Mapping Geomorphological Environments Phần 8 potx

If the wind speed reaches a certain level, the sand grains can lifted by the wind and are transported in suspension.. The sand grains that bounce, come in contact aeolian processes Aeoli

Chapter 8

aeolian environments

start to move, transport can be effected by drifting, i.e the grains move along the surface If the wind speed reaches a certain level, the sand grains can lifted by the wind and are transported in suspension The combination of these two processes

is the most typical mode of aeolian sand transport, known as “saltation” During this process, the sand grains, after their initial movement

by airflows above the fluid threshold velocity, are transported by the wind for a short distance and eventually fall to the ground The sand grains that bounce, come in contact

aeolian processes

Aeolian transport and

deposition

A wind speed known as the “fluid

threshold velocity” is necessary

for sand transport This speed is

proportional to the size of the sand

grains and the relation between them

is, in general, positive, which means

that the bigger the size of the sand

grains the higher the fluid threshold

velocity needed for the transport

For very fine fractions, such as silt

and clay, with high cohesion between

the grains, this relationship reverses

because of significant resistance in

the movement when the grains

Residual landform in Tunisia due to aeolian erosion processes (by A Vassilopoulos,

N evelpidou).

Mapping Geomorphological environments

Coastal sand dunes lie above the high tide level of the coastal zone and usually represent the limit of marine action on the coast They can extend over the land up to 10

km from the coastline and often act

as a coastal barrier that protects the lower coastal areas from the sea.Coastal dunes differ from other types of sand dunes Despite the fact that the basic formation process for both coastal and desert dunes is the aeolian transport of the sand, latter they have a totally different morphology The process that distinguishes the desert from the coastal dunes is the interaction between the wind and the vegetation that takes place in the coastal dunes and not in the desert dunes However, in dry regions where the coastal zone carries no vegetation, coastal and desert dunes have similar morphological characteristics Coastal sand dunes are aeolian landforms that appear mainly in dry, semidry and hot climates, rather than in tropical and subtropical areas where their formation is limited by the dense vegetation, the low wind speeds and the high humidity of the sand

The area where coastal dunes can form may also include longshore sand bars, parallel to the coastline and separated by longshore troughs There are dune systems with highly complicated morphology, like for example when the dune ridges are

with other grains that hold kinetic

energy, resulting in the lowering of

the fluid threshold velocity of the

sand grains This reduced velocity

is known as the “impact threshold

velocity” Consequently, it is clear

that the sand transport can be

sustained even in low wind speeds,

after its initiation

Sand deposition requires the

reduction of the wind speed For

instance, in the coastal zone this

reduction takes place on the lee

side of obstacles like woods, shells,

bushes etc The aggregation of

the sand due to the wind forms a

dune which is characterized by a

downwind side of gentle slope and a

lee side of a steeper slope The sand

inside the dunes is usually deposited

in a specific structure, known as

“cross- bedding” It is characterised

by the presence of crosscutting sand

layers with small and large angles

of inclination, that represent older

downwind and lee sides of the dune

Sand and wind interaction

The wind speed over a sand surface

is reduced due to the friction, just

like the water that flows in a river

wind currents, that are prerequisites

for the transport of the sand material

from the beach inland, are created

by the differential heating between

the land and the sea The starting

point for the aggregation of the

sand and the formation of the dunes

is the coastal vegetation Coastal

dunes are favoured in beaches

of gentle slope, with a high tide

range, because the sand depositions

exposed to the wind are extensive

During the first stages of their

formation the dunes are called

“embryonic” and are usually

destroyed by the wind They are

Aeolian environments

“free dunes” and are sensitive

to changes of wind direction These dunes are often lortogonal

to the prevailing wind direction Additionally, dunes may accord with the vegetation development The presence of vegetation on the surface of the dunes helps with their stabilization, since it eliminates the loss of sand material and the migration to the inland The impeded dunes, arrested by vegetation, are orientated more aligned to the source of the sand than to the direction of the wind

vertical or form acute angles with

the coastline

The coastal dune ridges can range

from 1 or 2 m to 20 or 30 m in height,

while their gradient is usually sharp

towards the downwind side and more

gentle on their lee side, in contrast

to desert dunes They have flat or

wavy tops Sometimes they have

low troughs, with no vegetation,

known as “blow-outs”

