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Some verbs are not normally used in the continuous form even when they refer to the present moment?. Form We make the present perfect tense with have/has and the past participle.. We us

Object pronouns

MeYouHim/Her/ItUsYouThem

Possessive pronouns

MineYoursHis/Hers/ItsOursYoursTheirs

Reflexive pronouns

MyselfYourselfHimself/Herself/ItselfOurselvesYourselvesThemselves

Relative pronouns

WhoWhomWhoseWhichThat

c We use an in front of an adjective that begins with a vowel

an old man

an easy exam

B Use

1 Adverbs describe verbs.

You can do this exercise easily (Easily describes do.)

2 Adjectives describe nouns.

This is an easy exercise (Easy describes exercise.)

1 We use gerunds as subjects or objects.

Skiing can be dangerous.

I like travelling by plane.

2 Certain verbal expressions take a gerund

Would you mind going to the bank for me?

I don’t mind doing that.

Do you fancy watching a video?

TOPIC 4:

A in is used with years in 1994

centuries in the nienteenth century

parts of the day in the morning

B on is used with dates on 19 July

days of the week on Monday

D no preposition is used with expressions with ago

tonight, this morning this afternoon, etc.

tomorrow, tomorrow afternoon, etc.

yesterday, yesterday morning, etc.

expressions with last or next

TOPIC 5:

I THE FUTURE WITH “WILL”

A Form

1 Positive and negative

IHeSheItWeYouThey

‘ll(will)

won’t(will not)

see you tomorrow

get the job

2 Questions Short answers

WillWill

youhe

be at the meeting? Yes, I will

lend you his car? No, he won’t

B Use

1 We use the future with will to make predictions or general statements about the future.

We’ll need some more money soon.

In the year 2050 the world’s population will reach 10 billion.

2 We use the future with will to describe a decision made at the moment of speaking often or to make

an offer

‘Have you got that report?’ ‘Yes, I’ll fax you a copy.’

‘I can’t hear the TV very well.’ ‘I’ll turn it up.’

II THE FUTURE WITH “GOING TO”

A Form

1 Positive and negative

I

‘m(am)

HeSheIt

‘s(is)Isn’t

‘s not(is not)

WeYouThey

‘re(are)aren’t

‘re not(are not)

2 Questions Short answers

Are you going to play football? Yes, I am

Is he going to buy the wine? No, he isn’t

B Use

1 We use going to to describe plans, intentions, and things we have decided to do.

I’m going to look for a new job.

I’m going to sell my car.

2 We use going to to describe things we can see or feel will definitely happen in the future.

She’s going to have a baby.

3-0 up with five minutes to play, Manchester City are going to win

III THE PRESENT SIMPLE TENSE

A Form

1 Positive and negative

IWeYouThey

live

in Manchester

don’t live(do not live)He

SheIt

plays

tennis

doesn’t play(does not play)

a In the third person singular we add –s to the infinitive

b When the verb ends in –ss, -sh, -ch, -z or –o, we add –es.

2 Questions Short answers

Do you live in London? Yes, I do

Does he play golf? No, he doesn’t

B Use

1 We use the present simple tense to describe states.

I live with my parents.

Water boils at 100 degrees

2 We use the present simple tense to describe regular events.

I usually work late on Mondays.

They go on holidays to Ireland every year

C Pronunciation

1 After a vowel sound or a voiced consonant sound (/b/, /d/, /g/, /v/, /δ/, /z/, /l/, /r/, /m/, /n/, /η/) wepronounce the final –s as /z/

comes / kʌmz/ goes /gәʊz/

2 After a voiceless consonant sound (/t/, /p/, /f/, and /k/) we pronounce the final –s as /s/.

cuts / kʌts/ stops /stɒps/ coughs /kʌfs/ looks /lʊks/

3 When the verb ends in –ges, –ches, –sses, –ses, –zes or –shes, we pronounce the final syllable

/iz/

changes /ʧeinʤiz/ pushes /pʊʃiz /

IV THE PRESENT CONTINUOUS TENSE

1 Positive and negative

I

‘m(am)

HeSheIt

‘s(is)Isn’t

‘s not(is not)

WeYouThey

‘re(are)aren’t

‘re not(are not)

2 Questions Short answers

Am I meeting Mike at 12.00? Yes, you are

Is she coming to the meeting? No, she isn’tAre they driving or coming by train?

a To make –ing forms we add –ing to the infinitive

1 We use the present continuous tense to say what is happening at the moment.

We’re having dinner just now.

