Process Selection - From Design to Manufacture Episode 2 Part 2 pot

ease with which a material can be welded and the quality of the finished weld, i.e.. Material composition alloying elements, grain structure and impurities and physical properties therma

completed assemblies from workstation to workstation is required In general, the various types of station/transfer system for flexible assembly are:

a variety of operations are performed Typically, greater than six components to be assembled requires a multi-station arrangement

Economic considerations

Typical applications

casting machines and injection molding machines

Design aspects

geometry for feeding, handling, fitting and checking, and reduce overall assembly costs

Quality issues

down-time) are due to the incoming component quality

. Robot working envelope must be securely guarded.

safety is paramount, for example, hazardous or toxic environments, heavy component parts or a high repeatability requirement causing operator fatigue

6.3 Dedicated assembly

Process description

composing previously manufactured components and/or sub-assemblies into a complete product

of unit of a product Typically, a number of workstations comprising automatic part-feeders and fixed work-heads are arranged on an automatically controlled transfer system to compose the product sequentially (see 6.3F)

Process variations

Orientation can be achieved by vibratory/centrifugal bowl feeders, by receiving parts already orientated by the supplier in pallet, magazine or by escapement mechanisms for part-feeding

occur using fixed work-heads and/or pick and place units

e.g ‘peg in hole’, adhesive bonding, staking and screwing

detection of foreign bodies, part-failure and machine in-operation Common technologies include vision systems, tactile/pressure sensors, proximity sensors and ‘bed of nails’

usually built up on a work carrier, pallet or holder Therefore, a system for transferring the partly

6.3F Dedicated assembly process

completed assemblies from workstation to workstation is required In general, transfer systems for dedicated assembly are either:

in-line or rotary systems Can set up a buffer system using this configuration Typically, greater than ten components to be assembled requires a free-transfer arrangement

Economic considerations

variants are based on parts missing from original design

Typical applications

Design aspects

geometry for feeding, handling, fitting and checking, and reduce overall assembly costs

Quality issues

location stability problems

down-time) are due to the incoming component quality

. It is difficult and expensive to incorporate insensitivity to component variation and faults in assembly systems to reduce this problem Sensing capabilities are limited in this capacity

safety is paramount, for example, hazardous or toxic environments, heavy component parts or a high repeatability requirement, causing operator fatigue

7 Joining processes

7.1 Tungsten Inert-Gas Welding (TIG)

Process description

electrode at the joint line The parent metal is melted and the weld created with or without the

stable stream of inert gas, usually argon, to prevent oxidation and contamination (see 7.1F)

Materials

alloys, copper and stainless steel Carbon steels, low alloy steels, precious metals and refractory alloys can also be welded Dissimilar metals are difficult to weld

Process variations

magnesium alloys

thermal conductivity, for example copper, or material thickness greater than 6 mm giving increased weld rates and penetration

7.1F Tungsten inert-gas welding process

Economic considerations

argon cost and decreased production rate Helium/argon gas is expensive but may be viable due to increased production rate

costs can be high for fabrications using automated welding

grinding back of the weld may be required

Typical applications

Design aspects

Configurations)

although TIG is suited to automated contour following

most welding positions

Quality issues

avoid porosity and inclusions

materials’ original physical properties

distortion on large fabrications

times

can cause an unstable arc

oxidation

by automation however, it does reduce distortion, improve reproduction and produces fewer welding defects

ease with which a material can be welded and the quality of the finished weld, i.e porosity and cracking Material composition (alloying elements, grain structure and impurities) and physical properties (thermal conductivity, specific heat and thermal expansion) are some important attributes which determine weldability

7.2 Metal Inert-Gas Welding (MIG)

Process description

joint line The parent metal is melted and the weld created with the continuous feed of the wire which

oxidation and contamination (see 7.2F)

Materials

aluminum, nickel, magnesium and titanium alloys and copper Refractory alloys and cast iron can also be welded Dissimilar metals are difficult to weld

Process variations

welding (vertical, overhead) and thin sheet; spray transfer uses high currents for thick sheet and high deposition rates, typically for horizontal welding

mix of argon/helium, also used for nickel alloys and copper Pure argon is used for aluminum alloys

self-shielding, although flux-cored wire is preferred with additional shielding gas for certain con-ditions Limited to carbon steels and lower welding rates