The appropriate conditions for the

formation of coastal sand dunes

include:

• An extended inland area of the

coastal zone that is able to host

aeolian sand depositions as for

example on coasts of low relief

without cliffs

• The appropriate wind regime

For sand transport, strong winds

blowing in a stable direction are

required The dunes are usually

formed along the coasts or areas

that are often influenced by

storms The height of a dune is

determined by the wind speed, so

the highest dunes are formed in

areas exposed to strongest winds

• Large quantities of sand of right

grain size Dunes are always

formed by the transfer of the

sand by the aeolian processes

Additionally, the stability and the

development of the dunes require

a constant supply of sand well

developed dunes have significant

dimensions and are usually close

to the sources of sediment supply,

such as a river mouth where their

source material is transported from

the drainage basin to the shore

• Vegetation helps in the

concentration and the stability

of the sand Dunes without any

vegetation, like those in dry

Mapping Geomorphological environments

A well developed aeolian sand dune with ripple marks in Tunisia (by A Vassilopoulos, N evelpidou)

It is an sand structure ranging in size from some centimetres up to some meters It is formed by the wind behind a topographic obstacle

BARKHANE

Crescent dunes larger than 10m, with a gentle inclination towards the wind’s direction, that are concave downwind with a steep slope It is easily affected by the air currents and forms humps A bisymmetrical barkhane, with humps of different size, is called an “elb” (alab on the plural)

DIRECTION OF THE DRASTIC WIND

A drastic wind can directly lift and transport sand

a load of small sized

grains (<2mm) that originate from

a ground surface that is dry and

main aeolian landforms

Tunisia (by A Vassilopoulos, N

evelpidou)

Medano del Coro National

Park-Venezuela (by C Centeri)

Naxos-Greece (by A Vassilopoulos, N

Aeolian erosion landforms in Tunisia (by A Vassilopoulos, N evelpidou)

Aeolian sand dunes in Tunisia (by A Vassilopoulos, N evelpidou)

wind’s direction

D unes i n a W eb Network of dunes formed

in two directions

N ebka

Dune which ranges from some centimetres up to some meters and is created behind

a bush in the direction of the wind

EXPORT

Aeolian transportation

of very fine-grained material to a great distance Continental air currents can carry fine-grained material (<50μm) to

a great height and to a distance of thousands of kilometres

levels, following the

direction of the wind

P araboliC d unes

Dunes of crescent form

with their concave

side turned towards the wind’s

direction It is a form of aeolian

erosion–accumulation: the material

is extracted in large quantities and

accumulates in the direction of the

air current in a rosary arrangement

It is a common effect in coastal

areas

D unes s ide t o s ide

Dunes arrayed and

inclined towards the

Tunisia (by A Vassilopoulos, N

evelpidou)

Tunisia (by A Vassilopoulos, N

evelpidou)

Aeolian environments

Meteora - Greece (by K Pavlopoulos)

Chapter 9

surface landforms

BUTTE

A hill with a flattened top, which is a testimony of the old relief ,and the more resistant rocks that form the cliff It is found isolated in a cuesta front and is proof

of its former existence

CALCIC CRUST

A compact crust of calciferous matrix, produced by chemical or biological intrusion/redistribution of the carbonate, on the interior or the surface of a pedologic profile, superficial formation or rock The transportation of carbonates requires abundant water The calcic crusts of arid or semi-arid areas in the modern era are generally lithified and have been formed during the Quaternary

BAHADA

An expanded alluvial

surface consisting of a

series of neighbouring alluvial fans,

which have been joined together

through time This expanded

alluvial surface can spread for many

kilometres beyond the front of a

mountainous block

BASIN

A depression on the

relief (sink) visible

on the ground surface It may

originate from different phenomena

(e.g tectonism, glaciation, aeolian

erosion, karstic phenomena,

hydrogeochemical phenomena)

BLOCKFIELDS OR

FELSENMEERE

Great accumulations of

blocks found on mountain summits

and semipolar areas, created by the

fragmentation of large rock blocks

due to hoarfrost

Tatra mountains-Slovakia (by C Centeri)

The wild Yeliou Park-Taiwan (by S Liakopoulos)

