Grammar English pdf

Present Continuous*Adverbs used in Present Continuous: now, presently, currently, at the moment, at the present, at this time, at 10 o’clock… *Verbs used in Present Continuous: He, she,

Chapter 1:

Tenses

1 Present Simple

*Adverbs used in Present Simple: always, usually, sometimes, often, never, rarely, seldom,

generally, normally, everyday…

*Verbs used in Present Simple:

I, you, We, They, plural subjects V (infinitive)

He, She, It, singular subjects Vs(es)+Adding –es to verbs ending in –c, -o, –s, -z, -x, -sh, -ch

+Adding –s to verbs ending in other sounds –p, -k, -r, -t, -f, -g …

+For verbs ending in –y, change – y into –i and add –es

E.g: I go to school everyday.

She rarely goes out alone

Tom studies French at this university.

That sounds interesting.

*Usage: The Present Simple tense is used

● to describe a law of nature (things in general)

E.g: Light travels through space at a speed of 299,792 kilometers per second.

● to talk about a permanent situation or state with no definite time of beginning and finishingbut it is still true now

E.g: I like fish (I liked fish, I like fish and in the future I’ll still like fish.)

● to mention a regular repeated action or something of a timetable (fixed arrangements andscheduled events in the near future)

E.g: I play football twice a week.

The London train leaves at 7 o’clock everyday.

The party starts at 8 o'clock.

● to emphasize a fact (emphatic do – does)

E.g: I do think about that (Tôi thực sự có nghĩ về điều đó.)

S+ V

Vs(es)

General Formula

2 Present Continuous

*Adverbs used in Present Continuous: now, presently, currently, at the moment, at the

present, at this time, at 10 o’clock…

*Verbs used in Present Continuous:

He, she, singular subjects is+Ving

We, They, plural subjects are+Ving

*Usage: The Present Continuous tense is used

● to talk about actions happening now or over a period of time around now

E.g: Hattie is working at his computer at the moment.

She is reading books at school (over a period of time)

● to describe changing and developing actions or situations

E.g: It is getting colder. (developing situation)

Black skirts are becoming fashionable again. (changing situation)

● to mention temporary actions

E.g: I am staying with Mark for three weeks

● to talk about habitual and/or repeated actions (often annoying) [habitual acts with negativesense]

E.g: He is always asking questions. (That annoys me)

I am continually losing my spectacles. (repeated and annoying actions)

*Notes:

 Some certain verbs (stative or non-continuous verbs) can’t be used in the Present

Continuous tense

+ verbs of sense: be, sound, smell, taste, look, see, hear, listen to, recognize…

+ verbs of emotion: hate, dislike, like, love, refuse, adore, wish, forgive, desire…

+ verbs of thought: believe, trust, realize, expect, remember, forget, understand,recollect, mind, know, suppose…

+ verbs of possession: have, belong to, keep, own, owe, possess…

+ other verbs: contain, signify, matter, seem, appear…

It seems to me that something horrible is going to happen (not is seeming)

 Some of the above-mention verbs can be used in the present continuous tense but with

special meanings (different from their original meanings).

E.g: He is seeing the town. (Anh ta đang viếng thăm thành phố.)

I am having my house painted. (Tôi đang cho người sơn nhà)

S+am/is/are+Ving(Gerund) General Formula

How are you feeling? (Anh thấy thế nào?)

Exception: I feel that you’re wrong. (Tôi nghĩ rằng anh lầm.)

 Only rarely is "to be" used in a continuous form This is most commonly done when a person

is temporarily behaving badly or stereotypically It can also be used when someone's behavior

is noticeably different

E.g: Joe is being very rude (Joe is behaving very rudely Usually he is not rude.)

 Adverbs used in the Present continuous tense such as: always, only, never, ever, still, just…are placed between to be and the gerund

E.g: Are you still watching TV?

3 Present Perfect

*Adverbs used in Present Perfect: never, ever, already, recently, lately, just, since, so far,

until, not…yet, not…before, for ages, for years, up to now, for the past few years…

* Verbs used in Present Perfect:

I, You, We, They, Plural subjects have + V3/ed

He, She, It, Singular subjects has + V3/ed

*Usage: The Present Perfect tense is used

● to say that an action happened at an unspecified time before now

E.g: I have seen that movie twenty times.

● to talk about actions that have gone on until now

E.g: I have lived here for the past twenty-three years.

● to describe repeated actions that have gone on until now

E.g: He has written four books (He may write more books.)

● to mention the actions from the past until now (for non-continuous verbs), used with adverbssuch as never, ever, before, yet…

 Never: describes an action that hasn’t happened until now

E.g: I have never read “War and Peace”.

 Yet: is used to ask whether something hasn’t happened until now (negative) or whtherit’s happened until now (questions)

E.g: I haven’t finished my homework yet.

 Before = until now

E.g: I have never been in love before

 Ever: is used to ask whether something has happened until now or not

E.g: Have you ever been to Africa?

S+has/have+V3/ed (Past Participle)

General Formula

● to show the present result (the result now) of past actions, often used with ‘just’ and ‘already’

 Already: is used in positive statements

E.g: I’ve already explained, so you don’t have to say anything.

 Just: for a very recent past action

E.g: James has just come in Let’s tell him what’s happened.

4 Present Perfect Continuous

*Usage: The Present Perfect Continuous tense is used to emphasize an action or a situation in

progress not its completion It is used for:

● temporary actions and situations

E.g: I have been using Joanna’s car while I have been staying with her.

