sat 6 full tests phần 2 doc

The primary purpose of the passage is to Enumerate reasons why anonymous juries are unconstitutional Discuss whether anonymous juries are an infringement of the sixth amendment Identify

The best answer is C In the last paragraph, it says that much of the postmodern notion

of self seems to fit closely with reconfigurations of the subject brought on by

electronic technologies

Men are primarily and secondarily socialized into believing certain characteristics are definitive in determining their masculinity These characteristics range from playing violently to not crying when they are injured The socialization of masculinity in our society begins as early as the first stages of infancy, with awareness of adult gender role differences being internalized by children as young as two years old

Studies show that advertising imagery equates masculinity with violence by

portraying the trait of aggression as instrumental to establishing their masculinity Lee Bowker, who researched the influence of advertisements on youth, asserts that toy advertisements featuring only boys depict aggressive behavior and that the

aggressive behavior produces positive consequences more often than negative Bowker also looked at commercials with boys that contain references to domination His results indicated that 68.6% of the commercials positioned toward boys contain incidents of verbal and physical aggression However there were no cross gender displays of aggressive behavior Interestingly, not one single-sex commercial

featuring girls showed any act of aggression Bowker’s research helps explain that it

is not just the reinforcement of a child’s close caretakers that lends legitimacy to aggressive masculine tendencies but society as a whole, using the medium of

television

William Pollack, a Harvard clinical psychologist, talks about how males have been put in a "gender straightjacket" that leads to anger, despair and often violence Pollack states that society asks men to put a whole range of feelings and emotions behind a mask and shames them if they display any emotion Pollack contends that boys are

‘shame phobics’, even killing, in extreme cases, to avoid dishonor It appears that the standard defined by society allows men to express their emotion only through anger Ironically, though these rigid stereotypes of what it means to be a man have been inculcated from an early age, men are often criticized for being one-dimensional in their behavior and emotions

Women often verbalize a desire for males to be sensitive and express their emotions But male insensitivity is the culmination of a societal indoctrination begun at birth

Realistically, men are in a damned if they do, damned if they don’t situation If they

fail to show their emotions, they are berated for being detached from the essence of what constitutes a human being On the other hand, if a male decides to expose his emotions, he is often branded effeminate and regarded as inferior to other males who stick closer to their gender’s traditional doctrine

1 According to the passage, the television commercials examined by Bowker

Showed boys in more acts of verbal and physical aggression than of domination Showed boys in more acts of domination than of verbal and physical aggression Showed boys in acts of verbal and physical aggression only towards other boys Showed boys in acts of verbal and physical aggression only towards other girls Showed boys in acts of verbal and physical aggression towards other boys and girls

The best answer is C Bowker’s research did not find any cross gender displays of

aggressive behavior, i.e aggression of one gender to another

2 According to Pollack, one of the reasons for male violence is that

Society shames men who display feelings and emotions other than anger

Men kill in extreme cases to avoid dishonor

Men are often criticized for being one-dimensional in their behavior and emotions Society uses television as a symbol of its desires

Reinforcement from child’s close caretakers lends legitimacy to aggressive masculine behavior

The best answer is A (B) is incorrect because it does not give a reason for violence (C) is a result of the conditioning that leads to violence, not a reason (D) and (E) are incorrect because they are not opinions expressed by Pollack

3 The passage suggests that, when compared with television advertisement featuring boys, advertisements that had only girls were found

To have more references to domination

To be 68.6% less aggressive

To be remarkably similar in focus and content

To be replete with extensive examples of cross gender aggression

To be void of any acts of aggression

The best answer is E Bowker found that not one single-sex commercial featuring girls showed any act of aggression

4 Pollack uses the term ‘gender straightjacket’ to emphasize

The narrow range of emotion that society allows men to express

The broad range of emotion that society allows men to express

The danger of anger, despair and violence towards men

The danger of anger, despair and violence perpetrated by men

The wide range of feelings that men actually experience

The best answer is A Society does not allow men to act in ways it has deemed inappropriate, hence Pollack considers the male gender to be in a ‘straightjacket’