‘Where’s Sue?’ ‘She’s watching TV.’

2 We use the present continuous tense to describe a temporary state.

I can’t find a flat, so I’m living with my parents.

I’m doing French evening classes this year

3 We use the present continuous tense to describe a future arrangement.

I’m playing tennis tomorrow evening.

They’re arriving next Monday at 10.00.

C Present simple and present continuous

1 Sometimes the use of the present simple or the present continuous depends on whether we see a

situation as permanent or temporary

I live in a flat in George Road (I see the situation as permanent.) I’m living with my parents until I find a place of my own (I think the situation is temporary.) Where do you work? (I think you have a permanent job.)

Where are you working? (I think you are doing something temporary.)

2 Some verbs are not normally used in the continuous form even when they refer to the present

moment They refer to states and not to actions The most important ones are

a like, love, prefer, hate, want, wish, need

I need a new pen NOT I’m needing a new pen

b think, imagine, believe, know, realize, mean, understand, remember, forget, suppose, hope, see

I don’t understand NOT I’m not understanding

c be, seem, appear, sound, taste, smell This tastes delicious NOT This is tasting delicious

d belong, contain, include, matter, owe, own Who does the car belong to? NOT Who is the car belonging to?

3 Some of these verbs can be used in the continuous form when they describe actions and not states.

Compare these sentences

This ice cream tastes disgusting (state) He’s tasting the soup to see if it needs more salt (action)

I think it’s important (state)

‘What are you doing?’ ‘I’m thinking.’ (action)

V THE PRESENT PERFECT TENSE

A Form

We make the present perfect tense with have/has and the past participle.

1 Positive and negative

IWeYouThey

‘ve(have) lived abroad.

haven’t(have not)He

SheIt

‘s

hasn’t(has not)

2 Questions Short answers

Have you been to Paris before? Yes, I have

Has she broken her leg? No, she hasn’t

a To make regular past participles, we add –ed to the infinitive

This is the same as the regular past tense

b A lot of common verbs have an irregular past participle

1 We use the present perfect tense when we are interested in the present result of a past action.

She’s gone home (She isn’t here now.) I’ve bought a new car (I’ve got a new car now.)

2 We use the present perfect tense when an activity or situation started in the past and still continues

PAST

three years ago

3 We use the present perfect tense when we are referring to a time frame that comes up to the

present

Have you ever been to Brazil? (In your life until now.) I’ve been to Brazil three times (Until now I’ve been there three times.) Have you seen John today? (We are still in the time frame of ‘today’.)

VI THE PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS TENSE

A Form

1 Positive and negative

IWeYouThey

‘ve(have)

SheIt

‘s(has)hasn’t(has not)

2 Questions Short answers

Has he been reading? Yes, he has

Have you been waiting long? No, I haven’t

B Use

1 We use the present perfect continuous tense to describe an activity that is still incomplete.

I’ve been writing a letter (I haven’t finished it yet.) How long have you been reading that book? (You haven’t finished it yet.)

2 We use the present perfect continuous tense to focus on the process of an activity.

‘What have you been doing?’ ‘I’ve been running.’

3 We use the present perfect continuous tense to emphasize the duration of an activity.

You’re late I’ve been waiting for an hour

C Present perfect simple and present perfect continuous

1 The present perfect continuous and the present perfect simple can both be used to describe

situations which started in the past and are still going on, or about past actions which have presentresults The important difference is that the present perfect continuous focuses on the action itself,but the present perfect simple focuses on the completion or result of the action

I’ve been playing a lot of football this week (focus on activity) I’ve played two matches (focus on completion)

2 We always use the present perfect simple when we say how much or how many

How many letters have you written this week?

