Department of Transportation has estimated the overall societal cost of road crashes annually in the United States at greater than $230 billion [4].. Research and development R&D accel-e
Trang 1injury-producing crashes, over four million crashes resulting in property damage, and an estimated 10 million crashes total on an annual basis Over 100 people die
every day on average Road crashes consume a greater share of national heath care
costs than do any other single cause of illness or injury—in fact, the U.S Department
of Transportation has estimated the overall societal cost of road crashes annually in the United States at greater than $230 billion [4]
Furthermore, human limitations in sensing and control of individual vehicles mul-tiplies when hundreds or thousands of vehicles are sharing the same roads at the same time, leading to the all too familiar experience of congested traffic Traffic congestion undermines our quality of life in the same way air pollution undermines public health Sources of air pollution have been attacked with a wide variety of government policies and new technology—why has the same not occurred with traffic congestion? The answer lies in the fact that traffic flow consisting of cars controlled by people is doomed
to inefficiency due to our very human aspects of delayed response to traffic conditions When we detect brake lights ahead, time is expended as we assess the situation and pro-ceed to apply our own brakes, if needed When traffic ahead accelerates, a similar lag time is incurred to sense that condition and follow suit The aggregate effect of these factors creates “accordion effects” or “shock waves” in dense traffic flows, as well as the relatively slow clearance time for intersections controlled by traffic signals Traffic congestion is also caused by the sheer volume of vehicles attempting to use roadways, exceeding physical capacity limitations
Around 1990, road transportation professionals recognized the emergence of affordable information, computing, and sensor technologies and began to apply them to traffic and road management Thus was born the intelligent transportation system (ITS) Starting in the late 1990s, ITS systems were developed and deployed, providing transportation authorities with vastly increased information on real-time road network conditions, which they in turn provided to the public through Web sites and other means In developed countries, travelers today have access to signifi-cant amounts of information about travel conditions, whether they are driving their own vehicle or riding on public transit systems Further, ITSs have greatly enhanced the ability of authorities to respond to crashes or other incidents on the road, so that delays are minimized Since one minute of lane blockage typically translates to 10 minutes of congestion, the benefits of such efficiencies are clear
Regarding safety, both government researchers and engineers within automo-tive industry laboratories have been developing technology to help drivers avoid crashes In Japan, a significant amount of work actually occurred in the 1980s, with initial systems introduced in that market, but the costs and capabilities of the tech-nology limited the extent of these systems Research and development (R&D) accel-erated in the early 1990s via government-industry partnerships—in Europe, the Prometheus program was initiated, producing initial prototypes for many types of functions, including lane monitoring, electronic copilots, and autonomous vehicles [5,6]; the Japanese initiated the advanced safety vehicle program to develop advanced crash avoidance technologies; and in the United States, both crash avoid-ance research and the National Automated Highway System Consortium (NAHSC) programs were initiated [7] Beginning in the latter half of that decade, systems introduced to the market in all three regions were, to some degree, the fruits of these research programs Called advanced driver assistance systems (ADAS), product
Trang 2introductions continue and R&D is in full swing for even more advanced systems The net result is that we are beginning to see systems within cars, buses, and trucks that are capable of sensing dangerous situations and responding appropriately in circumstances where the driver is not Intelligent vehicles are a reality, and they will steadily become a welcome part of the central fabric of society in coming years Further, the advent of cooperative systems—in which vehicles exchange information with one another and roadside systems—will open the way toward smoother and more efficient traffic flows, as the human inefficiencies noted above are gradually replaced by machine sensing and control
On the scale of several decades, in fact, most automotive technology profession-als agree that this technology will progress to the point that self-driving vehicles, robust in handling a wide variety of traffic conditions, will be available Various forms of automated vehicles have been successfully prototyped and demonstrated in Europe, Japan, and the United States, and fully automated bus transit systems are now in operation within special facilities Automated cars may not be coming soon