Juror anonymity was unknown to American common law and jurisprudence in the country’s first two centuries Anonymity was first employed in federal prosecutions of organized crime in New York in the 1980's Although anonymous juries are unusual since they are typically only empanelled in organized-crime cases, its use has spread more recently to widely publicized cases, such as the federal prosecution of police officers accused of beating Rodney King and the trial of those accused of the 1993 World Trade Center bombing

In these cases, attorneys selected a jury from a panel of prospective jurors whose names, addresses, ethnic backgrounds and religious affiliations remained unknown to either side This unorthodox procedure, designed to protect jurors from outside

influence and the fear of retaliation, has occasionally been employed in New York federal courts since the trial of drug kingpin Leroy "Nicky" Barnes Despite apparent benefits, critics assail anonymous juries on the grounds that they are an infringement

of the sixth amendment guarantee of an impartial jury and because they present a serious and unnecessary erosion of the presumption of innocence

Since many attorneys believe trials are frequently won or lost during jury selection, any procedure diminishing the role of counsel in the procedure necessitates close scrutiny and criticism Opponents of anonymous juries argue that the procedure

restricts meaningful voir dire, (questioning of the jury panel), and thereby undermines

the defendant's sixth amendment right to an impartial jury Critics also claim that jurors interpret their anonymity as proof of the defendant's criminal proclivity,

thereby subverting the presumption of innocence

However, consistent with due process and the sixth amendment, the trial judge may refuse to ask prospective jurors any questions not reasonably calculated to expose biases or prejudices relevant to the case Although addresses and group affiliations may indicate significant potential for bias, attorneys do not have an unfettered right to this information in every circumstance Denying access to these facts may indeed constrain an attorney's ability to assemble an ideal jury, but it violates no

constitutional right

1 The primary purpose of the passage is to

Enumerate reasons why anonymous juries are unconstitutional

Discuss whether anonymous juries are an infringement of the sixth amendment Identify a shortcoming in a scholarly approach to jurisprudence

Define the concept of anonymous juries and explore efforts taken over the last twenty years to increase their use

Review strategies for ensuring that anonymous juries will not infringe on the

constitutional right to a fair trial of one’s peers

The best answer is B The passage introduces the concept of anonymous juries and goes on to discuss their constitutionality

2 It can be inferred from the passage that a jurors ethnic background and religious affiliation

Is considered by defendants not to have a significant effect on the outcome of their trials

Is considered by defendants to have a significant effect on the outcome of their trials Would be unlikely to have a significant effect on the verdict of a trial

Is considered by attorneys likely to have a significant effect on the verdict of a trial

Is considered by attorneys unlikely to have a significant effect on the verdict of a trial

in a widely publicized case

The best answer is D In paragraph three it states that many attorneys believe trials are frequently won or lost during jury selection The passage gives no information on what defendant think about anonymous juries

3 One function of the fourth paragraph of the passage is to

Qualify the extent to which a previously introduced viewpoint may be relevant Expose the flaw in a criticism put forth in a previous paragraph

Introduce information that supports a theory put forth in a previous paragraph

Support an argument in favor of a given interpretation of a situation

Show the chain of reasoning that led to the conclusions of a specific study

The best answer is B Critics of anonymous juries base their arguments on the fact that these juries are unconstitutional In the fourth paragraph, the author explains that while anonymous juries may not be ideal, they are not unconstitutional

4 Which of the following, if true, would ensure that anonymous juries are not an erosion of the presumption of innocence?

Anonymous juries are used in all court cases, regardless of identity of the defendant Anonymous juries are used in all court cases involving previously convicted

differentiate between dangerous and harmless defendants

Alexander Calder was one of the most innovative and

original American artists of the twentieth century Calder arrived in Paris in 1926 and devoted himself to a innovative project comprised of animals made out of wire, scraps of cloth, wood, cork, labels, bits of scrap metal and pieces of rubber that he called the Circus During his performances, Calder invented ways to simulate the flight of birds: “These are little bits of white paper, with a hole and slight weight on each one, which flutter down several variously coiled thin steel wires which I jiggle so that they flutter down like

doves.” The Circus was the laboratory of Calder’s work; in

it he experimented with new formulas and techniques By

1930, Calder's Circus had developed into one of the real successes of the Montparnasse art world attracting the

attention of such renowned artists as Fernand Leger and Joan Miro Encouragement from the upper echelons of the Parisian art scene undoubtedly led him to try more serious experiments in wire sculptures