How much rice have you cooked?

3 With the verbs live and work we can normally use either the present perfect simple or the present

perfect continuous

Have you lived here long?

Have you been living here long?

4 Sometimes the present perfect simple can describe a more permanent state and the present perfect

continuous can describe a temporary activity

I’ve lived here for ten years (permanent) I’ve been living with my sister for the last few months (temporary)

VII THE PAST SIMPLE TENSE

A Form

1 The verb to be

a Positive and negative

IHeShe

It

was

at home last week

wasn’t (was not)We

YouThey

were

here yesterday

weren’t(were not)

b Questions Short answers

Was he at home last week? Yes, he was

Were they here yesterday? No, they weren’t

2 Regular verbs

a To make the past simple tense we add –ed to the infinitive The past simple is the same for all

persons

watch We watched a film last night.

happen It happened in Rome.

 When the verb ends in –e, we add –d

 When the verb ends consonant-vowel-consonant, and the stress is on the final syllable, we double

the final consonant and add –ed.

 After /p/, /k/, /ʃ/, /ʧ/, and /s/ we pronounce the final –d as /t/

 When the verb ends in –t or –d we pronounce the final syllable /id/

 Otherwise we pronounce the final –d as /d/

pulledlivedseemed

watchedlikedmissed

wantedendeddecided

3 Irregular verbs

Many commons verbs have an irregular past form The irregular form is the same for all persons

a Positive

see I saw her yesterday

buy They bought a new car last week

b Negative

He didn’t(did not)

go to the theatre

c Questions Short answers

Did you see the film last night? Yes, I did

Did she visit her parents? No, she didn’t

Negatives, questions, and short answers are the same for all persons and for all verbs except the

verb to be.

Note: In negatives and questions we use the infinitive of the verb.

Did you go out? NOT Did you went out?

Did they buy a car? NOT Did they bought a car?

C Past simple and present perfect

Compare the uses of the past simple and the present perfect

1 We use the past simple when we are interested in the action or the time of the action, not the

effect

She’s gone home (She isn’t here now.) She went at four o’clock (We’re interested in when the action took place.)

2 We use the past simple when we are talking about a finished time in the past.

I’ve lived here for five years (I still live here.)

Before that I lived in Madrid (But I don’t live there now.)

NOW

Before that I lived in Madrid I’ve lived here for five years.

PAST

3 We use the past simple when we are referring to a time frame that ended in the past.

‘Have you been out today?’

‘Yes, I went out this morning.’

VIII THE PAST CONTINUOUS TENSE

A Form

1 Positive and negative

IHeShe

It

was

going to work

wasn’t (was not)We

YouThey

were

standing at the bus stop

weren’t(were not)

2 Questions Short answers

Was he having a bath? Yes, he was

Were they driving to Scotland? No, they weren’t

B Use

The past continuous tense describes a continuous or unfinished activity in the past

1 We use the past continuous tense to describe an action that started before a particular moment, and

probably continued after it

At 8.00 I was having breakfast.

This time last week I was lying on a beach in Greece.

NOW

I was lying on a beach in Greece.

PAST

This time last week

2 We use the past continuous tense to describe a temporary situation in the past.

I was living in Bristol last year

C Past continuous and past simple

We often use the past continuous tense with the past simple tense The past continuous describes thesituation – it is background information The past simple describes the main event The clauses are

usually joined by while, as, or when.

While I was waiting for the bus, it started to rain.

As I was going to bed, the doorbell rang.

IX THE PAST PERFECT TENSE

A Form

We make the past perfect tense with had/hadn’t and the past participle.

