She has also made a significant contribution to fundamental re s e a rch on the relationship between student learning and learning technologies, using the notion of a 'conversational fra
Trang 2© 2003 by Society for College and Un i versity Pl a n n i n g All Rights Re s e rved Published 2003
Printed in the United States of America ISBN 0-9700413-2-2
Tr a n s f o rmi ng e-Knowledge
I I
Society for College and Un i versity Pl a n n i n g Ann Arbor, Michigan 48104
w w w s c u p o r g The mission of the Society for College and Un i versity Pl a n n i n g
is to promote the practice of compre h e n s i ve planning in higher education by developing and disseminating planning know l e d g e
Trang 3How do we capture the essence of the
transformational power of e-know l e d g e ?
The digital technologies pose a
moun-tainous challenge to all of us trying to
e x p l o re the possible futures they offer
They combine a new medium with a new
d e l i ve ry system, and each multiplies the
effect of the other The adaptive
com-puter is as re vo l u t i o n a ry a way of
sup-p o rting the way we think and learn as
was the invention of writing The In t e
r-net is as perva s i ve in its communicative
impact as was the invention of the
print-ing press In harnessprint-ing the two together,
we find ourselves grappling with the
e q u i valent of the invention of writing
and the invention of the printing press at
the same time This extraord i n a ry
histor-ical convergence must give us pause And
yet the pace of invention never pauses,
n e ver gives us the time we need to reflect
We cannot predict the future, but we do
sense that we have the power to shape it
So we need to take time to reflect: on what
those possible futures are, which are the
m o re desirable, and what it takes to re a l i s e them The authors of this book set out to help us with that process On eve ry page you will find them striving to express the ways in which e-systems can be exploited, the benefits they could yield, and what we all, individuals and organisations together, must now do
Underlying many of the contributions in this book is a debate about epistemol-ogy—when the knowledge technologies change so radically, they change not just what we know, but how we come to know
it The contributors here argue that
k n owledge is contextual, social, re l a t i v i s-tic—not a discrete and unchanging object The e-learning agenda creates the dilemma that while we can atomise
k n owledge into elements such as ‘learning
o b j e c t s’, we must recognise that they are
t h e re to be shared, contextualised, and negotiated in the social context of the online community of practice
We will come to a better understanding
of the epistemology of e-knowledge as
we slowly acquire the habits of the
e -K n owledge Economy: multitasking
a c ro s s the different modes of activity, publishing with or without authorship and with or without ow n e r s h i p, manag-ing the tyranny of choice, manipulatmanag-ing the multiple sources of knowledge it will take us a generation to understand the full impact of the new media Me a n-while, the authors of this volume have succeeded in articulating, through the
p rosaic combination of writing, graphics, and storytelling, re p resented in print and PDF forms, the pathways we can use to transform ourselves and our organisa-tions through e-know l e d g e
Diana Laurillard
Tr a n s f o r min g e- Kno wledge I I I
Foreword
About Diana Laurillard
P rofessor Laurillard is Head of the E-Learning Strategy Unit at the
UK Government's Department for Education and Skills (DfES) She
was previously Pro - Vice-Chancellor for Learning Technologies and
Teaching at the Open University Her role there was to ensure that
l e a rning technologies achieved their appropriate balance within the
full range of learning and teaching methods in the university's
courses She is known world-wide for her widely acclaimed book
Rethinking University T e a c h i n g , which recently entered its second
edition The first edition is still used in courses on learn i n g
technology all over the world She has also made a significant
contribution to fundamental re s e a rch on the relationship between
student learning and learning technologies, using the notion of a
'conversational framework' to define the learning process for higher
education, and then to interpret the extent to which new technology
can support and enhance high level conceptual learning
Trang 4Judy Brow n
Un i versity of Wisconsin System and exe c u t i ve director of the ADL co-lab is a
key f i g u re in the development and
d e p l oyment of SCORM (Sh a r a b l e Content Object Re f e rence Model) Sh e
p rovides re s e a rch and consulting on technology directions for all campuses of the Un i versity of Wisconsin Sy s t e m