Calder eventually becoming interested in the movement of objects, some of which he motorized In 1933, Calder completed Object with Red Discs, a sculpture he

described as a two-meter rod with a heavy sphere, suspended from the apex of a wire, giving it a cantilever effect It had five thin aluminum discs projected at right angels from five wires, held in position by a spherical counterweight With this new creation, the idea of the mobile was born In creating a work named Constellations in 1943, Calder explored the plastic possibilities of mobiles; he used small pieces of wood, which he shaped and sometimes painted From this point on, Calder’s ambition changed focus He sought more challenging designs One of Calder’s objectives was

to display objects in the air, giving the viewer the experience of finding new skies filled with moving and colored constellations Calder accomplished this in Acoustic Ceiling (1954) Calder’s humor was evident in such works as Le Bougnat (1959) and The Pagoda (1963) Later, Calder cut fantastic animals from sheet metal, creating La Vache and Elephant (both 1970) and a mobile entitled Nervous Wreck (1976), which represents the red skeleton of a fish

Calder defined volume without mass and incorporated movement and time in art His inventions, which redefined certain basic principles of sculpture, have established him

as the most innovative sculptor of the twentieth century

1 According to the passage, which of the following is an accurate statement about Object with Red Discs?

It was the first mobile created by Calder

It was one of the many mobiles without motors created by Calder

It was one of the many motorized mobiles created by Calder

It was the first motorized mobile created by Calder

It was the first of the many mobiles without motors created by Calder

The best answer is A According to the passage, Object with Red Discs is Calder’s first mobile It states that Calder became interested in the movement of objects, some

of which he motorized, but there is no information given on whether this particular sculpture was motorized

2 According to the passage, all of the following are characteristic of Calder’s work EXCEPT

Calder was known to infuse humor into some of his creation

Calder suspended objects from each other

Calder motorized some of his creations

Calder used materials such as metal, cloth, wood, rubber, cork

Calder suspended glass from thin metal wires to create a cantilever effect

The best answer is E The passage makes no mention of glass as one of the materials Calder used

3 The author’s attitude toward the mobiles of Alexander Calder is best described as Hesitance

4 It can be inferred from the passage that which of the following statement was true

of the Parisian art scene?

The work of Fernand Leger and Joan Miro was influenced by that of Alexander

The best answer is C According to the passage, Calder’s early work attracting the

attention of such renowned artists as Fernand Leger and Joan Miro It can be inferred

that Leger and Miro were already famous when Calder was just starting out

Intuitively, intellectual skills and perceptual-motor skills seem very different because perceptual-motor skills appear more primitive Ontogenetically, perceptual-motor skills develop before intellectual skills, or at least before most intellectual skills are manifested Phylogenetically, creatures "high on the evolutionary ladder" are more obviously capable of intellectual skills than are creatures "lower down "

Perceptual-motor skills also seem more closely tied to specific forms of expression Being a chess player does not mean one can only play with pieces of a certain size, that one can only move pieces with one's right hand, and so on By contrast, being a violinist means one can play an instrument whose size occupies a fairly narrow range and that one must play with a rather rigid assignment of functions to effectors

(bowing with the right hand, and fingering with the left) The seeming narrowness of this perceptual-motor skill expression, contrasted with the seeming openness of intellectual skill expression, seems to follow from intellectual skills having symbolic outcomes and perceptual-motor skills having non-symbolic outcomes Symbolic outcomes need not be realized in specific ways and can rely on abstract rules Non-symbolic outcomes, by contrast, need more specific forms of realization and seem to depend on restricted associations between stimuli and responses

