Chemistry part 1, Julia Burdge,2e (2009) ppsx

Her research and dissertation focused on instrument development for analysis of trace sulfur compounds in air and the statistical evaluation of data near the year 2000, she was tenured

4 K Ca •

Potassium Calcium 39.10 40.08

Rubidium Strontium 85.47 87.62

Cesium Barium 132.9 137.3

Francium Radium (223) (226)

39

Y

Yttrium 88.91

Periodic Table of the Elements

17

CI

Chlorine 35.45

35

Br

Bromine 79.90

53

I

Iodine 126.9

85 ,

At

Astatine (210)

102

No

Nobelium (259)

10

Ne

Neon 20.18

18

Ar

Argon 39.95

36

Kr

Krypton 83.80

118 -

Atomic Atomic Atomic Atomic

* Th ese ato mi c masses show as many s ignificant figures as are known for each element The atomic masses in the periodic table are shown to four significant f i g u r e s,

w hi c h is suff i cient for solving the problems in this book

tA ppr ox i mate values of atomic masses for radioactive elements are given in parentheses

•

ULIA BURDGE

With significant contributions

from Raymond Chang

McGraw-Hili Higher Education

Bost on Burr Ridge , IL Dubuque , IA New York San Franc i sco S1 Louis

Bangkok B ogota Caracas Kuala Lump ur Lisbon London Madrid Mex i co C i ty

Milan Montreal Ne w Delhi Santiago Seoul Singapore Sydney T aipei Toronto

McGraw-Hili Higher Education

CHEMISTRY

The McGraw-Hili Comp a~ies

No part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, or stored in a

Publisher: Thomas Timp

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Interior Designer: Kaye Farmer

(USE) Cover Image: Gary Hunt, Precision Graphics

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Printer: R R Donnelley Willard, OH

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

ABOUT THE

Julia Burdge did most of her undergraduate work at Iowa State

Uni-versity and completed her degree in Chemistry at the UniUni-versity of South Florida

in Tampa Julia received her Ph.D (1994) from the University of Idaho in

Mos-cow, Idaho Her research and dissertation focused on instrument development for

analysis of trace sulfur compounds in air and the statistical evaluation of data near

the year 2000, she was tenured and promoted to associate professor at The

Uni-versity of Akron on the merits of her teaching, service, and research in chemistry

the teaching activities of graduate students, she helped establish a future-faculty

under-graduate level In 2001, Julia relocated to the Honors College of Florida Atlantic

BRIEF

1 Chemistry: The Central Science 2

2 Atoms, Molecules, and Ions 32

3 Stoichiometry: Ratios of Combination 72

4 Reactions in Aqueous Solutions 110

5 Thermochemistry 158

6 Quantum Theory and the Electronic Structure of Atoms 192

7 Electronic Configuration and the Periodic Table 236

8 Chemical Bonding I: Basic Concepts 276

9 Chemical Bonding II: Molecular Geometry and Bonding Theories 312

10 Organic Chemistry 362

12 Intermolecular Forces and the Physical Properties of Liquids and Solids 460

13 Physical Properties of Solutions 504

16 Acids and Bases 634

17 Acid-Base Equilibria and Solubility Equilibria 680

18 Entropy, Free Energy, and Equilibrium 724

19 Electrochemistry 758

20 Nuclear C hemi stry 796

21 Environmental Chemistry 828

23 Metallurgy and the Chemistry of Metals 880

24 Nonmetallic Elements and Their Compounds 904

Appendixes

1 Mathematical Operations A-I

2 Thermodynamic Data at 1 atm and 25°C A-6

• •

V II

VIII

Preface xxi

Enhanced Support for Faculty and Students XXXll

Volume and Density 12

Intensive Properties 15

• The Neutron 40

•

2.6 Molecules and Molecular Compounds 47

• Molecules 47 · Molecular Formulas 48 · Naming Molecular Compounds 49 · Empirical Formulas 51