to a showroom near you, but they are on the far horizon
At the same time, however, it must be acknowledged that computers are not the ultimate saviors of humanity in any domain, and certainly not on the roadway The significance of technology’s role lies in its ability to complement human intelligence Essentially, driving a vehicle consists of four basic functions: monitoring, perception, judgment, and action Electronic sensing and computing is superb in monitoring, as 360-degree coverage is possible and attention never wavers Perceiving the important dynamics within a traffic situation and judging the best response is classically a human strength, although machine perception is steadily making strides—in fact, this is a core pacing factor in intelligent vehicle (IV) product introductions Last, for actuation of vehicle functions such as braking, computer-controlled subsystems can respond in a small fraction of the time a human would require So, the ideal IV system appropriately allocates functionality between the driver and the supporting technology
1.2 Definition of Intelligent Vehicles
Because the term “Intelligent Vehicles” is somewhat generic, a definition is in order for the purposes of this book Simply put, IV systems sense the driving environment and provide information or vehicle control to assist the driver in optimal vehicle operation IV systems operate at the tactical level of driving (throttle, brakes, steer-ing) as contrasted with strategic decisions such as route choice, which might be sup-ported by an on-board navigation system
IV systems are seen as a next generation beyond current active safety systems, which provide relatively basic control assist but do not sense the environment or assess risk Antilock braking systems, traction control, and electronic stability con-trol are examples of such systems
Intelligent Vehicle Technology and Trends is intended to provide an overview of
developments in the IV domain for engineers, researchers, government officials, and
Trang 3others interested in this technology Readers will gain a broad perspective as to the overall set of activities and research goals; the key actors worldwide; the functional-ity of IV systems and their underlying technology; the market introductions and deployment prospects; the user, customer, and societal issues; and the author’s prog-nosis for the future rollout of products and integrated vehicle-highway systems The book opens with “big picture” considerations, introduces the major players
in the IV domain, and then addresses key functional areas in-depth The latter por-tion of the book is devoted to addressing some nontechnical issues, and a view toward the future is offered in conclusion
The chapters are summarized as follows:
• Chapter 2 reviews government safety goals and takes a look at long-term visions that have been developed by researchers and government agencies in the Asia-Pacific region, Europe, and the United States
• Chapter 3 reviews the key IV application areas of convenience, safety, produc-tivity, and traffic assistance
• Chapter 4 examines major government IV R&D programs and strategies Government-sponsored programs in the Asia-Pacific region, Europe (pan-European and national), and the United States (federal and state) are discussed
• Chapter 5 examines the stance of the vehicle industry with respect to IV sys-tems The philosophies and key priorities of both vehicle manufacturers and major suppliers are discussed to provide both a “reality check” and a context for following chapters
• In the first of five chapters examining functional areas, Chapter 6 focuses on lateral/side sensing and control systems These are systems that assist drivers
in steering and monitoring the areas to the side of the vehicle Examples are lane departure warning systems, “blind spot” monitoring, and roll stability Each system type is described, followed by a discussion of market aspects and reviews of ongoing R&D This format is followed for each of the functional area chapters
• Chapter 7 focuses on longitudinal sensing and control systems These systems assist drivers in longitudinal control and speed-keeping Examples are adap-tive cruise control, forward collision warning, and pedestrian detection and avoidance
• Chapter 8 addresses integrated systems, the next logical step beyond stand-alone lateral or longitudinal systems These are more comprehensive systems that assist drivers in both longitudinal and lateral aspects Examples are omnidirectional sensing and lane change assistance
• Chapter 9 extends the system concept to cooperative vehicle-highway systems (CVHS) The ability of vehicles and the roadway to work together as a system offers opportunities for enhanced performance CVHS can make safety tems more effective and will act as a key enabler for traffic-enhancing IV sys-tems Major CVHS application areas are described, including intersection collision countermeasures, intelligent speed adaptation, and traffic perfor-mance enhancement As CVHS relies on vehicles communicating with the
