict the future is
to have power to shape the future.
Eric Hoffer
O ver the next few years, we will witness the existence of past, present, and future versions of “best practices,” all existing
c o n c u r rently in different settings and often in the same setting Most enter-prises will hedge their bets as they migrate their initiatives tow a rd the
e-k n owledge paradigm without fully aban-doning the existing paradigm Un d e r such conditions, the term “best practice”
becomes especially problematic
The future is called ‘perhaps,’ which is the only possible thing to call the future And the important thing is not to allow that to scare you.
Tennessee Williams
The simple fact is that even highly
innov-a t i ve enterprises minnov-aintinnov-ain innov-a portfolio of
i n i t i a t i ves ranging from “improve m e n t” to
“ i n c remental innova t i o n” to “radical inno-vation.” Under such conditions, their notion of “best practice” is highly situa-tional Our challenge is to identify the emerging best practices, business models, and strategies that are likely to emerge as the e-knowledge paradigm matures and tradecraft develops
Best Practices, Business Models, and Strategies
Best Practices in Changing Ti m e s
Out of intense complexities intense simplicities emerge.
Winston Churchill
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Predicting the future is uncertain Pre d i c t-ing a calendar for transformation is
uncer-tainty squared Tra n s f o rming e-Know l e d g e
aims to mobilize the energies of policy makers and practitioners to accelerate and facilitate the development of e-know l e d g e , not create a precise road map to the future
Ne ve rtheless, it is useful to paint in bro a d
s t rokes the time frames during which enterprises could expect to capitalize on the forces described in this book Rather than providing precise milestones, this description is meant to stimulate the re a l-ization that most of the technologies needed are available today and can be sub-stantially deployed by 2010
Perhaps the most plausible prediction
is that any prediction about serious matters is likely to be off the mark, except by accident.
Noam Chomsky
The overall time frames have been drawn
f rom a set of re s o u rces describing the evo-lution of ambient intelligence enviro n-ments, learning and knowledge standard s ,
k n owledge exchanges and mark e t p l a c e s , enterprise applications infrastru c t u re s ,
a d vances in communities of practice, intelligent agents and search engines, and related developments Be t ween today and the year 2010, all of the primary elements enabling the full emergence of e-know l-edge have the capacity to develop and be put in place
The future is like heaven.
Everyone exalts it, but nobody wants to go there now.
James Baldwin
This is not speculation in the style of Ju l e s Verne or Arthur C Clarke, reaching far
b e yond the capabilities of current tech-nologies and into the long-term future
The technologies, standards, infrastru c t u re s , and e-knowledge marketplaces needed to make e-knowledge a reality are either pos-sible today or will be within a few ye a r s What is missing? The vision, perspective s , policies, pro c e d u res, routines, part n e r s h i p s , cost stru c t u res, capabilities, experience, strategies, and will that is necessary to make e-knowledge happen Our belief is that the greatest challenges to the deve l o p-ment of e-knowledge will emerge within the human and relationship dimension The table on the facing page summarize s the time frames for the arrival of
technol-o g y, standards, and e-kntechnol-owledge mark e t-places necessary to transform e-know l e d g e
Te c h n o l o g y, Standards and e-Knowledge Marketplaces
Most of the technologies and standard s needed to support e-knowledge sharing exist in proof-of-concept form Over time, they will spread among enterprises and spawn the development of exchanges and
m a rketplaces that should pro g re s s i ve l y
a c h i e ve economic viability by 2009
e-Knowledge Standard s Learning object
s t a n d a rds are in place today (metadata and modular content) A broader suite of
k n owledge interoperability standards will
come into use, on a de facto or de jure b a s i s ,
during 2003–2004
P roof-of-Concept Repositories M E R LOT, SCORM-compliant repositories, schol-arly e-prints, and a host of enterprise and cross-enterprise repositories exist
t o d a y Ty p i c a l l y, these pioneering effort s
a re still expensive and have not auto-mated and made routine the tagging
p rocess sufficiently to bring costs into
an acceptable range
Best Practices, Business Models, and Strategies
The future enters into us in
order to transform itself in us
long before it happens.