Another difference between intellectual and perceptual-motor skills is that the two kinds of skill seem to be represented in different parts of the brain For example, structures homologous to the optic tectum, a nucleus located on the dorsal surface of the midbrain, have a common function in all vertebrates coordinating visual,

auditory, and somatosensory information relevant to the control of orienting

movements of the eyes, ears, and head Similarities in structure and function between these and other brain areas associated with perceptual-motor behavior suggest that mechanisms for control of perceptual-motor skills are both highly specialized and conserved across species In contrast, what distinguishes the human brain from the brains of other species even closely related ones is the differential growth of brain regions most strongly associated with intellectual skills, such as the association areas of the cerebral cortex

The contention that these areas serve intellectual functions is supported by a large body of clinical and experimental literature Together, these diverse sources of

information suggest that perceptual-motor and intellectual skills depend on distinct brain circuits

1 The passage is chiefly concerned with

Presenting a new theory and describing a new method to test that theory

Suggesting an alternative to an outdated research method

Demonstrating that perceptual-motor skills are closely tied to specific forms of

expression

Arguing that two seemingly dissimilar skills are more alike than was previously assumed

Presenting evidence on two dissimilar skills that resolves a contradiction

The best answer is D The passage presents evidence to back the claims that

intellectual skills and perceptual-motor skills are more similar than was once believed

2 The author mentions the game of chess in paragraph two primarily in order to Present an example of an intellectual skill the mastery of which is not closely tied to specific forms of expression

Present an example of an intellectual skill the mastery of which is closely tied to specific forms of expression

Present an example of a skill that is both an intellectual skill and a perceptual-motor skill, the mastery of which is closely tied to specific forms of expression

Present an example of a perceptual-motor skill the mastery of which is not closely tied

to specific forms of expression

Present an example of a perceptual-motor skill the mastery of which is closely tied to specific forms of expression

The best answer is A Chess is an intellectual skill the mastery of which is not closely tied to specific forms of expression In other words, once one has learned to play the game, one can vary the way one plays, by using one’s left hand instead of one’s right, for instance

3 It can be inferred from the passage that the optic tectum

Functions similarly in animal and in plants

Functions similarly in vertebrates and invertebrates

Is located in a comparable area of the brains of humans and giraffes

Coordinates somatosensory moment in snakes

Has a much more sophisticated structure than the cerebral cortex

The best answer is C According to the passage, the optic tectum occupies the same area of the brain in all vertebrates (animals with a spinal column)

4 The passage provides support for which of the following statements

Creatures "high on the evolutionary ladder" are not less capable of perceptual-motor skills than are creatures "lower down "

Playing a violin is a perceptual-motor skill

The shape and size of the cerebral cortex is what distinguishes the human brain from the brains of other species

Literature is an intellectual activity that is understood using the cerebral cortex of area

of the brain

Perceptual-motor and intellectual skills exploit the same brain circuits

The best answer is B The author uses the violin as an example of a perceptual-motor skill

Considerable debate exists in the self-perception literature over the impact of positively biased self-perceptions on social and psychological functioning Positively based self-

perceptions are those in which an individual has a more positive opinion of himself than objective indicators

warrant One view suggests that positive perceptual biases are characteristic of normal human thought across a variety

of domains and correlate positively with good mental and psychological health Certain researchers and clinicians have even proposed that by boosting self-concepts,

symptoms of depression and levels of aggression may be reduced

Investigators on the other side of the debate maintain that when most positive perceptions are compared to an objective criterion, they appear neither positively biased nor adaptive In fact, Baumeister, Smart, and Boden suggest that positively biased self-concepts may have a ‘dark side’ They proposed that it is persons with very positive self-views who are prone to be aggressive As a result, building up individuals' self-perceptions may serve only to increase levels of aggression rather than curb them

self-According to Baumeister et al., not all individuals with positive self-perceptions are going to be interpersonally aggressive Rather, individuals who are extremely positive

in their perceptions of themselves and their functioning are proposed to be the most likely to become angry and potentially violent The mechanism that triggers

aggressive behavior by these individuals has been suggested to be negative social feedback that challenges their positive self-views Such threats to positive self-esteem give rise to anger and hostility