● talking about how long something has been going on (duration from the past until now).E.g: How long have you been studying English?

 We can also use the Present Perfect Continuous without a duration such as "for two weeks."Then, the tense has a more general meaning of "lately." We often use the words "lately" or

"recently" to emphasize this meaning

E.g: Recently, I have been feeling really tired.

She has been watching too much television lately

 Remember that the Present Perfect Continuous tense has the meaning of "lately" or

"recently" If we use the Present Perfect Continuous in questions it can suggest unexpectedmeanings

"Have you been feeling alright?" (this can suggest that the person looks sick orunhealthy.)

"Have you been smoking?" (this can suggest that you smell the smoke on theperson.) Using this tense in a question suggests you can see, smell, hear or feel the results ofthe action It is possible to insult someone by using this tense incorrectly

*Notes:

 The Present Perfect Continuous tense is more commonly used in informal speech

 The Present Perfect Continuous tense is used with stative verbs (see, hear, look, taste,smell, want, realize…) to emphasize an action in progress not its completion

E.g: I have been hearing funny noises.

 If we don’t want to emphasize the progressive nature of the action, we can use the PresentPerfect tense with those verbs instead

E.g: That house has looked a mess for years.

S+has/have+been+Ving (Present

participle)

General Formula

 Some certain verbs (live, rain, sit, study, wait, work…) suggest actions in progress by theirmeanings and can be used with both the Present Perfect Continuous and Present Perfect tensewith little difference in meaning.

E.g: I have worked/have been working at the bank for three years.

5 Past Simple

*Adverbs used in Past Simple: ago, yesterday, last year last month, last Sunday, in the past,

when…

*Usage: The Past Simple tense is used

● to describe actions that started and finished at a specific time in the past Sometimes, thespeaker may not actually mention the specific time, but they do have one specific time in mind.E.g: Did you have dinner last night?

● to list a series of completed actions in the past These actions happen 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th, and

E.g: They did not stay at the party the entire time.

● to describe a habit which stopped in the past It can have the same meaning as "used to." Tomake it clear that we are talking about a habit, we often add expressions such as: always,often, usually, never, when I was a child, when I was younger…

E.g: Every year when I was a child, we went to Italy on Holiday.

● to describe past facts or generalizations which are no longer true

E.g: She was shy as a child, but now she is very outgoing.

6 Past Continuous (Progressive)

*Adverbs used in Past Continuous: at 6 P.M last Tuesday, at the moment, at this time

yesterday…

*Verbs used in Past Continuous:

You, We, They, Plural subjects were+ Ving

S+V2/ed

General Formula

S + was/were + Ving General Formula

I, He, She, It, Singular subjects was + Ving

*Usage: The Past Continuous tense is used

● to refer to something happening a specific time in the past

E.g: I was having lunch at 12 o’clock yesterday.

● to indicate that a longer action in the past was interrupted The interruption is usually ashorter action in the Simple Past Remember this can be a real interruption or just aninterruption in time

E.g: While we were having the picnic, it started to rain.

- A specific time can be considered as an interruption

E.g: Yesterday at this time, I was sitting at my desk at work.

- In the Simple Past tense, a specific time is used to show when an action began orfinished In the Past Continuous, a specific time only interrupts the action

E.g: Last night at 6 PM, I ate dinner (I started eating at 6 PM.)

Last night at 6 PM, I was eating dinner (I started earlier; and at 6 PM, I was in the

process of eating dinner.)

● with “while/when” to join two actions happening at the same time in the past

E.g: He was doing his homework while his mother was washing the dishes.

● with ‘still’ to emphasize that something was continuing especially after the time it wasexpected to finish

E.g: At aquarter past ten, I was still waiting for the train.

At midnight, we were still driving through the desert.

● to mention repeated and irritating actions in the past usually used with ‘always’

E.g: I didn't like them because they were always complaining.

* Adverbs used with the Past Perfect tense: after, before, by+ past time (by the time, by Last

Friday, by 11 o’clock yesterday…)

*Usage: the Past Perfect tense is used

● to expresses the idea that something occurred before another action in the past It can alsoshow that something happened before a specific time in the past

E.g: We got married in 1990, just a year after we had fallen in love.

● to show that something started in the past and continued up until another action in the past.E.g: By the time Alex finished his studies, he had been in London for over eight years.

*Notes:

 The Past Simple tense can be used in place of the Past Perfect tense when the first actionwas short abd was closely followed by the second

E.g: After I broke the window, I just ran off (Past perfect is still possible here.)

 The Past Simple tense will be used when two past actions happened at the same time andthere was no earlier action

E.g: When he saw her, he screamed.

 Unlike with the Present Perfect tense, it is possible to use specific time words or phrases withthe Past Perfect tense Although this is possible, it is usually not necessary

E.g: She had visited her Japanese relatives once in 1993 before she moved in with them in

1996

- Moreover, if the Past Perfect action did occur at a specific time, the Simple Past tense, instead

of the Past Perfect tense, can be used together with "before" or "after" in the sentence Thewords "before" and "after" actually tell you what happens first, so the Past Perfect is optional.For this reason, both sentences below are correct

E.g: She had visited her Japanese relatives once in 1993 before she moved in with them in

1996

She visited her Japanese relatives once in 1993 before she moved in with them in 1996.