Rainer Maria Rilke
Time Frames for e-Knowledge
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P roof-of-Concept of Automatic Ta g g i n g
and Enterprise Reusability.In some
set-tings, enterprises have achieved re u s a b i
l-ity of learning objects and content in
d i f f e rent contexts For example, Know
l-edge Media, Inc and Autonomy have
d e p l oyed auto indexing and auto
tagging, auto sequencing of re u s a b l e
k n owledge objects using Ba yesian
algo-r i t h m s / Sh a n n o n’s theoalgo-rem foalgo-r
concep-tual search, and indexing methodologies
They have also deployed auto-indexing
of multimedia using voice re c o g n i t i o n
utilities and subsequent indexing Pro o f
-of-concept exists today
P roof-of-Concept Enterprise Accounting and Costing of e-Knowledge As they
d e velop experience in e-know l e d g e ,
l e a d i n g -edge enterprises are adapting their cost accounting systems and pro c e d u re s
to cost-out e-knowledge practices and
p roducts Over the next two years (2003–
2004), new model practices will emerge
Model Protocols for Enterprise Knowl -edge Asset Management.Cu r rent, first-generation approaches to know l e d g e asset management are too costly to be
a t t r a c t i ve for the full range of enterprise
k n owledge assets This includes the cost
of policy and protocol development and the cost of tagging, content manage-ment, and support In response, enter-prises have digitized their most strategic and/or often used re s o u rces Over the next several years (2003–2004), exe
m-p l a ry m-policies, m-protocols and automated tagging, and similar means will be used
to develop models that can be adapted
by a wide range of enterprises Associa-tions like NACUBO, EDUCAU S E ,
N AC UA, ASTD, ARL, and others are likely to play a major role in the deve l-opment and promulgation of models and the reduction of costs
Best Practices, Business Models, and Strategies
Time Frames for e-Knowledge: Te c h n o l o g y, Standards, and e-Knowledge Marketplaces
Te c h n o l o g y, Standards and
e-Knowledge Marketplaces
F r a m e s
Knowledge interoperability standard s
P roof-of-concept re p o s i t o r i e s
P roof-of-concept of automatic tagging
and re u s a b i l i t y
P roof-of-concept of enterprise accounting
and costing of e-knowledge
Model protocols for enterprise knowledge
asset management and external sharing
Digitizing of current knowledge re s o u rc e s
in vertical channels
E m e rgence of horizontal e-knowledge
marketplaces
Knowledge interoperability standards in place,
de facto or de jure
M E R L O T, ADL co-labs, SPARC e-prints
C u rrent examples—KMI/Autonomy applications
Leading-edge enterprises develop accounting systems and pro c e d u res to cost out e-knowledge practices and pro d u c t s
Enterprises develop model pro t o c o l s
Enterprises (publishers, associations, corporations, colleges, and universities) digitize their existing knowledge re s o u rces in vert i c a l
c h a n n e l s Horizontal marketplaces emerge to link the content in vertical repositories
Horizontal marketplaces achieve economic viability and substantial market penetration
2 0 0 2 – 2 0 0 4
2 0 0 2
2 0 0 2
2 0 0 3 – 2 0 0 4
2 0 0 3 – 2 0 0 4
1 9 9 7 – 2 0 0 7
2 0 0 2 – 2 0 0 5
2 0 0 5 – 2 0 0 9
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1 2 6
Digitizing of Current Knowledge in Ve rt i -cal Channels Since the late 1990s, text-book and trade text-book publishers, unive r s i t y
p resses, association presses, and other enterprises have been digitizing their exist-ing knowledge re s o u rces They have used these digital assets to extend and comple-ment their print offerings and to anticipate fully virtual products The repurposing of existing content in e-learning formats has been given a major stimulus by new defense contracts through the U.S
Defense De p a rt m e n t’s ADL initiative T h e
s i ze of this opportunity is US $48 million today and is expected to grow to ove r
$300 million by 2003 The Association of American Publishers has sponsored a
w o rkshop in conjunction with the Learn-ing Objects Ne t w o rk (LON) to explore
h ow to leverage these opportunities Ove r the next decade, repurposing content for e-learning thro u g h ve rtical publisher chan-nels will be a major m a rket opport u n i t y
Someday, objects will have wide-ranging and deep conversations with other objects, and their silent form of commerce will be the rule.
Glover T Ferguson
E m e rgence of Horizontal Marketplaces.
The multi-enterprise re p o s i t o r i e s described in Chapter 4—ARL’s Scholar’s
Po rtal, MERLOT, RDN, SMETE, SMC, and commercial entities like Learning Content eXchange, XanEd u , and LO N — a re harbingers of non-pro f i t and for-profit marketplaces that will emerge to slice across current ve rt i c a l channels Be t ween 2002 and 2005, we expect a number of these marketplaces to
e vo l ve from existing ve n t u res or enter the marketplace afresh If properly con-stituted and funded, these mark e t p l a c e s could achieve economic viability by 2005–2006 (also with the right business model) They could achieve widespre a d
m a rket penetration by 2008–2009
I n f r a s t ru c t u res, Pro c e s s e s , Capabilities and Culture s
Most of the technologies n e c e s s a ry to
s u p p o rt enterprise application infrastru
c-t u res and soluc-tions, and e-knowledge ecolo-gies are available in current or emerging generations of products, services, and solu-tions What remains to happen is
wide-s p read deployment and enterprise adaptation The table on the following page
s u m m a r i zes the timeframes for deve l o p i n g enterprise infrastru c t u res and know l e d g e ecologies necessary to support e-know l e d g e
P o rtalized Experience Layer Develops.
Most enterprises have deployed portal and intranet capabilities and are refining them
as platforms for interacting with their stakeholders Early, pro p r i e t a ry port a l
p roducts will have been replaced by inter-operable, low-cost portal solutions by 2003–2004 This expeditionary pro c e s s will then continue By 2004–2005, the
e volution of portals should have proceeded to the point where pro o f o f -concept is achieved of the “killer app:” the experience gateway through which stake-holders will experience the products, serv i c e s , and knowledge the enterprise has to offer
Fusion of Mission Critical Applications.
Most industries have demonstrated the
“f u s i o n” of mission critical applications though the enterprise portal/intranet Fo r example, in higher education, the full inte-gration of learning management, content management, and ERP, through the enter-prise portal, has been achieved thro u g h
S C T’s Banner product in conjunction with WebCT and CampusPipeline In the asso-ciation industry, assoasso-ciations such as the American Health Information Ma n a g e-ment Association (AHIMA) have fused their “body of knowledge,” e-learning, and communities of practice into a singular experience available to members and other stakeholders through the enterprise port a l Government and corporate demonstra-tions of this proof-of-concept are too
n u m e rous to re c o u n t
Best Practices, Business Models, and Strategies
In all affairs, love, religion,
politics or business, it’s a healthy
idea, now and then to hang a
question mark on things you
have long taken for granted.
Bertrand Russell