Trang 4roadside and each other, relevant communications issues are discussed The chapter also speaks to business case issues and deployment initiatives, includ-ing the major new initiative in the United States called Vehicle Infrastructure Integration
• Fully automated road vehicles, a dream long-held by futurists, are the focus of Chapter 10 Many average drivers as well have wondered how long it would take for technology to advance sufficiently such that their car takes over driv-ing on those long, bordriv-ing stretches of road This chapter describes the major research areas in autonomous driving and particular areas of focus Examples include cybercars, low-speed automation, truck automation, and military unmanned urban vehicles Potential deployment paths are reviewed as well
• Chapter 11 speaks to floating car data (FCD) systems, a relatively near-term
IV application that can extend the “information horizon” for both drivers and automatic crash avoidance systems FCD systems use wireless communica-tions techniques to collect data relevant to traffic, weather, and safety from individual vehicles (probes) and then assimilates that data and distributes it to travelers, other vehicles, and road authorities Relevant projects and their status are discussed
• A review of IV systems would be incomplete without examining the interac-tion of drivers with IV technology Chapter 12 addresses IVs as human-cen-tered systems This is an intentionally brief overview of the human factors that arise with IV systems and how they are being addressed The full range of the human aspects of IV systems involves in-depth expertise and complex ques-tions that are beyond the scope of this book Instead, the intent is simply to introduce the reader to the issues
• Chapter 13 moves beyond the technology to examine challenges in product introduction IV system design must be responsive to customer and societal issues to be successful in a market-driven arena This chapter deals with nontechnical issues that affect market penetration, such as public perception, regulatory, and legal issues Development of a code of practice for design and testing of IV systems, as well as relevant standards activity, are discussed
as well
• Chapter 14 looks forward to identify enabling technologies important to future progress The author also takes the bold (and possibly foolhardy!) step
of speaking to future trends and estimating product introduction timelines
• For those still with us after 14 chapters of “IV-dom,” Chapter 15 offers a brief synthesis of the overall IV domain and some observations on the part of the author
Intelligent Vehicle Technology and Trends endeavors to provide a thorough
treatment of the topic, yet it is not intended to be completely comprehensive The book is intended to provide perspective and, for readers new to the field, to provide
a “jumping-off point” for deeper investigations Projects described are illustrative, and, regrettably, many worthy projects could not be included due to space limita-tions Further, it is not the intent of this book to offer significant depth as to the
Trang 5sensor technologies, subsystem designs, and processing algorithms—for this level of detail, the reader is referred to the voluminous technical literature available from a variety of sources
The obvious must be stated, as well Significant private R&D to develop future products is under way within automotive industry laboratories; while general infor-mation is available on some activities, large portions are kept confidential for com-petitive purposes Nevertheless, I believe this book presents a reasonably accurate picture of industry activity
Many references refer to articles on http://www.IVsource.net, which is an infor-mational Web site I publish Videos of many of the systems and technologies in oper-ation are available for download at the site, as well as additional supporting information
References
[1] 2003 Early Assessment Estimates of Motor Vehicle Crashes, National Center for Statistics
and Analysis, U.S National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, May 2004.
[2] “Statement by Prime Minister Junichiro Koizumi (Central Traffic Safety Policy Council chairman) on Achieving a Reduction to Half the Number of Annual Traffic Accident Fatali-ties,” Japanese government, January 2, 2003.
[3] United Nations Stakeholder Forum on Global Road Safety, April 15, 2004, http://www.
globalroadsafety.org.
[4] “Economic Impact of U.S Motor Vehicle Crashes Reaches $230.6 Billion New NHTSA Study Shows,” NHTSA Press Release 38-02, May 9, 2002.
[5] Antonello, P C., et al., “Road Lane Monitoring Using Artificial Vision Techniques,” Pro-ceedings of the 3rd International Conference on Vehicle Comfort and Ergonomics,
Bolo-gna, Italy, 29–31 March 1995.
[6] Hassoun, M., et al., Towards Safe Driving in Traffic Situations by Using an Electronic Co-Pilot, LIFIA-INRIA Rhone-Alpes, 1993.
[7] “Demo ’97: Proving AHS Works,” Public Roads, Volume 61, No 1, July/August 1997.