D r Richard Ha m e s
is one of Au s t r a l i a’s most influential
i n t e l l e c t u a l s A celebrated author, public
speaker and futurist, Richard is chairman of The Hames Group (a global network of strategic advisers and knowledge designers), chairman of Australia To m o r row (an
initia-t i ve of Renaissance Earinitia-th) and a direcinitia-tor of the Australian Fo resight In s t i t u t e
Maria T h e resa Ma rt i n e z
d i re c t o r, Academic De velopment, Te c h n i c a l Millennium Un i ve r s i t y, part of ITESM i s
widely invo l ved in Mo n t e r rey Te c h’s e-learning activities that extend thro u g h-out the Americas
Professor Toshio Ok a m o t o
Un i versity of El e c t ro Co m m u n i c a t i o n s , Japan is a full pro f e s s o r in the Gr a d u a t e
School of Information Systems, the Un i-versity of El e c t ronics and Communica-tions and is a leading figure in the e-learning standards movement in Ja p a n
He is also president of the Japanese So c i e t y for Systems and Information of Ed u c a t i o n
D r Madanmohan Ra o
e d i t o r, INOMY c o m is a we l l - k n own
com-mentator on e-business, e-learning, and
k n owledge development in India He was formerly the communications director at the United Nations Inter Press Se rv i c e
b u reau in New Yo rk, and vice president at India World Communications in Bombay
D r Robby Ro b s o n
p resident, Ed u w o rks Corporation, is chair
of the IEEE Learning Technologies St a
n-d a rn-ds Committee (LTSC) ann-d is re g a rn-d e n-d
as a leading adviser and practitioner in the field of e-learning standards and pro d u c t s
Professor James C Ta y l o r
Un i versity of So u t h e rn Qu e e n s l a n d , Australia is widely re g a rded as one of the
top experts in the theory and practice of e-learning in the world He and his unive r-sity have been recently re c o g n i zed as leaders
in dual-mode university education
Professor Zhu Zhiting
is vice dean of the College of Online Ed u -cation at East China No rmal Un i ve r s i t y and Dire c t o r, (Chinese) National
Com-mittee of Distance Learning Te c h n o l o g y
St a n d a rdization He is a specialist in edu-cational technology and a leading figure in the development of e-learning standard s and practices in China
Tr a n s f o rmi ng e-Knowledge
I V
A d v i s o ry Committee
To support this initiative,
we have assembled a
committee of pro f e s s i o n a l s
recognized as leaders in the
e - l e a rning, knowledge
management, and
i n t e rnational standard s
m o v e m e n t s
A Guide to Using This Book
• For an overview of key trends and issues in the Knowledge Economy,
read the introduction and the brief summaries at the beginning of each
c h a p t e r Each chapter also contains a list of terms and concepts.
• This book is designed to make it easier to skim high-level concepts and
drill down into the details on items of personal interest When skim
-ming, pay attention to boxed information, tables, graphics, bolded
passages, and section headings.
• Use the online re s o u rces at w w w t r a n s f o rm i n g e k n o w l e d g e i n f o at the
same time as reading the book to support your learning Open the site
and read along with the book, using the searchable glossary and who’s
who in e-knowledge, index of topics, full bibliography, case studies, and
other re s o u rc e s
Trang 5To succeed in the Knowledge
E c o n o m y, most of us will need an
o rd e r-of-magnitude leap in our ability to create, acquire , assimilate, and share knowledge Even the manner in which we experience knowledge will be
t r a n s f o rmed, through technologies and practices that exist today or will soon be available Between now and the year 2010, best practices
in knowledge sharing will be substantially reinvented in all settings—education, corporations,
g o v e rnment, and associations and
n o n - p rofits That is our vision This transformation is underw a y
t o d a y We provide examples of leading-edge enterprises that are
c u rrently using e-knowledge to achieve significant savings in the time, cost, and effectiveness of deploying and sharing knowledge And vignettes and projections of best practices in the future that will use e-knowledge to build and
sustain competitive advantage relative to historic market leaders
in all fields
This book traces the thre e
p r i m a ry indicators of e-knowledge
t r a n s f o rmation: 1) Intern e t technologies, intero p e r a b i l i t y
s t a n d a rds, and emerg i n g e-knowledge repositories and marketplaces; 2) enterprise
i n f r a s t ru c t u res, pro c e s s e s , and knowledge cultures; and 3) cascading cycles of reinvention of best practices, business models and strategies for e-knowledge.