1 Positive and negative

IHeSheItWeYouThey

‘d(had)

hadn’t(had not)

been there for 2 hours

finished the project

2 Questions Short answers

HadHad

youhe

seen him before? Yes, I had

Eaten breakfast? No, he hadn’t

B Use

1 We use the past perfect tense to look back on an event that occurred before another event in the past.

We had dinner We weren’t hungry.

We weren’t hungry because we’d had dinner.

NOW

dinner not hungry

PAST 1 2

We weren’t hungry because we’d had dinner.

2 The past perfect is often used with when, after, before, as soon as.

I was sure I’d seen him before.

After we’d finished dinner, we went for a walk

The past perfect is necessary when we need to make it clear that one thing happened before

another Compare these sentences

Sheila got up, got dressed, had some breakfast, and went out.

When Sheila got to the party, Amanda had gone home.

In the first sentence we do not use the past perfect, because the order of events is clear In the

second sentence we need to use the past perfect to make it clear that Amanda went home before

Sheila got to the party

X ADVERBS OF FREQUENCY

never hardly ever sometimes often normally always

frequently usually

A We put the adverb of frequency

 after the verb to be

The train is always on time.

He’s never here at 9.00.

 in front of the main verb

We often go to the park.

I don’t usually get up late.

B Sometimes, normally, and usually can also go at the beginning or end of the sentence, but they usually

go before the main verb

I  have lunch in a restaurant 

sometimesnormallyusually

TOPIC 6:

A Form

1 When the statement is positive the tag is negative.

You’re Italian, aren’t you?

He’s from Bristol, isn’t he?

2 When the statement is negative the tag is positive.

They aren’t coming to the party, are they?

3 With the verb to be we make the tag with the verb and the subject

It isn’t very warm, is it?

4 When there is a modal verb or an auxiliary verb we make the tag from the modal or auxiliary and

the subject

She won’t be here tomorrow, will she?

5 When the verb in the sentence hasn’t got an auxiliary, we make the tag from the auxiliary that we

would normally use for making questions in that tense

She arrived yesterday, didn’t she? You like fish, don’t you?

Note: Negative tag questions are contracted.

You knew about this yesterday,didn’t you? NOT … did not you?

She can speak Russian, can’t she? NOT … can not she?

6 When the subject of the statement is a noun, we replace it with a pronoun in the tag

This chair‘s French, isn’t it?

Bob and Betty live near here, don’t they?

7 The question tag for a sentence with Let’s is shall we?

Let’s get a pizza, shall we?

8 The question tag for a sentence with I am is aren’t I?

I’m going to Helsinki next week, aren’t I?

9 When we write a question tag it is separated from the statement by a comma (,) and is followed by

a question mark (?)

B Use

A question tag turns a statement into a question It is less direct than an ordinary question

We can use falling intonation or rising intonation on a question tag We use falling intonation when wethink the statement is true and we expect the other person to agree We use rising intonation when wewant to check something

TOPIC 7:

A Form

1 We make the passive with the verb to be and a past participle.

2 We can use the passive in any tense To make different tenses we change the verb to be.

would Fewer crimes would be committed

3 To make the negative of the passive, we use the negative of the verb to be

The man wasn’t sent to prison.

The weapon hasn’t been found.

4 To make questions we use the normal question form of the verb to be in each tense.

Was the man sent to prison?

Has the weapon been found?

5 We can use the passive with a modal verb We use a modal verb + be + past participle

Cars shouldn’t be parked there.

It can’t be done.

She must be told.

B Use

1 We use the passive when the action is more important than the agent (who or what did the action).

2 We use the passive when we don’t know the agent.

The car has been found.

The suspect was identified.

These houses were built in the 1930s.

If we want to show the agent, we use by.

The car has been found by some children.

The suspect was identified by a witness.

If she eats all that ice cream, she ‘ll feel terrible.

You ‘ll be hungry if you don’t have some dinner

They won’t arrive on time if they miss the bus

Note: We do not use will in the if clause.

If it rains, we’ll go to the cinema.

NOT If it will rain, we’ll go to the cinema.

B Use

First conditionals predict the results of a real or probable action or event

If you get up late, you’ll miss the appointment.