Trang 6C H A P T E R 2
Goals and Visions for the Future
As noted in Chapter 1, the early portion of Intelligent Vehicle Technology and
Trends is intended to provide a “big picture” view before going deeply into the
func-tional areas Therefore, this chapter provides an overview of safety goals and long-term visions for the road transportation network in which IVs are expected to play a pivotal role This information serves to frame the problem space and provide
a sense as to how the solution space may evolve
With over one million people killed worldwide in traffic accidents each year, road safety is an ever-present concern on the part of governments and interna-tional organizations Curiously, though, the level of concern (and funding) has historically been modest at best I offer two reasons for this conundrum First, although it is politically correct to emphasize road safety, in practical terms it tends to get overshadowed by more politically volatile issues Second, the public seems to accept, at least to some degree, that road fatalities are a necessary price
to pay for a highly mobile society In fact, as a review of the newspapers will attest, public outcry focuses more on traffic congestion than road safety, particularly at the local level
Nevertheless, even modest attention at a national level translates into major programs In the last two decades in particular, substantial road safety and traffic programs have made for better road design and vastly improved crashworthiness and occupant protection in automobiles
Even more promising is the recent trend to bring a fresh emphasis on preventing road fatalities, and crashes in general, which has taken hold in the industrialized nations High-level working groups are active in Europe, significant government research investments are occurring worldwide, and bold goals have been pro-nounced by all As one indication of this heightened attention, the World Health Organization (WHO) devoted the 2004 World Health Day specifically to road safety—the first time in WHO history
IVs play a key role in achieving these goals As Dr Jeffrey Runge, National Highway Traffic Safety Administrator within the U.S Department of Transporta-tion (DOT) said in 2003, “crash avoidance is ‘fertile ground’ for reaching these goals, as the ‘easy gains’ have already been made in traditional safety areas such as seat belt usage and prevention of impaired driving during the last 20 years.” [1] Beyond safety, the need to improve mobility remains a vital societal need Yet, many pronouncements lament that road congestion is an unavoidable fact of life This may be true to some degree, but there is reason for hope The promise of IVs is
to provide a degree of driving efficiency so that roads can better handle the travel demand placed upon them IVs, working in conjunction with traveler information
7
Trang 7systems and market-based road pricing approaches, can potentially form a vastly improved milieu
Although not the topic of this book, another primary technology focus for advanced vehicles is in the area of fuel consumption and emissions Driving is seen
as bad for society when fossil fuel is burned and emissions are produced, yet road travel is essential to the quality of life for millions of people and a fundamental part
of their economic life
Fundamentally, it seems that society wants the option to drive in an unimpeded manner without destroying the Earth’s future Most would say this combination is not possible (i.e., one must choose between mobility or the environment) However,
a daring alternative is the concept of green mobility—high-quality lifestyles based
on ease of movement and environmental sustainability Fortunately, as fuel cell technology surges forward, the environmental aspect may indeed be solved over time Moreover, as noted above, IVs can make a major contribution to mobility
In this vein, the following sections provide a review of IV-oriented goals and visions This information will provide a context for the reader as to the increased importance placed on these topics by governments and international organiza-tions A variety of views toward safer, more connected, and more efficient travel
is offered
A sampling of road safety goals worldwide follows Not all developed countries are listed, as defining quantitative goals is not a universal strategy Further, some coun-tries are more active in publicizing their goals than others As can be seen from this brief review (summarized in Table 2.1), some are much more specific than others, and different measures are used The degree to which specific and measurable goals are published tracks more or less directly with investments in IV safety systems R&D, as will be seen in Chapter 4
2.1.1 Asia-Pacific Region
Australia A national road safety strategy for 2001–2010 and corresponding action plans were adopted by the Australian Transport Council in 2000 [2] The council comprises federal, state, and territory ministers with transport responsibility The target of the strategy is to reduce the annual number of road fatalities per 100,000 population by 40%, from 9.3 in 1999 to no more than 5.6 in 2010 The council estimates that achieving this target will save an estimated 3,500 lives by
2010 and reduce the annual road toll in 2010 by approximately 700
Active safety systems are seen as one of several components in achieving these reductions, with their role expected to be modest in the current period and becoming more significant after 2010
Japan In 2003, the Japanese prime minister announced an objective to cut the number of traffic accident fatalities in half within 10 years, enabling Japan to become the safest nation in the world in terms of road traffic [3] A focused approach to addressing elderly drivers was mentioned as a key component of