- However, If the Past Perfect tense is not referring to an action at a specific time, it is notoptional In the following examples, the Past Perfect tense is referring to a lack of experiencerather than an action at a specific time For this reason, Simple Past cannot be used

E.g: She never saw a bear before she moved to Alaska 

She had never seen a bear before she moved to Alaska 

 Adverb placement: adverbs such as always, only, never, ever, still, just… are put between

‘had’ and the past participles

E.g: You had previously studied English before you moved to New York

Had you previously studied English before you moved to New York?

8 Past Perfect Continuous

S+had+been+Ving General Formula

*Usage: the Past Perfect Continuous tense is used

● to show that something started in the past and continued up until another time in the past.E.g: She had been working at that company for three years when it went out of business.

How long had you been waiting to get on the bus?

● before another action in the past to show cause and effect

E.g: Betty failed the final test because she had not been attending class.

Jason was tired because he had been jogging.

*Notes:

Past Continuous vs Past Perfect Continuous

 If we do not include a duration such as "for five minutes," "for two weeks" or "since Friday,"many English speakers choose to use the Past Continuous rather than the Past PerfectContinuous Be careful because this can change the meaning of the sentence Past Continuousemphasizes interrupted actions, whereas Past Perfect Continuous emphasizes a duration of timebefore something in the past

E.g: He was tired because he was exercising so hard.

(This sentence emphasizes that he was tired because he was exercising at that exactmoment.)

He was tired because he had been exercising so hard.

(This sentence emphasizes that he was tired because he had been exercising over aperiod of time It is possible that he was still exercising at that moment or that he hadjust finished.)

9 Future Simple

* Adverbs used with the Future Simple tense: tomorrow, tonight, next year, next Thursday, in

the future…

*Usage: The Future Simple tense is used

● to talk about things that are sure to happen or out of anybody’s control

E.g: Next year, I will be twenty two.

● to make a prediction (what we think will happen in the future) based on personal opinions.E.g: The train service won’t be any better than it is now

● to make a decision about something at the moment of speaking It’s not a plan of any sort.It’s an idea you’ve just thought of

S+will/shall+V0

General Formula

E.g: OK, if we can’t have a picnic, we will stay in and (will) watch a video.

● to express a voluntary action Often, we use "will" to respond to someone else's complaint orrequest for help We also use "will" when we request that someone helps us or volunteers to dosomething for us Similarly, we use "will not" or "won't" when we refuse to do somethingvoluntarily

E.g: I will send you the information when I get it

Will you make dinner? I won't do all the housework myself!

*Notes: Other ways to talk about future time.

 Present Continuous: to mention firm/fixed plans in the future.

E.g: The president is visiting London next week (This is arranged.)

We are moving to a flat in New York (We have made all the arrangements.)

 Be going to+V o :

+ to talk about future intentions, not as firm as plans We have decided what we want to do inthe future but we haven’t made firm plans/ arrangements/ appointments

E.g: I still have a pain I am going to see a doctor. (I haven’t made an appointment yet.)

We are definitely going to buy a small flat in London.

(We’re looking at possible flats We want to buyone.)

+ to make predictions (like Future Simple) based on strong evidence

E.g: Look at those clouds! It is going to rain.

+ to make decisions which have already made at the moment of speaking

E.g: Tomorrow is my birthday I am going to buy a big birthday cake.

 Present Simple: for things considered as facts In future time, facts are usually regular

events, timetables or the times building open and close

E.g: The train leaves at 10 o’clock

 Structures for expressing future time:

+ “be about to + V” : for actions in the near future.

E.g: Hurry up! The coach is about to leave.

+ “be on the point of + N/Ving”

E.g: the company is on the point of signing the contract.

+ “be + due to + V” : actions as parts of timetables

E.g: The visitors are due to arrive at two

● to indicate that a longer action in the future will be interrupted by a shorter action in thefuture This can be a real interruption or just an interruption in time.

E.g: I will be watching TV when she arrives tonight.

In addition to using short actions as interruptions, you can also use a specific time as aninterruption

E.g: At midnight tonight, we will still be driving through the desert.

● with two actions in the same sentence, it expresses the idea that both actions will behappening at the same time The actions are parallel

E.g: I am going to be studying and he is going to be making dinner.

● in a series of parallel actions to describe atmosphere at a specific point in the future

E.g: When I arrive at the party, everybody is going to be celebrating Some will be dancing Others are going to be talking A few people will be eating pizza, and several people are going

to be drinking beer They always do the same thing

● to ask somebody’s plans in a polite way

E.g: Will you be using the car next week?

11 Future Perfect

*Usage: the Future Continuous tense is used

● to talk about an action occurring before another action in the future It can also show thatsomething will happen before a specific time in the future

E.g: Will she have learned enough Chinese to communicate before she moves to Beijing?

How many countries are you going to have visited by the time you turn 50?

● to show that something will continue up until another action in the future

E.g: I will have been in London for six months by the time I leave

By Monday, Susan is going to have had my book for a week

12 Future Perfect Continuous

● to show that something will continue up until a particular event or time in the future "For fiveminutes", "for two weeks", and "since Friday" are some durations which can be used with theFuture Perfect Continuous.

E.g: We are going to have been driving for over three days straight when we get to

Anchorage

They will have been talking for over an hour by the time Thomas arrives.

● before another action in the future to show cause and effect

E.g: Jason will be tired when he gets home because he will have been jogging for over an

hour

Claudia's English will be perfect when she returns to Germany because she is going to have been studying English in the United States for over two years

Chapter two:

Formulae & Structures

1 Formulae & Structures with “to + infinitive”

1

E.g: It’s very kind of you to help me with my heavy suitcase.