If negative social information is encountered that challenges established positive perceptions, Baumeister et al propose that individuals must choose to either accept the feedback and lower their self-perceptions or reject the feedback to maintain their positive self-views The chosen reaction then influences their subsequent affective states and behavioral expressions By accepting the external appraisals and adjusting self-perceptions downward, dysphoric feelings and social withdrawal may result Conversely, the rejection of the validity of the unfavorable feedback results in

self-feelings of anger and resentment toward the source of the threat Dodge and

colleagues demonstrated that children who interpret social cues as threatening direct their anger and aggression at the peers who gave the negative evaluations Anger stemming from the receipt of social criticism is a way to deny the legitimacy of the negative information By directing hostile reactions toward the source of the negative feedback, the influx of disconfirming information may end Unless individuals react against the self-esteem threat, they may be compelled to revise their self-concepts negatively, in line with the information provided By discounting the negative social feedback, individuals can protect themselves from dysphoric feelings and maintain

their positively biased self-perceptions, but they may be setting themselves up to become interpersonally aggressive

Although positively biased self-perceptions may place individuals at risk for negative social feedback and subsequent increases in aggressive behavior, not all positive self-concepts are suggested to be harmful The relationship between positive self-

perceptions and aggression may depend on the degree of perceptual distortion (i.e., moderate vs extreme distortion) Baumeister (1989) and Baumeister et al (1996) proposed that an optimal range of moderate bias might exist within which mental health is encouraged Maladjustment in psychological and social functioning is suggested to occur when the degree of bias of self-perceptions shifts from moderate to extreme levels Extremely negative and positive perceptual bias would be related to different but equally harmful difficulties

1 The primary purpose of this passage is to

Present two explanations of a phenomenon and reconcile the differences between them

Discuss a plan for investigation of a phenomenon that is not yet fully understood Challenge the validity of a theory by presenting evidence that the opposite is true in some cases

Summarize two theories and suggest a third theory that overcomes the problems encountered in the first two

Present evidence that resolves a contradiction

The best answer is C The passage challenges the validity of the theory that positively biased self-perception is closely correlated with normal human thought and good mental health by showing how a very high self-perception may lead to violent

behavior

2 According to the passage, which of the following is mentioned as a factor in determining whether an individual with positively biased self-perception would actually be likely to perform an act of violence?

The gap between what the individual thinks about himself and how good he really is The gender of the individual

The anger level of the individual’s peers

The individual’s ability to ignore dysphoric feelings

The validity of the unfavorable feedback

The best answer is A It is the distortion between how the person really is and how he perceives himself that is the most important factor, as opposed to the level of self-perception itself

3 The passage discusses the likelihood of violence stemming from which of the following types of individuals?

An individual with a moderately positive self-perception who receives negative feedback from his peers

An individual with a highly positive self-perception who receives negative feedback from his peers

An individual with a highly negative self-perception who receives positive feedback from his peers

An individual with a highly negative self-perception who receives negative feedback from his peers

An individual with a dark side who receives negative feedback from his peers

The best answer is B According to the passage, when negative social information is encountered by a person with a highly elevated level of self-perception, it may lead to violence

4 One function of the fifth paragraph is to

State a conclusion about facts presented in an earlier paragraph

Show the chain of reasoning that led to the conclusions of a specific study

Qualify the extent to which a previously presented theory may apply

Introduce information that confirms an established theory

Provide examples that support a new theory

The best answer is C Up to the fifth paragraph, the passage discusses the possibility that individuals with highly positive self-perception are prone to performing violent acts Paragraph three qualifies this by stating that not all positive self-concepts are suggested to be harmful

Gastrostomy tubes are commonly used to provide nutrition and hydration for patients unwilling or unable to maintain an adequate oral intake Among hospitalized patients aged 65 years or older in the United States, the number undergoing placement of a gastrostomy tube increased from 61000 in 1988 to 121000 in 1995 In 1990 and

1991, roughly one in every hundred hospitalized patients aged 85 years or older received a gastrostomy tube