It concludes with practical,
“how-to” guidance on accelerating your enterprise’s readiness for e-knowledge in order to mobilize leaders and practitioners around the concept of e-knowledge, and develop
an enterprise knowledge strategy explicitly driving business plans.
Tr a n s f o r min g e- Kno wledge V
I n t ro d u c t i o n
Our international team has
assembled to produce a
manifesto on e-knowledge.
We begin with a simple vision:
in the Knowledge Economy, those individuals and enterprises that share and
p rocess their knowledge
e ffectively have a gre a t
a d v a n t a g e
Trang 6These are complex topics that cannot be
left to specialists Tra n s f o rming e-Know l e d g e
aims to demystify these topics and make them approachable to eve ryone To
s u p p o rt this effort we have created an online re p o s i t o ry of re s o u rces, including
a searchable glossary of terms at
w w w t r a n s f o r m i n g e k n ow l e d g e i n f o Us e the online re s o u rces simultaneously to
s u p p o rt your re a d i n g
Ac ross the globe, we see examples of the
e - k n owledge re volution From Bombay to Brisbane to Boston, practitioners are heightening their appreciation of the strategic importance of knowledge
Knowledge has become the key economic resource and the dominant
—and perhaps the only—source of competitive advantage.
Peter Drucker
Individuals and organizations must fun-damentally reshape the manner in which they appraise what they know, what they can do with it, and what they need to
k n ow They must also track best practices when they create, manage, deploy, and
l e verage knowledge These new compe-tencies will be compelling sources of
com-p e t i t i ve advantage in the Know l e d g e
Ec o n o m y Over time, technology will be a
c o re component of all knowledge man-agement and learning The “e” will tru l y
be redundant in re f e rence to e-know l e d g e management, e-learning, and e-business activities—if it is not already so
What do we know now that we didn’t know ten years ago? That learning and knowledge are the result of multiple intertwining forces: content, context, and community.
John Seely Brown
To d a y, a wide choice of solution prov i d e r s
s p e c i a l i ze in the distinct areas of content, context, and community Within five years, successful solution providers will meet the challenge of covering all thre e
a reas, while others will specialize in par-ticular areas Early adopters and influ-encers sense that now is the time to
p a rticipate in shaping these deve l o p-ments Enterprises that wish to succeed
re a l i ze that they mus t act now to start
to bui ld and reshape knowledge
infra-s t ru c t u reinfra-s, capabilitieinfra-s, and cultureinfra-s
A diverse assortment of learning and training organizations and industry
con-s o rtia are well pocon-sitioned to advance thicon-s transformation Poised for leadership and success are standards organizations, content aggregators, and collaborative alliances of knowledge organizations, including libraries, colleges and unive r-sities, and professional societies, and
a s s o c i a t i o n s
L e veraging technological innova t i o n , solution providers are creating applica-tions that will evo l ve into powe rful and
p e rva s i ve knowledge capabilities An
e-K n owledge Economy is emerging, con-sisting of providers and users in eve ry
s e c t o r All have a stake in the deve l o p-ment of policies, protocols, and practices that will accelerate the growth of e-know l-edge to meet the knowll-edge sharing
i m p e r a t i ves of the Knowledge Ec o n o m y
As an e-Knowledge In d u s t ry emerges, we can expect a series of “jump shifts” in our best practices for learning and know l e d g e management and in our ability to harness technological capability
I n t ro d u c t i o n
Tr a n s f o rmi ng e -Knowledge
V I
A Revolution in the Sharing of Knowledge
In an economy where the only
certainty is uncertainty, the one
sure source of lasting advantage
is knowledge.