E.g: It normally takes me nearly an hour to go to university.

E.g: I had a chance to work with professional people last summer

E.g: Jenny was surprised to receive the gift you gave to her last night.

E.g: Susan would like her friends to come to her birthday party.

 Exclamation

E.g: What a big surprise to meet you here

E.g: Other than to wait, what else can I do?

 Clauses and Phrases of Purpose

+ Phrases of Purpose

E.g: She speaks loudly in order for her students to hear more clearly.

It + “take” + (object) + time + to infinitive

S + have a chance (an opportunity)+ to infinitive

in order for + object + (not)to

8

Other than + to infinitive, S + VExcept

+ Clauses of Purpose

E.g: The farmer built a high wall around the garden in order that the fruits would not be

stolen

My father drove carefully so that he would not cause accidents.

E.g: He was so stupid as to park in the no-parking area.

He was so foolish as to leave his family

 Extra Object “It”

*Verbs commonly used in this structure include: think, made, find, feel, believe, consider,

prove…

E.g: We find it useful to save as much money as possible for future use.

I think it a good method to translate into Vietnamese.

*Usage:

● to discuss formal or official arrangements or to give formal instructions/orders

E.g: The Prime Minister is to make a further visit to Devon next week

I don't mind her going to Ruth's party but she's not to be back late.

● “be + to infinitive” structure is also frequently used in newspaper, radio and television

reports to refer to future events It expresses near certainty that what is forecast will happen.E.g: Work is to begin this week on the new bridge across the Nile north of Aswan

A man is to appear in court later this morning charged with the murder of the footballer,

Darren Gough

● use “be + to infinitive” in the if-clause in conditional sentences when talking about

preconditions for something to happen

S + “be” + (not) + so + adjective + as + to infinitive

E.g: If we are to solve the world's pollution problems, we must address environmental issues

now

If we are to catch that train, we shall have to leave now

● “Be + to be+V 3/ed ” is often used when giving instructions It is noticeable always on

medicine bottles and can be seen on other official notices too

E.g: To be taken three times a day after meals

These benches are not to be removed from the changing rooms

No food of any kind is to be taken into the examination room

● “be + to have+V 3/ed ” is sometimes used to show that a planned event did not materialize.

E.g: He was to have appeared in the West End show but broke his collar bone during

rehearsals

They were to have picked strawberries this morning, but the torrential overnight rain

made the field too muddy

 Clauses and phrases of result

+ Clauses of result

E.g: The exercises were so difficult that the students can’t finish them

 They were such difficult exercises that the students can’t finish them.

+ Phrases of result

E.g: The tea was too hot for him to drink.

The tea was not cold enough for him to drink.

2 Formulae & Structures with “Ving” or “Gerund”

E.g: I can’t help laughing at his ridiculous behaviors.

S + V + so + adjective/adverb + that+ S+ can/could (not) +Vo

such + (a/an) +adjective + noun

Sorry I broke the cup – I couldn’t help it.

I can’t help wondering what I should do next.

E.g: You can see the floor is very dirt so it needs cleaning / to be cleaned

 Politely Requesting

E.g: Would you mind waiting a few minutes? I need to buy some stamps.

Would you please be quiet? I’m trying to concentrate.

would you be so good as to lock the door when you leave?

*Usage:

● to talk about things that are familiar, and not strange or new

E.g: I am used to getting up at six o'clock in the morning.

We live near the airport, so we are used to the noise of planes.

● Apart from the verb “to be”, the verbs “get, grow and become” can also be used before used

to doing They are used to describe the process that leads to something being familiar

E.g: It took him a while until he was used to driving on the left-hand side of the road.

The gorilla eventually became used to its new cage.

She grew used to him staying up late at night and working

I didn't understand the accent when I first moved here but I quickly got used to it.

3 Formulae & Structures with “V o ” or “Bare infinitive”

 Suggestion

E.g: Let’s go to the cinema!

“ Let’s go for a walk in the park, ” said Ann

 Causatives

+Active causative structure

Something + “need” + Ving

to be+ V3/ed

Would you mind + Ving… ?Would you please + Vo… ?Would you be so good as + to infinitive ?

Let’s (Let us) + Vo…

k

S + “be” + used to + Ving / noun (phrase)

*Usage: The causative is a common structure in English It is used when one thing or person

causes another thing or person to do something

E.g: I had John fix the car. (I arranged for the car to be fixed by John - I caused him tofix it.)

+Passive causative structure

E.g: We had our car fixed. (I arranged for the car to be fixed by someone We don't

know

who, so this is like a passive.)

+Other causative verbs

E.g: The robbers made us lie on the floor.

I'll let you borrow my bike.

I got Jae Won to pick me up in the car.

*Passive form: “make & let have no passive form”

E.g: She got her hair cut.

 Structures with “Rather“

E.g: Rather than disturb everyone, we left without saying goodbye.

Instead of selecting a applicants, he went out for a coffee.

E.g: I'd rather play basketball than watch TV. ( preferences in general)

+ Vo make = force, compel

get = havelet = allow

E.g: I prefer this coat to the coat you were wearing yesterday.

We prefer driving to traveling by train

Ann prefers to live in the country rather than (live) in a city.