Trang 82.1 Government Safety Goals 9
Table 2.1 Road Safety Goals—National and Regional
Road Safety Goals—National and Regional
Asia-Pacific
in fatalities
in crashes
50% reduction
in fatalities
50% reduction
in all crashes
Europe
European
Commission
50% reduction
in fatalities
cars equipped with ADAS
in fatalities
40% reduction
in fatalities by 2020
in fatalities
compared to
1996 (2007)
No road fatalities
United
Kingdom
40% reduction
in fatalities and serious injuries (for
nonmotorways) 10% reduction
in minor injuries (all roads) 50% reduction in fatalities/serious injuries of children (all roads)
North
America
United
States
Reduce crashes
per 100M
vehicle miles
from the
current 1.51 to
1.0 (2008)
Deployment of intersection collision avoidance systems (ICA) at 15% of the most hazardous signalized intersections nationally Reduce
large-truck
related fatality
rate 1.65 per
million truck
miles (2008)
In-vehicle ICA support in 50% of the vehicle fleet
Trang 9reaching this goal, given the aging society in Japan The Japanese government further set the goal of implementing advanced cruise-assist highway systems (AHSs)
to address 75% of crashes From AHS introduction, the goal is to reduce the number
of crashes by 15% by 2010 in high crash locations The long-term aim is to reduce all traffic crashes by half
To this end, the Japanese Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and Transport (MLIT) is overseeing the building of a strategic monitoring system and implementa-tion of measurable goals to determine the step-by-step progress toward the naimplementa-tional goals Crash rates, as well as time lost and financial impacts resulting from conges-tion, are being monitored A major initiative called Smartway is under way for research and implementation of safety and road efficiency measures, including the work of the AHS Research Association (AHSRA) and the advanced safety vehicle (ASV) program See Chapters 4 and 9 for more information on these activities
2.1.2 Europe
Pan-European As noted in the introduction, a significant new level of attention
to road safety has emerged in recent years This is particularly true in Europe Within the context of the European Road Safety Action Program (RSAP), the European Commission (EC) has set a goal of reducing road fatalities by 50%
by 2010 [4]
Further, ERTICO, the ITS industry association for Europe, echoes the EC goals and has set a goal of 20% of new cars equipped with some form of driver assistance system by 2010 [5]
Netherlands From the current level of just over 1,000 deaths annually, the Dutch government aims to reduce traffic fatalities by 10% (to 900) by 2010 The goal is to reach a level of 640 or fewer fatalities by 2020
Sweden Sweden instituted the Vision Zero initiative regarding traffic deaths in 1995; this program is further described in Section 2.2 Quantatively, the nation’s goal is to reduce fatalities by 50%, compared to 1996, by 2007 [6]
United Kingdom Based on average crash figures for the period 1994–1998, the U.K Department for Transport has set safety targets for 2010 as follows [7]:
• A 40% reduction in the number killed and seriously injured (for nonmotorways);
• A 10% reduction in slight casualties (both motorways and nonmotorways);
• A 50% reduction in the number of children killed or seriously injured (all roads)
2.1.3 North America
United States [8] The overall U.S DOT goal is to reduce crashes per 100 million vehicle miles from the current 1.51 to 1.0 by 2008 Within the U.S DOT, the Federal Highway Administration has set a target of 2,292 fewer road departure crashes, 860 fewer fatalities at intersections, and 465 fewer pedestrian deaths by this date Also, the Federal Motor Carrier Safety Administration aims to reduce the large truck–related fatality rate from 2.8 per million truck miles (1996) to 1.65 by 2008
Trang 10The U.S DOT has also set goals with regard to the deployment of cooperative intersection collision avoidance systems (CICAS) [10] (See Chapter 9 for a full description of ICA approaches.) The goals call for the deployment of ICA systems at 15% of the most hazardous signalized intersections nationally, with in-vehicle sup-port in 50% of the vehicle fleet by 2015
Government data from 2003 provides a context for these goals A total of 43,220 fatalities occurred as Americans drove 2.88 billion miles Both the death rate and the mileage were up by an almost identical degree (just under 1%) from the pre-vious year This translates to an overall road fatality rate of 1.5 per 100 million miles During this time, 217 million vehicles were operating on U.S roads It is use-ful to note that, of the fatalities, approximately 40% were alcohol-related and 43% occurred to unbelted occupants—situations where travelers increased personal risk significantly due to their own careless choices
Due to vehicle crashworthiness and collision mitigation features such as airbags, fatality rates have tended to level off in recent years A more complete pic-ture is gained by looking at all crashes, rather than just fatalities In 2003, over 6 million nonfatality police-reported crashes occurred in the United States This is the domain in which IV safety systems can have their greatest impact Similar data for
2001 is shown in Figure 2.1
2.2 Visions for the Future
How do we achieve these safety goals? What are broader visions for the entire road transport network? The following sections describe some visions being promoted by research institutes and governments worldwide, beginning with safety-focused visions and then expanding into more holistic visions
> 10,000,000 crashes
4,282,000 Property damage only
2,003,000 Injury crashes 37,795
6,800,000 Police reported crashes
Fatal crashes
Figure 2.1 U.S crash data for 2001 (Source: U.S DOT.)