Ikujiro Nonaka
Trang 7Jump Shifts in Perspectives,
Practices and Circ u m s t a n c e s
What is a jump shift? It is a fundamental
and disru p t i ve change in our way of doing
business It invo l ves leaping to a higher
plane of vision and performance Ju m p
shifts occur during periods of disru p t i ve
technological innovation, such as the
e -k n owledge disruption we’re
experienc-ing today To d a y’s emergexperienc-ing Know l e d g e
Economy is ve ry different from ye s t e rd a y’s
Inform ation Ec o n o m y To m o r row’s
K n owledge Economy will be differe n t
f rom today’s in ways that affect eve ry
aspect of learning, knowledge
manage-ment, and performance for individuals
and organizations The power of this
vision is not only that it helps enterprises
plan for the future, but that it energize s
enterprises to act decisively now, to
par-ticipate in the jump shifts rather than
be left behind
Jump shifts can take different forms Ju m p shifts in vision and perspective enable one
to consider a different plane of perf o r-mance with different practices and va l u e s But jump shifts can also occur in circ u m-stances For example, it is ve ry likely that within the next few years, the traditional model for scholarly publishing will make
a jump shift to an even more unbundled form based on digital repositories and
hor-i zontal marketplaces Our vhor-ishor-ionhor-ing for the future must consider potentials posed
by such dramatic changes in circ u m s t a n c e s
Planning fro m the Future Backward
The essence of foresight-based planning is
“planning from the future backward”
( Slaughter 2002) Rather than mere l y extrapolating present knowledge concepts and practices forw a rd into the future, fore-sight-based planning develops plausible scenarios of the future that capture the potential of current and anticipated
t rends Then those scenarios can be pulled back to the present to identify actions and changes in perspective that are necessary
to “get there from here.” T h a t’s planning
f rom the future backward
Fu t u re scenarios can include a range of
e-k n owledge impacts Pragmatic changes in
e - k n owledge can improve the efficiency of existing business and knowledge pro c e s s e s Pro g re s s i ve changes in e-knowledge can facilitate the re i n vention of business and
k n owledge processes and the underlying
k n owledge ecology of organizations At the re vo l u t i o n a ry level, e-knowledge can stimulate rethinking of the basic founda-tions of our enterprises and institufounda-tions—
colleges and universities, associations, corporations, government agencies, and other enterprises e-Knowledge scenarios can include permutations and combina-tions of these impacts
I n t ro d u c t i o n
Tr a n s f o r ming e- Kno wledg e V I I
The most successful leader
of all is one who sees another picture not yet actualized
Mary Parker Follett Ikujiro Nonaka
Trang 8A Single Future or Multiple Scenarios?