*Notes:

 We use “prefer” to talk about preferences in general not in a particular situation Then,

“would prefer” will be used instead

E.g: I would prefer to watch TV tonight rather than go out.

"Would you prefer tea or coffee?" "Coffee, please."

"Shall we go by train?" "Well, I'd prefer to go by car (not "I'd prefer going")

 We can also use “like … better than…” to talk about preferences

E.g: I like orange better than lemon (Noun to noun)

I like to play soccer better than to learn English. (Infinitive to infinitive)

*Usage: to give a strong request, usually with some authority

E.g: I'd rather you did your homework.

I'd rather you didn't tell anyone about the party It's going to be a surprise.

 Giving Advice

*Usage: to give advice about the present or future.

E.g: You'd better tell her everything.

We'd better not miss the start of his presentation.

* Notes:

 We use “had better” to give advice about specific situations, not general ones If we want totalk about general situations, we must use “should”

E.g: You should brush your teeth before you go to bed.

He should dress more appropriately for the office.

 When we give advice about specific situations, it is also possible to use “should”

E.g: You shouldn't say anything.

I should get back to work.

S + “like”+ noun (phrase) + better than + noun (phrase)

 However, when we use “had better” there is a suggestion that if the advice is not followed,something bad will happen.

E.g: You'd better do what I say or else you will get into trouble.

I'd better get back to work or my boss will be angry with me.

 Past Habits

*Usage:

● to express an old habit that stopped in the past It indicates that something was oftenrepeated in the past, but it is not usually done now

E.g: My grandfather used to walk five kilometres each morning.

● to talk about past facts or generalizations which are no longer true

E.g: Oranges used to cost very little in Florida, but now they are quite expensive.

● questions and negatives with “used to”

E.g: Did you use to watch Mickey Mouse?

I didn't use to wear a uniform.

*Notes:

 Like "used to", "would" can be used, usually with always, to express an old habit which

stopped in the past However, "would always" suggests that someone willingly acted that wayand sometimes expresses annoyance or amusement at the habit It also often suggests thehabit was extreme

E.g: She would always send me strange birthday gifts.

Sam and Mary would always choose the most exotic vacation destinations.

 To express the opposite idea, we can say "would never" to indicate that someone never didsomething in the past, but now they do

E.g: Jeff would never pay for drinks when we went out together with our friends.

Mindy would not always walk to school Sometimes, she took the bus.

 If we want to talk about repeated states in the past, we must use “used to”

E.g: He used to be a baker (not He would be …)

 Use “would” when we want to talk about how often a past habit happenened

E.g: I would go swimming twice a week

 We can use “would” instead of “used to” when a time is mentioned If the sentence is notabout a repeated habit/action, or does not include a time expression, we can not use “would”.E.g: When I was young, I would/used to visit my grandmother every summer. 

I used to play piano.  I would play piano.

I used to play piano I would practise every day. 

S + used to + Vo…

E.g: They did nothing but wait anxiously for the results.

 Subjunctive Mood (Thể Bàng Cách)

+ Present Subjunctive

* Verbs commonly used in sunjunctive mood: agree, recommend, insist, suggest, request,

determine, demand, propose, order, urge, ask…

* Frequently used adjectives: imperative, important, urgent, mandatory, necessary, vital,

essential, strange, surprising/amazing, obligatory, annoying, ridiculous, advisable…

* Usage:

● The subjunctive mood is used in formal English when we wish to express the importance of

something It looks like the infinitive form of the verb, and all persons (including the thirdperson singular) are written or spoken without an "s" It takes the same form whether we arereferring to the present, future or past

E.g: We recommend that all staff acknowledge receipt of this memo

They insisted that we go with them

It is imperative that the game begin at once.

They claimed it was essential that the security system be checked.

● In the negative form, the subjunctive does not take the word “do”

E.g: They insisted that we not stay behind

It is vital that children not leave the school grounds until their parents arrive.

● We do not have to use the subjunctive, and in fact we commonly avoid it by using thestructure “should + infinitive”

E.g: They claimed it was essential that the security system should be checked

● The subjunctive is also used in some fixed phrases

E.g: Be that as it may, you are still required to attend

If they insist on that attitude, then so be it

*Usage: to indicate unreality or improbability or doubt in the present.

E.g: He talked/talks as though he knew who Jane was

(But he doesn't know or we don't know whether he knows

or not.)

He looks at me as if I were guilty (But I am not guilty.)

He talks about Rome as though he had been there himself

(But he hasn't or probably hasn't or we don't know whether he has ornot.)

*Notes:

 The verb preceding as if/though can be put into a past tense without changing the tense ofthe subjunctive

E.g: Her eyes look/looked as if she had been crying.

4 Other Formulae & Structures

*Usage: used to complain about or to criticise something or someone The words about or

high make the criticism even stronger.

E.g: It’s late It’s time that we went home.

Jack is a great talker But it’s about time he did something instead of just talking.

E.g: It’s time (for us) to go home.

It's time for her to go to bed

E.g: It’s five years since Mike last saw his best friend

 Mike hasn’t met his best friend for five years

 Measument questions

*Adjectives: long, high, tall, wide, large, far, deep, old, heavy…

It is + (high) time + (that) + S + V2/ed

(about) time (past subjuctive)

It is + time + (for + O) + to + Vo…

It is + time + since + S + (last) + V2/ed …

=> S + have/has not + V3/ed + for + time

3

How + adjective + S + “be” ?

 S + “be” + quantity + adjective

4

E.g: How tall is your brother?