7.2F Metal inert-gas welding process

Economic considerations

back of the weld may be required

Typical applications

Design aspects

overhead welding (see Appendix B – Weld Joint Configurations)

wherever possible

good for welds inaccessible by other methods

Quality issues

avoid porosity and inclusions

. Shielding gas chosen to suit parent metal, i.e it must not react when welding.

used for site work (windy conditions where the shielding gas may be gusted or positional welding) and large fillet welds

materials original physical properties

distortion on large fabrications

the use of dedicated tooling does reduce distortion, improve reproduction and produces fewer welding defects

ease with which a material can be welded and the quality of the finished weld, i.e porosity and cracking Material composition (alloying elements, grain structure and impurities) and physical properties (thermal conductivity, specific heat and thermal expansion) are some important attributes which determine weldability

7.3 Manual Metal Arc Welding (MMA)

Process description

parent metal is melted and the weld created with the manual feed of the electrode along the weld and downwards as the electrode is being consumed Simultaneously, a flux on the outside of the electrode melts covering the weld pool and generates a gas shielding it from the atmosphere and preventing oxidation (see 7.3F)

Materials

metals is not recommended, but occasionally performed Dissimilar metals are difficult to weld Process variations

and properties required Core sizes are between 11.6 and 19.5 mm and the electrode length is usually 460 mm

operations Uses the pin or stud as a consumable electrode to join to the workpiece at one end Portable semi-automatic or static automated equipment available

Economic considerations

7.3F Manual metal arc welding process

. Manually performed typically, although some automation possible.

required in setting up

be removed during runs and some grinding back of the weld, may be required Weld spatter often covers the surface which may need cleaning

Typical applications

Design aspects

B – Weld Joint Configurations)

wherever possible

excellent for welds inaccessible by other methods

Quality issues

rate

. Access for weld inspection important, e.g NDT.

avoid porosity and inclusions after each pass

materials original physical properties

distortion on large fabrications

times

deoxi-dants in the flux minimizes carbon loss, which reduces weld strength

hydrogen cracking

work-piece may need demagnetizing or the return cable repositioned

ease with which a material can be welded and the quality of the finished weld, i.e porosity and cracking Material composition (alloying elements, grain structure and impurities) and physical properties (thermal conductivity, specific heat and thermal expansion) are some important attributes which determine weldability

7.4 Submerged Arc Welding (SAW)

Process description

electrode wire and the workpiece at the joint line The arc melts the parent metal and the wire creates the weld as it is automatically fed downwards and traversed along the weld, or the work is moved under welding head The flux shields the weld pool from the atmosphere preventing oxida-tion Any flux that is not used is recycled (see 7.4F)

Materials

Process variations

deck plates for example), self-propelled traversing unit on a gantry or moving head type (for shorter weld lengths) and fixed head where the work rotates under the welding unit (for pressure vessels)

additional alloying elements Wire sizes range from 10.8 to 19.5 mm

hardfacing parts subject to wear (bulk materials handling chute)

7.4F Submerged arc welding process

. Fluxes available in powdered or granulated form, either neutral or basic Neutral fluxes used for low carbon steel and basic fluxes for higher carbon steels

increase deposition rates

Economic considerations

align-ment

Typical applications

Design aspects

Joint Configurations)

retain flux and mold the weld pool

Quality issues

formed giving inferior weld toughness

. Access for weld inspection important, e.g NDT.

when using high currents

avoid porosity and inclusions on each pass

materials original physical properties

length through varying the wire feed rate, and thereby improving weld quality

steels

ease with which a material can be welded and the quality of the finished weld, i.e porosity and cracking Material composition (alloying elements, grain structure and impurities) and physical properties (thermal conductivity, specific heat and thermal expansion) are some important attributes which determine weldability

7.5 Electron Beam Welding (EBW)

Process description

(anode) by an electron gun (cathode), where fusion of the base material takes place The operation takes place in a vacuum, and the work is traversed under the electron beam typically (see 7.5F)

Materials

aluminum, titanium, copper, refractory and precious metals

Process variations

available, depending on type of work, size and location

a vacuum using suction cups

along the joint using magnetic coils, rather than the work under the beam on a traversing system

fusion

using the same equipment by varying process parameters

7.5F Electron beam welding process

Economic considerations

important consideration

Typical applications

Design aspects

Config-urations) Horizontal welding position is the most suitable

height of work in a chamber is 1.2 m typically