2.7 Ions and Ionic Compounds 55

• Atomic Ions 55 · Poly atomic Ions 56 · Formulas of Ionic Compounds 57 · Naming Ionic Compounds 58 · Hydrates 61

• Familiar Inorganic Compounds 61

STOICHIOMETRY: RATIOS OF COMBINATION 72

3.1 Molecular and Formula Masses 74

3.2 Percent Composition of Compounds 75

3.3 Chemical Equations 76

• Interpreting and Writing Chemical Equations 76 · Balancing Chemical Equations 77

3.4 The Mole and Molar Masses 82

• The Mole 82 · Determining Molar Mass 84 · Interconverting Mass, Moles, and Numbers of Particles 84 · Empirical Formula from Percent Composition 85

3.5 Combustion Analysis 87

• Determination of Empirical Formula 87 · Determination of Molecular Formula 88

3.6 Calculations with Balanced Chemical Equations 89

• Moles of Reactants and Products 89 · Mass of Reactants and Products 90

3.7 Limiting Reactants 92

• Determining the Limiting Reactant 92 · Reaction Yield 96

REACTIONS IN AQUEOUS SOLUTIONS 110

4.1 General Properties of Aqueous Solutions 112

• Electrolytes and Nonelectrolytes 112 · Strong Electrolytes and Weak Electrolytes 112

4.2 Precipitation Reactions 117

• Solubility Guidelines for Ionic Compounds in Water 117

• Molecular Equations 119 · Ionic Equations 120 · Net Ionic Equations 120

4.3 Acid-Base Reactions 121

• Strong Acids and Bases 122 · Br0nsted Acids and Bases 122

• Acid-Base Neutralization 124

4.4 Oxidation-Reduction Reactions 126

• Oxidation Numbers 127 · Oxidation of Metals in Aqueous Solutions 130 · Balancing Simple Redox Equations 130 · Other Types of Redox Reactions 133