 He’s more than 6’’ tall

How wide is the river in the city center?

How heavy is that box?

 Structures with Too/so, either/neither (Cũng vậy, cũng thế, cũng không)

+ Agreeing with Positive statements [Too-So]:

E.g: I am happy and you are too.

*Common modals: will, shall, would, could, might, may, must,

E.g: They will work in the lab tomorrow, and you will too (so will you)

E.g: Jane goes to that school and my sister does too (so does my sister).

George: I really love baseball.

Susan: So do I I never miss it if it's on TV.

+ Agreeing with Negative Statements [Either – Neither]

E.g: Thomas isn’t English and Martina isn’t either (neither is Martina).

E.g: "I can't see Bob anywhere." "Neither can I." or “I can’t either”

She won’t be going to the conference, and her collegues won’t either (neither will her

E.g: I don't like chips covered in salt!

Neither do I or I don’t either

E.g: Immediately after his appointment to the post , the new editor fell ill

 No sooner had he appointed the post, the new editor fell ill.

Just after solving the problem, I was faced with another

 Hardly had I solved the problem, I was faced with another.

E.g: He didn’t beome a doctor until 1990  It was not until 1990 that he became a doctor

She won’t get married until 2008

 It is not until 2008 (that) she will get married

 Modals of deduction

+ Present deductions:

E.g1: You are in your house and the doorbell rings (you can't see who is at the door) You say:

That must be the postman. (This means you are certain it is the postman)

That could be the postman (You are not certain, but it is possible/probable)

That can't be the postman (You are certain that it is not the postman)

may be alittle boring.

might be quite lonely.

can’t be very noisy.

probable

improbable

10

As soon as  No sooner + had + S + V3/ed + than + S + V2/ed

Immediately Hardly + had + S + V3/ed + when + S + V2/ed

Just Scarcely The moment

I must have left it in the last shop I don't remember putting it in my pocket

(This means you are certain about something that happened in the past)

I can't have left it in the last shop I remember putting it in my pocket

(This means you are certain about something that didn’t happen in the past)

I Declarative/Assertive Sentence (Câu Khẳng Định/Trần Thuật)

1 Definition: A declarative (assertive) sentence makes a statement and ends with a period.E.g: My favorite color is blue

Jan is a student She lives in a big city

2 Types of Declarative Sentence

Affirmative Declarative Sentence:

E.g: His sudden death came as a terrible shock to the entire family

The house will be built on a hill

Negative Declarative Sentence: a negative sentence (or statement) states that something is

not true or incorrect

E.g: It doesn't matter where I go.

She isn’t the most intelligent pupil in this class.

 Notes: affirmative declarative sentences with negative adverbs can convey negative

meanings

E.g: I can hardly see anything ( I can’t see anything.)

We have few friends here ( We don’t have many friends here.)

3 Uses of Declarative Sentence

Declarative sentences are used for:

+ giving information (cung cấp thông tin)

E.g: We ate dinner at six (Chúng tôi dùng cơm chiều lúc sáu giờ.)

I like reading poetry (Tôi thích đọc thơ ca.)

Japan had agreed to restrict car shipments

(Nhật Bản đã đồng ý hạn chế việc xuất mặt hàng ôtô.)

+ expressing opinions (bày tỏ ý kiến)

E.g: I think she is a brilliant writer (Tôi nghĩ cô ta là nhà văn sang chói.)

He ought to have let me know he was going out

(Hắn phải cho chúng tôi biết là hắn đi vắng chứ.)

+ making promises (đưa ra lời hứa.)

E.g: I shall do everything I can to help you

(Tôi sẽ làm tất cả những gì làm được để giúp anh.)

I'll have it sent down by special delivery

(Tôi sẽ gửi cái đó đi theo chuyne61 giao hàng đặc biệt.)

+ emphasis (nhấn mạnh): we can do this by putting “do”, “does”, or “did” in front of the baseform of the verb

E.g: I do feel sorry for Roger. (Tôi thật tiếc cho Roger.)

A little knowledge does seem to be a dangerous thing.

Một kiến thức ít ỏi đúng là có vẻ nguy hiểm thật.)

II Exclamatory Sentence (Câu Cảm Thán)

1 Definition: An exclamatory sentence shows strong feeling and ends with an exclamationmark

Alas!what a misfortune (sorrow)

S + modal / auxiliary / “be”+ not + Vo + O …

2 Types of Exclamatory sentence

* Exclamatory Sentence with “What”:

E.g: What a beautiful day (it is) !

Oh! what a shirt (surprise)

Alas!what a misfortune (sorrow)

* Exclamatory Sentence with “How”:

E.g: How swiftly the eagle flies!

How many times I've cursed that man!

How happy we were when the dawn came and our flag was still there!

* Others Forms of Exclmatory Sentence:

E.g: What did you do to your hair! (formed as a question)

I just won 500 dollars! (formed as a declarative sentence)

There is a fallen electric wire on the street Do not touch it!

Away you go!

There the bus comes!

III Interrogative Sentence (Câu Nghi Vấn)

1 Definition: An interrogative sentence or a question asks a question and ends with aquestion mark

E.g:

2 Types of Interrogative Sentences

* Yes - No Question: questions which can be answered by “yes” or “no”.

+ Auxiliaries: do, does, did, has, have, had …

+ Modals: can, could, will, may, must, would, might, shall, should …

E.g: “Did you go through ?” “No, I didn’t bother.”