(There is a real chance that you’ll get up late.)

We won’t go if it rains

(There is a real chance that it will rain.)

II SECOND CONDITIONALS

A Form

We use the past simple form in the if clause and would + infinitive without to in the main clause We usually use a comma (,) when the if clause is first, but not when the main clause is first.

If you didn’t eat so much, you ‘d lose weight

Note: We do not use would in the if clause.

If I had enough money … NOT If I would have enough money …

B Use

Second conditionals describe unreal, unlikely, or imaginary situations

If we had more money, we’d travel business class.

What would you do if you saw a ghost?

III THIRD CONDITIONALS

A Form

We use the past perfect (continuous) form in the if clause and would have + past participle in the main clause We usually use a comma (,) when the if clause is first, but not when the main clause is first.

If you hadn’t studied so hard, you would have failed.

They wouldn’t have come if the

y

hadn’t wanted to see you

B Use

We use third conditionals to describe something that didn’t happen, an imaginary situation in the past

If I’d worked harder I would have passed the exam.

(I didn’t work hard, and I didn’t pass the exam.)

You wouldn’t have crashed if you hadn’t been driving so fast.

(You were driving too fast, and you crashed.)

TOPIC 9:

A Form

one syllable tall

cold

tallercolder

the tallestthe coldest

One syllable:

short vowel +

one consonant

hotthinbig

hotterthinnerbigger

the hottestthe thinnestthe biggest

Two syllables:

consonant + y

heavypretty

heavierprettier

the heaviestthe prettiest

Two or more

syllables

moderninteresting

more modernmore interesting

the most modernthe most interesting

badfar

betterworsefurther

the bestthe worstthe furthest

1 A comparative adjective is often followed by than.

Russia is bigger than Canada

The film was much better than I expected.

2 as … as … can be used to make comparisons.

Her house is as big as mine

Silver isn’t as expensive as gold.

3 In the negative so … as … is also possible.

Silver isn’t so expensive as gold

B Use

1 The comparative is used to compare two separate items or groups.

Alex is taller than his brothers

2 The superlative is used to compare one member of a group with the rest of the group.

Mount Everest is the highest mountain in the world

1.83m 1.75m

all the mountains in the worldMount Everest

TOPIC 10:

A A relative clause gives more information about a noun in a sentence.

I saw the man.

I saw the man who lives next door

A relative clause starts with a relative pronoun We use

1 who with people.

He’s the man who lives next door

2 which with things.

Where’s the disk which was on my desk?

3 that with people and things.

He’s the man that lives next door

Where’s the disk that was on my desk?

4 whom instead of who when it is the object of a verb.

The woman whom I wanted to see was away on vacation.

5 whose instead of his / her / their

We saw some people whose car had broken down

6 where to talk about a place

The hotel where we stayed wasn’t very clean.

7 when with time

That was the time when I was unhappy.

8 why with reason

That was the reason why I didn’t want to meet him.

B In a relative clause we can sometimes leave out the relative pronoun who, which or that

We can only do this if the relative pronoun is the object of the clause Look at these sentences

He’s the man She married him.

object

He’s the man (who/that) she married

In this sentence the man is the object of the relative clause, so we can leave out the relative pronoun

He’s the man He lives next door.

subject

He’s the man who/that lives next door

In this sentence the man is the subject of the relative clause, so we can’t leave out the relative pronoun

TOPIC 11:

I STATEMENTS

When we report what somebody says we make the following changes

 The pronouns and possessive adjectives change, because a different person is now speaking

Direct speech: I like cooking.

Reported speech: Sally says that she likes cooking.

 When we report something with a past tense verb (e.g said or told), some of the tenses of the verbs also change

present perfect past perfect

past simple past perfect/past simple

present continuous past continuous

Note: The past perfect tense, would, and modal verbs do not change

Walter: I’ve read that book Walter said (that) he had read that book.