Even if one accepts the notion that our
f u t u re holds what for many individuals and organizations will be a re volution in the sharing of knowledge, there is no such thing as “the future” in a singular sense
T h e re are many scenarios for a future state
of knowledge sharing Mo re ove r, these conditions and practices of know l e d g e sharing will differ in significant ways
a c ross the globe And they will va ry dra-matically within organizations, communi-ties, and nations, based on the pre f e re n c e s , capacities, and choices made by individu-als, enterprises, and gove r n m e n t s
The author of the novel The Ne u ro m a n c e r,
William Gibson, said “The future is
a l ready here; it is just not distributed ve ry well.” Meaning that many of the social/
economic/technological elements of the
f u t u re that we will eventually experience
a l ready exist today Those elements have
p roponents and users Howe ve r, the
f u t u re will be the result of competition
b e t ween the established order and other possibilities, some of which will re q u i re jump shifts The particular future condi-tions that emerge will depend on personal and organizational decisions not ye t made, technologies not yet invented or not yet deployed at sufficient scale to be influential, and human pre f e rences not yet verified through choosing from re a l
a l t e r n a t i ves So we describe and pro j e c t
f u t u res with humility, not hubris, using the language of scenarios and choice, not monolithic, singular conditions
Choosing How to Participate in the Knowledge Revolution
It is about choice As our capacity to share
k n owledge increases, individuals and orga-nizations will make choices about how they will acquire, process, and assimilate
k n owledge The range of choices will be far
g reater than today But one fact is clear:
those individuals and organizations that
a c h i e ve a quantum leap in their capacity to
a c q u i re, process, assimilate, and share
k n owledge will enjoy a re l a t i ve competitive
a d vantage in the Knowledge Ec o n o m y
It is also about chance The uncert a i n t i e s and imponderables in today’s world seem much more daunting than they did in the 1990s Continuing problems with the
e c o n o m y, political setbacks, and terro r i s m remind us that pro g ress cannot be guaran-teed An unfortunate confluence of these conditions could seriously re t a rd the
d e velopment of the Knowledge Ec o n o m y and a re volution in knowledge sharing And it is about readiness Cu r rent ow n e r s
of large bodies of knowledge re s o u rces will attempt to extend and pre s e rve existing paradigms Under normal conditions, new
a p p roaches will be invented by outsiders and deployed despite the efforts of the defenders of the status quo It pays for organizations and individuals to pre p a re for the coming paradigm shift in know l-edge sharing This book attempts to
p rovide the insights and re c o m m e n d e d actions that will accelerate organizational and individual readiness for e-know l e d g e
To d a y, many of the technologies and prac-tices re q u i red for perva s i ve e-know l e d g e exist as proof-of-concept pilots or early
d e p l oyment prototypes Pro g re s s i ve deve l-opments in standards, commerc i a l i z a t i o n ,
d e p l oyment, and acceptance are needed for the e-Knowledge In d u s t ry to firmly take root We believe conditions are favo r-able for these to occur in large measure
b e t ween now and the year 2010
I n t ro d u c t i o n
Tr a n s f o rming e-Kn owled ge
V I I I
Uncertainties are inevitable.
But some forces are
unstoppable Scenario planning
means weaving the unknown
around the known
Ian Wylie
Trang 9The e-Knowledge In d u s t ry is at a
forma-t i ve sforma-tage in iforma-ts developmenforma-t Pe rva s i ve and powe rful forces described in the table below are driving the emergence of
e - k n owledge in theory and practice Yet even leading-edge innovators and organizations are taking fundamentally
i n c remental steps in vision and practice
It’s time for practitioners and policy makers to make a jump shift in vision
These potential forces provide the basis for raising expectations, elevating
per-s p e c t i veper-s and mobilizing energieper-s for the
e - K n owledge In d u s t ry and for transform-ing the ability of organizations and indi-viduals to create, manage, re p u r p o s e , combine and experience know l e d g e This book aims to support and art i c u l a t e the need for this transformation We
e n d e a vor to explain the meaning of these
d e velopments in terms that are clearly understandable to policy makers, organi-zational leaders and managers, and educa-tors and learning/training professionals in all settings We illustrate how this trans-formation will touch virtually eve ry
l e a r ning and knowledge management enterprise The focus is on understanding the implications of these developments for the various contexts—technical, pro c e s s ,
s t a n d a rds, cultural, and political—where
t h e re is interplay of knowledge manage-ment and learning Mo re ove r, the focus is also on both insight and concrete advice
on how to accelerate individual and
o r g anizational readiness for e-know l e d g e
Put simply, Tra n s f o rming e-Know l e d ge
aims to be a manifesto for the emerging
e - K n owledge In d u s t ry
The table on the following two pages
s u m m a r i zes the topics and ideas that
f o l l ow Scan them now and revisit them
as you proceed through the book
I n t ro d u c t i o n
Tr a n s f o r ming e- Kno wledge I X
F o rces Enabling and Stimulating
the e-Knowledge Industry
Investments in infrastru c t u re and best practices by ‘early adopters’ of
e-knowledge (e.g associations, governmental agencies, corporations,
universities) deliver results that encourage wider adoption, and also
facilitate new generations of enterprise applications.