(“Anh có qua được không ?”) (Không, tôi chẳng màng.”)

“Are you interested in racing ?” “Yes, I love it.”

(Anh có quan tâm đến môn đua ngựa hay không ?) (“Có, tôi thích lắm.)

“Can I help you ?” “Yes, I’d like to book a single room, please”

What + (a/an) + noun (phrase) + S + V …

How + adjective/adverb + S + V

Auxilary/Modal/ “be” + S + V0 + O… ?

 Yes, S + Auxilary/Modal/ “be”

 No, S + Auxilary/Modal/ “be” + not

(“Ông cần gì ạ ?”) (“À, cô cho tôi đặt một phòng đơn.)

*Alternative Question (Either/or question)

+ Definition: An alternative question is a question that presents two or more possible answers

linked with “or” and presupposes that only one is true Words, word groups, and clauses can all

be linked in this way

E.g: Would you like chocolate, vanilla, or strawberry ice cream ? Chocolate, please!

(Cô muốn dùng kem sôcôla, vani hay kem dâu vậy ? Làm ơn cho tôi kem sôcôla nhé.)

Do you like your coffee white or black ?

(Anh thích cà phê sữa hay cà phê đe ?)

* WH–Question ( questions with what, why, where, when, who, whom, which, whose, how…)

When we ask someone a wh-question, we want them to specify a particular person,thing, place, reason, method, or amount We do not expect them to answer “yes” or “no”

E.g: Which blouse do you like? the blue or the red one ?

How many cars do your parents have ?

+ Positions of WH-words:

● “wh-word” as subject: when a wh-word is the subject of a verb, or when it forms part of thesubject, the word order of the clause is the same as that of a clause in the declarativesentences

And then what happened ? (Rồi sau đó chuyện gì xảy ra ?)

Which mattress is best ? (Nệm loại nào tốt nhất ?)

● “wh-word” as object or adverb: when a wh-word is the object of a verb or preposition, orwhen it forms part of the object, or when it is an adverb, the position of the subject is the usualone in the interrogative sentences: it comes after the first verb in the clause

E.g: What am I going to do without you ? (Không có e thì anh biết làm sao ?)

Which graph are you going to use ? (Anh sẽ dùng đồ thị nào ?)

Why has Cherubini written this ? (Tại sao Cherubini lại viết bài này ?)

When would you be coming down ? (Khi nào anh mới ghé đây được ?)

If we are using the simple present tense or the simple past tense of any verb except “be”, weput “do”, “does”, or “did” in front of the subject

E.g: What do you really think ? (Thật sự thì em nghĩ gì ?)

Which department do you want ? (Anh cần [gặp] phòng ban nào ?)

Where does she live ? (Cô ta sống ở đâu ?)

Auxilary/Modal/ “be” + S + V0 …+ or … ?

WH-words + auxilary/modal/ “be” + S + V0 … ?

When did you last see John Cartwright?

(Lần cuối cùng anh gặp John Cartwright là khi nào?)

If we are using the simple present tense or the simple past tense of “be”, the main verb goes infront of the subject We do not use “do”, “does”, or “did”

E.g: Where is the station ? (Bến xe ở đâu ?)

How was your meeting ? (Buổi họp của anh thế nào ?)

+ Uses of WH-words:

● “who” & “whom”

The pronoun “who” is used to ask questions about a person's identity “Who” can be the subject

or object of a verb

E.g: Who discovered this ? (Ai khám phá ra chuyện này ?)

Who are you expecting ? (Em đang mong đợi ai vậy ?)

In more formal English, “whom” is sometimes used instead of “who” as the object of a verb.

E.g: Whom shall we call ? (Ta sẽ gọi điện cho ai ?)

“Who” and “whom” can also be the object of a preposition When “who” is the object of apreposition, the preposition is put at the end of the clause

E.g: Who did you dance with ? (Anh khiêu vũ với ai ?)

Who do I pay this to ? (Tôi sẽ thanh toán món này với ai ?)When “whom” is the object of a preposition, the preposition is put at the beginning of theclause, in front of “whom”

E.g: For whom were they supposed to do it ? (Họ tính làm việc đó cho ai ?)

To whom is a broadcaster responsible ?

(Người xướng ngôn viên [truyền thanh/truyền hình] sẽ chịu trách nhiệm với ai ?)

● “whose”

“Whose” is used as a determiner or pronoun to ask which person something belongs to or isassociated with

E.g: Whose babies did you think they were? (Theo anh thì những đưa bé này là con ai ?)

● “which”

“Which” is used as a pronoun or determiner to ask someone to identify a specific person orthing out of a number of people or things

E.g: Which is the best restaurant ? (Nhà hàng nào là ngon nhất ?)

Which doctor do you want to see ? (Cô muốn gặp bác sĩ nào ?)

When “which” is used as a determiner, it can be part of the object of a preposition Thepreposition is usually put at the end of the question.

E.g: Which station did you come from ? (Anh từ nhà ga nào tới ?)

Which land will they have passed over ? (Đến khi đó thì họ sẽ băng qua vùng đất nào ?)

● “when” & “where”

“When” is used to ask questions about the time something happened, happens, or will happen.E.g: When did you find her ? (Anh tìm ra cô ta khi nào ?)

When do we have supper ? (Khi nào thì chúng mình ăn tối ?) “Where” is used to ask questions about place, position, or direction

E.g: Where are you going ? (Mày đang đi đâu đấy ?)