4.5 Concentration of Solutions 136

• Molarity 136 · Dilution 137 · Solution Stoichiometry 141

CONTENTS • IX

x CONTENTS

•

QUANTUM THEORY AND THE ELECTRONIC

6.3

6.4 6.5

6.6

6.7

Effect 198 Bohr's Theory of the Hydrogen Atom 200

Wave Properties of Matter 208

Quantum Mechanics 210

Quantum Numbers 213

Atomic Orbitals 216

6.8 Electron Configuration 219

ELECTRON CONFIGURATION AND THE PERIODIC TABLE 236

Electron Configuration of Ions 252

Properties of Oxides Within a Period 265

CHEMICAL BONDING I: BASIC CONCEPTS 276

Ionic and Covalent Compounds 286

xii CONTENTS

-,

Bonding 351

10.1 Why Carbon Is Different 364

10.2 Classes of Organic Compounds 365

10.3 Representing Organic Molecules 375

10.4 Isomerism 382

10.5 Organic Reactions 386

Types of Organic Reactions 394

10.6 Organic Polymers 395

GASES 414

11.1 Properties of Gases 416

Pressure 418

and Gay-Lussac's Law: The Temperature-Volume Relationship 423

11.3 The Ideal Gas Equation 427

11.4 Reactions with Gaseous Reactants and Products 430

11.6 The Kinetic Molecular Theory of Gases 439

11.7 Deviation from Ideal Behavior 445

der Waals Equation 445

INTERMOLECULAR FORCES AND THE PHYSICAL

12.1 Intermolecular Forces 462

X II I

13.2 A Molecular View of the Solution Process 507

• The Importance of Intermolecular Forces 507 · Energy and Entropy

• Vapor-Pressure Lowering 517 · Boiling-Point Elevation 519

• Freezing-Point Depression 521 · Osmotic Pressure 522

• Average Reaction Rate 544 · Instantaneous Rate 546

• Stoichiometry and Reaction Rate 548

14.2 Dependence of Reaction Rate on Reactant Concentration 551

• The Rate Law 551 · Experimental Determination of the Rate Law 551

14.3 Dependence of Reactant Concentration on Time 555

• First-Order Reactions 555 · Second-Order Reactions 560

14.4 Dependence of Reaction Rate on Temperature 562

• Collision Theory 562 · The Arrhenius Equation 564

14.5 Reaction Mechanisms 568

• Elementary Reactions 568 · Rate-Determining Step 569

• Experimental Support for Reaction Mechanisms 572

14.6 Catalysis 573

• Heterogeneous Catalysis 574 · Homogeneous Catalysis 575

• Enzymes: Biological Catalysts 575

•

CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIUM 590

Equilibrium Constant 598

Expressions 600

Equilibrium Concentrations 607

16.10 Acid-Base Properties of Salt Solutions 662

Hydrolyze 666

Hydroxides 668

CONTENTS xv

• Acid-Base Indicators 698

17.4 Solubility Equilibria 700

• Solubility Product Expression and K s p 701 · Calculations Involving

K s p and Solubility 701 · Predicting Precipitation Reactions 704

17.5 Factors Affecting Solubility 705

Formation 710

17.6 Separation of Ions Using Differences in Solubility 712

• Fractional Precipitation 712 · Qualitative Analysis of Metal Ions in Solution 714

• Standard Free-Energy Changes 738 · Using t: G and t: G o to Solve Problems 739

• Relationship Between t: G and t: Go 742 · Relationship Between

ELECTROCHEMISTRY 758

State 773

Nuclear Fusion 815 Uses of Isotopes 817

Biological Effects of Radiation 818

Space Shuttles 834

21.3 Depletion of Ozone in the Stratosphere 835

Complexes 871

METALLURGY AND THE CHEMISTRY

of Metals 887

NONMETALLIC ELEMENTS AND THEIR

1 Mathematical Operations A-I

2 Thermodynamic Data at 1 atm and 25 ° C A - 6 Glossary G-l

Answers to Odd - Numbered Problems AP-l

LIST OF •

Inquiry Boxes

How Can You Enhance Your Chances of Success in Chemistry

Class? 21

How Are Atomic Masses Measured? 43

How Are Oxoanions and Oxoacids Named? 59

116

What Causes the Periodic Trends in Properties? 245

Can Bond Dipoles Cancel One Another in More Complex

Molecules? 322

Groups? 372

Substituent? 374

Is the Shroud of Turin Really the Burial Cloth of

Bringing Chemistry to Life

Distribution of Elements on Earth 45

The Stoichiometry of Metabolism 80 The Invention of Gatorade 114

Heat Capacity and Hypothermia 174

Lasers 207

The Chemical Elements of Life 239

The Power of Radicals 298

Why Is Carbon Monoxide Toxic? 348

The Chemistry of Vision 394

Catalysis and Hangovers 577

Antacids and the pH Balance in Your Stomach 642 Maintaining the pH of Blood 689

Welcome to the exciting and dynamic world of chemistry! My desire to create a new general

chemistry textbook grew out of my concern for the interests of s tudent s and faculty alike

Hav-ing taught general chemistry for many years and having helped new teacher s and future faculty

develop the ski lls necessary to teach general chemistry, I believe I have developed a distinct

perspective on the common problem s and misunderstanding s that st udent s encounter while

learn-ing the fundamental concepts of chemistry-and that profe sso r s encounter while teaching them