Global enterprises increase competitiveness by developing faster ways
to manage their knowledge and their strategic learning, creating tools
that non-experts can use.
G rowth in expert networks and easier, more productive participation in
communities of practice push e-knowledge practices and competencies.
I n c reasing sophistication by users, who develop an appetite for
s e rvices that provide significant gains in their capacity to access
and assimilate knowledge.
Advances in Internet and intranet-based capabilities enable jump shifts
in creating and accessing knowledge store s
Innovations in mobile communications provide ubiquitous access to
perpetual learning solutions as well as new ways to meet demands for
e - c o m m e rce any place or time.
Insight into new and more effective ways of experiencing knowledge
drives innovation.
I n c reased understanding about how to deploy international standards in
ways that ensure useful re t u rn on investment (e.g thro u g h
i n t e roperability) stimulates continued investment.
A Manifesto for the e-Knowledge Industry
Trang 10I n t ro d u c t i o n
Tr a n s f o rming e-Knowle dge
X
An Information Economy where
most knowledge is pro p r i e t a ry
and hoard e d
C o n v e rgence is heralded in the
wake of developments in telecom
-munications, computer networks,
and information technology
Value and supply chains for
knowledge are embedded in
p ro p r i e t a ry sources of knowledge.
Content is king Learning silos
and academic publishing silos exist.
The metaphor for traditional learn
-ing is program delivery Distance
l e a rning is isolated from other
f o rms of learning and knowledge
m a n a g e m e n t
Traditional learning is expensive,
due to cost of content and other
re s o u rces and faculty involvement
at all stages.
Tactical learning is a response to
specific needs and skills gaps.
L e a rning practices differ across
the enterprise.
An emerging Knowledge Economy
w h e re the power of shared knowl -edge becomes evident Tr a d i t i o n a l power relationships relating to knowledge begin to ero d e
Networked webs and the pro l i f e r a -tion of mobile telecommunica-tions advance the practice of networked
k n o w l e d g e
Value chains for content begin to
be unbundled and disinterm e d i a t e d (eliminating the middleperson),
h a rnessing the malleability of all things digital.
Content and context are equally
i m p o rtant “Distance” and
“traditional” learning are enhanced
t h rough e-learning, using the metaphor of interactivity.
Traditional scholarly publishing models begin to be unbundled.
e - L e a rning is used to digitize existing models and begins to reinvent cost, availability of content, and roles of faculty, mentors, and learn e r s
Integrated learning is share d
a c ross the org a n i z a t i o n ,
i n t roducing consistent practices and infrastru c t u re s
A mature, fully developed Knowledge Economy that re w a rd s knowledge sharing and the
p roliferation of knowledge Perv a s i v e access to knowledge changes many power relationships and even soci -etal assumptions and practices
Computing and networks become
p e rvasive, enabling the “mobilization”
of knowledge to take account of the location of users and their needs at each location
Value chains become “value nets” as content is unbundled and available
f rom many sources The cost and
n a t u re of content change.
Content, context, and community
a re stru c t u red and interpenetrating Interactivity drives learning The use
of knowledge management to
s u p p o rt learning is a major
b re a k t h rough New publishing models emerg e
Economic models of learning are fully reinvented The cost of e-content declines and usage soars.
F a c u l t y, mentor, and learner interac -tions are re i n v e n t e d
Strategic, enterprise-wide learn i n g uses directed and autonomic learn ing to respond rapidly to org a n i z a -tional challenges Who can d o w h a t
is more important than who
k n o w s w h a t