The short-term mortality rates following gastrostomy placement are high In a cohort

of more than 7000 American veterans who underwent placement of percutaneous endoscopic gastrostomy tubes between 1990 and 1992, median survival was 7.5 months and 1-year mortality was 59% Among Medicare beneficiaries receiving gastrostomy tubes in 1991, 30-day and 1-year mortality was 24% and 63%,

respectively Because tube insertion itself is only rarely associated with fatal

complications, the high short-term mortality clearly reflects a substantial underlying co-morbidity in this population Most patients receiving gastrostomy tubes have advanced dementia, other types of severe neurological impairment, cancer, or

advanced failure of other internal organs

The growing use of tube feeding in a population with limited life expectancy

inevitably raises the following question: Do physicians discuss the benefits and burdens of tube feeding adequately with patients or surrogate decision-makers before gastrostomy tubes are inserted? Assessing benefits and burdens is an integral part of informed decision-making and should precede any elective life-sustaining

intervention However, anecdotal observations and a recent interview study raise serious questions about the quality of the informed consent process preceding the insertion of gastrostomy tubes

A small body of literature suggests that fully informed patients or their surrogates might in fact decline permanent tube feeding at a higher-than-expected rate For example, in the study by Callahan et al, nearly half of the patients undergoing

gastrostomy placement (or their surrogates) reported that no alternatives had been discussed before insertion of the tube O'Brien and colleagues asked 379 mentally competent nursing home residents if they would want a gastrostomy tube if they became unable to eat because of permanent brain damage; only 33% expressed a preference for tube feedings in this circumstance In an interview study of 121

competent patients with amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, only 28% favored feeding by gastrostomy

1 The passage is primarily concerned with

(A) the morbidity and mortality rates associated with the use of gastrostomy tubes (B) the proliferation of the use of gastronomy tubes in patients aged 85 years or older (C) whether physicians adequately discuss the benefits and burdens of tube feeding with patients or surrogate decision-makers before gastrostomy tubes are inserted (D) the growing number of patients undergoing placement of a gastrostomy tube (E) the complications that often follow the insertion of a percutaneous endoscopic gastrostomy tube

The best answer is C The question raised in the passage is not whether to use

gastrostomy tubes and what the dangers of using one might be, rather the passage examines the issue of informed consent before the insertion of a tube

2 According to the passage, the high mortality rate following gastrostomy found in research cited in paragraph two is not necessarily a direct result of the placement of a gastrostomy tube because

(A) tube insertion itself is only rarely associated with fatal complications

(B) 30-day and 1-year mortality was 24% and 63% respectively in 1991 among Medicare beneficiaries

(C) only cases in which the percutaneous endoscopic gastrostomy tube was

incorrectly place were examined

(D) all the patients in the studies mentioned suffered from life threatening diseases (E) most of the patients in the studies mentioned suffered from life threatening

diseases

The best answer is E In paragraph two it is stated that most subject tested suffered from one of a number of potentially fatal diseases Hence, the mortality rate found in patients that receiving a tube, was not necessarily due to the use of the tube, but to the disease itself or to some other treatment

3 It can be inferred from the passage that

(A) there are alternatives to the use of gastrostomy tubes to provide nutrition but not hydration for patients unwilling or unable to maintain an adequate oral intake

(B) there are alternatives to the use of gastrostomy tubes to provide hydration but not nutrition for patients unwilling or unable to maintain an adequate oral intake

(C) there are alternatives to the use of gastrostomy tubes to provide nutrition and hydration for patients unwilling or unable to maintain an adequate oral intake

(D) the alternatives to gastrostomy tubes do not provide adequate nutrition and hydration

(E) the alternatives to gastrostomy tubes provide more adequate nutrition and

hydration than the gastrostomy tubes

The best answer is C The passage suggests that if patients were offered alternatives

to gastrostomy tubes, some of them would choose them We can infer from this that alternatives exist

4 The author uses the word “only” in line ??? [third line from the end] most likely in order to

(A) highlight the oddity of the decision of the patients

(B) emphasize the relatively low percentage of patients that would opt for a

gastrostomy tube if given the choice

(C) point out the limited value of inserting a gastrostomy tube

(D) distinguish the primary factor in the decision making process of brain damaged patients

(E) single out a unique merit of gastrostomy tubes for brain damaged patients