Zoe: We saw a great film last week Zoe said (that) they had seen a great film the week before Tom: I don’t want to stay here Tom said (that) he didn’t want to stay there.

Andrea: I’m going out Andrea said (that) she was going out.

Luke: I’ll be away till March Luke said (that) he’d be away till March.

Zoran: I had never been there before Zoran said (that) he had never been there before.

Helen: I’d like a coffee Helen said (that) she’d like a coffee.

Monica: I might phone you later Monica said (that) she might phone us later.

Note: In everyday speech the rules are not always followed, particularly when the direct speech is still true at the time of reporting.

Zoe said that they saw a great film.

Tom said that he doesn’t want to go.

II QUESTIONS

Reported questions are a form of indirect question

When we report questions, we make the following changes

 The tenses and pronouns change as for statements

 The word order changes to a statement word order, and verbs have a statement form

 There is no question mark at the end of a reported question

‘Where does John work?’

A man asked me where John worked

‘How many times have you seen this film?’

She asked me how many times I’d seen the film.

 With Yes/No questions, the reported question starts with whether or if

‘Have you seen them today?’

He asked me whether/if I had seen them today

III COMMANDS AND REQUESTS

We normally use tell for commands and ask for requests, but other verbs can also be used, such as advise, warn, persuade, beg, order, and command To report a command or a request we use the following structure: told/asked + person + (not) to + verb.

‘Don’t worry.’

He told me not to worry

‘Please sit down.’

The doctor asked me to sit down.

TOPIC 12:

I SUBJECT SEPARATED FROM THE VERB

Very often, if the subject and verb are separated, they will be separated by prepositional phrase Theprepositional phrase has no effect on the verb

The study of languages is very interesting

singular subject singular verb

Several theories on this subject have been proposed

plural subject plural verb

The view of these disciplines varies from time to time

singular subject singular verb

The danger of forest fires is not to be taken lightly

singular subject singular verb

The effects of that crime are likely to be devasting

plural subject plural verb

The fear of rape and robbery has caused many people to flee the cities

singular subject singular verb

The following expressions also have no effect on the verb

The actress, along with her manager and some friends, is going to a party tonight

singular subject singular verb

Mr Robbins, accompanied by his wife and children, is arriving tonight

singular subject singular verb

NOTE: If the conjunction and is used instead of one of these phrases, the verb would then be plural.

The actress and her manager are going to a party tonight

plural subject plural verb

II WORDS THAT ALWAYS TAKE SINGULAR VERBS AND PRONOUNS

Some words are often confused by students as being plural The following words must be followed by singularverbs and pronouns in formal written English

* Either and neither are singular if they are not used with or and nor.

Everybody who has not purchased a ticket should be in this line

Something was under the house

If either of you takes a vacation now, we will not be able to finish the work

Anybody who has lost his ticket should report to the desk (note the singular pronoun)

No problem is harder to solve than this one

subject + [prepositional phrase] + verb

together with along withaccompanied by as well as

any + singular noun no + singular noun some + singular every + singular noun each + singular nounanybody nobody somebody everybody anyone no one someone everyone either*

Nobody works harder than John does.

III NONE/NO

None can take either a singular or plural verb, depending on the noun which follows it.

None of the counterfeit money has been found

None of the students have finished the exam yet

No can take either a singular or plural verb, depending on the noun which follows it.

No example is relevant to this case

No examples are relevant to this case

IV EITHER/NEITHER

When either and neither are followed by or and nor, the verb may be singular or plural, depending on whether the noun following or and nor is singular or plural If or or nor appears alone, the same rule applies Study the

following formulas

Neither John nor his friends are going to the beach today

plural noun plural verb

Either John or his friends are going to the beach today

plural noun plural verb

Neither John nor Bill is going to the beach today

singular noun singular verb

Either John or Bill is going to the beach today

singular noun singular verb

none + of the + non-count noun + singular verb

none + of the + plural count noun + plural verb

no + + singular verb singular noun

non-count noun

no + plural noun + plural verb

neither + noun + + plural noun + plural verb