Lavrion-Greece (by N Tsoukalas) FYRoM (by K Pavlopoulos)

Mapping Geomorphological environments

HOMOCLINIC LANDFORMS

C uesta

It is a monoclinic structure located in areas that consist of two different rocks with the resistant rock lying over one that is more easily eroded

In every case the relief consists of

an anticlinic front and a reverse cataclinic side The term cuesta corresponds to the French term côte de Lorraine This term is used

to avoid possible confusion with the term côte, which refers to coastal geomorphology

formation that consists of

transported material; created by

the physicochemical destruction

(i.e due to high inclination) and

the accumulation of material on the

foot of the slope It occurs under

the influence of gravity forces,

weathering and soilflow

calcareous ones of the karstic area

of Istria (former Yugoslavia) Despite the fact that these landforms are mainly developed on sedimentary rocks, their development has also been observed on magmatic rocks,

as in the area around the cistern rock

of Henry Mountains in Utah Due to high inclinations, hogbacks do not retreat easily, as is also the case with cuesta landforms In the areas where rocks are preserved in slopes

or in dome elevations, differential erosion, by the drainage network, smoothens the acuminations, an effect known as “flatiron”

MESAS

Form of sedimentary rocks with horizontal or sub-horizontal inclination covered

by harder and more resistant

The term Hogback is

used to describe a long

narrow ridge, or series of hills that

structurally consist of sedimentary

formations characterised by high

inclination values when the

inclination of the layers is higher

than 50%, an almost symmetric

hogback landform is created In

cases of inclination lower than 50%,

the inclination of the ridge depends

on that of the sediment layers The

ridges with inclination less than 40%

are sometimes called homoclinic

backs The hogbacks are developed,

usually, in successions of soft and

hard sedimentary rocks and their

creation is favoured by the outwash

and erosion in semi-arid climates

The most known hogbacks are the

Naxos-Greece (by A Vassilopoulos, N evelpidou)

Mapping Geomorphological environments

PLANATION SURFACE

Planation surfaces are located in mountainous areas and are characterised by very smooth relief They are created due

to rocks’ weathering and the erosion

of the relief in an environment of mild tectonism Planation surfaces are very important for the following reasons: a) They represent periods of tectonic tranquillity and humid-warm climate during the development of mountain masses b) The present location of the erosion surfaces demonstrates the incidence

of intense faulting and uplifts of mountain masses c) The surfaces of erosion located in a higher altitude than others are chronologically older The flat sections of the planation surfaces are destroyed due to the processes of the relief’s development and particularly due to exogenous processes

PLATEAU/INSELBERG

A flat trapezoid surface, located higher than its neighbouring environment The transition from a typical plateau

to the lower sections is usually characterised by a steep relief A plateau can be the elevated zone between faults, the top of a broad fold,

or a tectonically elevated peneplain There are various classifications that generally distinguish plateaux

MONOCLINIC SLOPE,

FACE

A high inclination slope

consisting of a resistant rock that lies

over a less resistant one, and forms

the front of a monoclinic relief

PENEPLAIN

Surface characterised

by very low topographic

inclinations formed due to the erosion

that the whole area has sustained

The formation of a peneplain is

the last stage of the erosion cycle

of the relief Chronologically, the

deposits of a peneplain are always

considered to be older than the ones

that cover them and posterior to the

most recent layers that have been

SLOPE

Inclined surfaces of rocks, soils or even loose sediments of various inclinations, higher than 5o Slopes may occur

by processes of weathering and erosion, by tectonic movements, in more rare occasions by deposition,

or generally by a succession of the above mentioned processes

as intramontane, foothill and

continental

PLAYA

A flat and smooth plain

containing significant

percentage of saline components It

contains argillaceous material and is

located in the centre of an already

drained basin After intense rainfall,

it is possible for the Playa plain to be

covered with water and a temporary

shallow lake, rich in fine-grained

material (Playa lake) may possibly

form

SABKHA

Lowering of the ground

surface with a flat floor

that has a salty composition (salt

or gypsum) It is an area flooded

in rainfall periods, in desert and dry

areas with high evaporation

N Peloponnesus-Greece (by A Vassilopoulos, N evelpidou)

Mapping Geomorphological environments