I believe that it is possible for a textbook to address many of these i ss ue s while conveying the

wonder and possibilities that chemistry offers today With thi s in mind, I have tried to write a text

that balances the necessary fundamental concepts with engaging real-life examples and

applica-tions while utilizing a step-by-step problem- so lving approach and an inno vat ive art and media

program

Modern Content Solid Science

The world we live in is constantly changing, and the science of chemistry continues to expand

and evolve to meet the challenges of our modern world I have developed this new textbook to

provide a so lid grounding in the ba sic principles of chemistry while se tting them within a context

of up-to-date infonnation that se rve s to capture and hold st udent s' attention and prepare them

for studies in a variety of fields I have tried to connect the study of chemistry to the study of

other sciences including physical, biological, environmental, medical, and engineering My goal

is to help students build a solid conceptual understanding and to encourage mastery of

chemi-cal conventions including models , laws and equations, and s uch univer sally important principles

as nomenclature, stoichiometry, measurement, and scale While doing so I integrate coverage of

organic chemistry, biochemistry , green chemistry, and other examples to enhance the relevance of

fundamental principles

Toward this end I have al so placed my chapter on organic chemistry (C hapter 10 ) earlier

than most texts It is not an exhaustive chapter, but present s a handful of organic reaction s,

ger-mane to applications presented in the book , in the context of bonding and molecular s tructure One

example is the reaction of the hydroxide ion with carbon dioxide to form the hydrogen carbonate

ion Examples such as this are intended to se rve both as a functional introduction to organic

chem-istry and as reinforcement of bonding theories and the importance of hybridization, molecular

polarity, and electron density I believe that this approach will be beneficial to those who go on to

take organic chemistry

Each individual chapter outline se rves as an advance organi ze r for key concepts and is lowed by a set of chapter learning objectives these are two of the many pedagogical device s

fol-designed to foster crucial organization and good study habits Additionally, I have used my own

teaching experiences to identify and address common student mi sco nception s One way that I

have done thi s i s through the use of margin note s written specifically for the studen t The se note s

include "bite-sized" additional information suc h as common pitfall alerts, analogies to clarify

con-cepts, pertinent reminders, and alternative perspective s

Building Problem-Solving Skills

The entirety of the text emphasizes the importance of problem so lving as a crucial element in

the study of chemistry Beginning with Chapter 1, a basic guide fosters a consistent approach to

XXI

,

XXII PREFACE

,

divided into four consistently applied steps:

prob-lem thoroughly to determine exactly what is being asked Next, we determine what skills are necessary, and layout a plan for solving the problem Where appropriate, we make a

ballpark estimate of the magnitude of the correct result

information given within the problem itself, equations, constants, and tabulated data

the problem A particular emphasis on attention to units is made during this step The final

it may include information that illustrates the relevance of the problem

Problem that tests the same skills but requires an approach slightly different from the one used to

Practice Problems in this text will help students develop an effective set of problem-solving skills

Greater Relevance Through Modern Examples and Applications

I believe that the study of chemistry can be less daunting for students if they know how it applies

to interesting, real-life examples For this reason, I introduce each chapter with a brief and

learned Bringing Chemistry to Life segments also work toward this goal, utilizing engaging rative to further explore applications in the real world, such as The Stoichiometry of Metabolism

question of interest These may tackle a topical subject such as How Important Are Units? ter 1) but many also address important fundamental skills such as How Do I Assign Oxidation Numbers? (Chapter 4) or How Am I Supposed to R e member All These Reactions? (Chapter 3)

examples, I have placed the science of chemistry within a human context that will provide for a

more engaging learning environment and lead to a fuller understanding of the subject matter and a

Greater Understanding Through Chemical Visualization

This text seeks to enhance student understanding through a variety of both unique and conventional

feature entitled Visualizing Chemistry These two-page spreads appear as needed to emphasize

fundamental, vitally important principles of chemistry Setting them apart visually makes them easier to find and revisit as needed throughout the course term As an example, Chapter 4 includes

feature concludes with a What's the Point box that emphasizes the take-away message

The use of both Macro-Micro Art and Three-Dimensional Art build on the principle of breaking down the complex into simpler, more user-friendly concepts Breaking down chemical processes into molecular-level figures makes it easier for students to grasp what is happening on

hybrid orbitals Through experience, I have learned that this is often a difficult yet tally crucial element to grasp So, for example, I have broken down the process of hybridization