Where do you go to complain ? (Anh sẽ đi kiện ở đâu ?)

● “why”

“Why” is used to ask a question about the reason for something

E.g: Why are you here? (Tại sao anh lại ở đây ?)

Why does she treat me like that when we're such old friends?

(Tại sao cô ta lại đối xử với tôi như thế khi chug1 ta đã là bạn lâu năm ?)

“Why” is sometimes used without a subject and with the base form of a verb, usually to askwhy an action is or was necessary

E.g: Why wake me up ? (Sao lại đánh thức tôi ?)

Why bother about me ? (Sao lại bận tâm đến tôi ?)

Why make a point of it ? (sao lại coi trọng chuyện này làm gì ?)

“Why not” can be used with the base form of a verb, in order to make a suggestion or to askwhy a particular action has not been taken

E.g: Why not read a book ? (Sao không đọc một cuốn sách đi ?)

If it was Haldeman, then why not say so ? (Nếu đó là Haldeman thì sao không nói như thế ?)

● “how”

“How” is usually used to ask about the method used for doing something, or about the way inwhich something can be achieved

E.g: How did he know when you were coming ? (Làm sao hắn biết khi nào anh đến.)

How are you going to get that ? (Làm cách nào anh sẽ đạt được điều đó.)

“How” is also used to ask questions about the way a person feels, about the way someone orsomething looks, or about the way something sounds, feels, or tastes

E.g: How are you feeling today ? (Hôm nay anh cảm thấy thế nào ?)

“How do I look?” (“Trông em thế nào ?”) “Very nice.” (“Xinh lắm.”)

● “how” with other words: “How” can be combined with other words at the beginning of

questions

“How many” and “how much” are used to ask what number of things there are or what

amount of something there is

“How many” is followed by a plural count noun

E.g: How many people are there ? (Có bao nhiêu người ở đó ?)

How many languages can you speak ? (Anh nói được mấy thứ tiếng ?)

“How much” is followed by an uncount noun

E.g: How much money have we got in the bank ?

(Chúng ta có bao nhiêu tiền trong ngân hàng ?)

“How many” and “how much” can be used without a following noun when we do not need tomake it clear what sort of thing you are talking about

E.g: How many did you find ? (Anh tìm được bao nhiêu ?)

How much did he tell you ? (Hắn kể anh nghe được chừng nào ?)

“How long” is used to ask about the length of a period of time.

E.g: How long have you lived here ? (Chị sống ở đây đã được bao lâu rồi ?)

How long ago was that ? (Chuyện ấy đã bao lâu rồi ?)

“How long” is also used to ask questions about distance, although this use is less common.E.g: How long is the side of that triangle there?

(Cạnh của tam giác này dài bao nhiêu ?)

“How far” is used in questions about distance and extent.

E.g: How far can we see? (Chúng ta có thể nhìn thấy được bao xa ?)

How far have you got with your homework? (Bài tập về nhà anh đã làm tới đâu rồi ?)

We can combine “how” with an adjective when weare asking to what extent something has aparticular quality or feature

E.g: How old are your children ? (Con anh bao lớn rồi ?)

How big's your overdraft at the moment ?

(Ngay lúc này thì số tiền rút vượt mức trương mục của anh lớn chừng nào ?)

● “what”

“What” can be used as a pronoun or determiner, or in combination with “if” or “for”

“What” is used as a pronoun to find out various kinds of specific information, for exampledetails of an event, the meaning of a word or expression, or the reason for something

E.g: What's wrong with his mother ? (Mẹ anh ta gặp chuyện gì vậy ?)

What is the Cup Final ? (Cúp chung kết là cái gì ?)

What keeps you hanging around here ? (Cái gì khiến anh cứ lảng vảng ở đây?)

“What” can be used to ask someone's opinion of something

E.g: What do you think about the present political situation?

(Anh nghĩ gì về tình hình chính trị hiện nay ?)

“What” is often used as the object of a preposition The preposition usually goes at the end ofthe question.

E.g: What did he die of? (Hắn chết vì đâu ?)

What do you want to talk about? (Anh muốn nói về chuyện gì ?)

“What” is used as a determiner to find out the identity of something or to ask what kind ofthing it is

E.g: What books does she read? (Cô ta đọc loại sách nào ?)

What church did you say you attend? (Anh bảo anh đi lễ ở nhà thờ nào ?)

“What if” goes in front of a clause in the declarative mood (thể tường thuật) It is used to askwhat should be done if a particular difficulty occurs

E.g: What if it's really bad weather? (Nếu đúng là thời tiết xấu thật thì sao ?)

What if they didn't want to part with it, what would you do then?

(Nếu họ không chịu rời bỏ chuyện đó thì sao, khi đó anh sẽ làm gì ?)

We put “what” at the beginning of a question and “for” at the end of it when we want to knowthe reason for something or the purpose of something

E.g: “What are you staring for?” ( = “Why are you staring?”)

“What is this handle for?” ( = “What is the purpose of this handle?”

● “whatever”, “wherever” & “whoever”

If we want a question to sound more emphatic, we can use “whatever” instead of “what”,

“wherever” instead of “where”, or “whoever instead of “who”

E.g: Whatever is the matter? (Có chuyện gì vậy chớ ?)

Wherever did you get this? (Anh kiếm đâu ra cái này vậy chớ ?)

Whoever heard of a bishop resigning?

(Có ai đời nghe nói giám mục mà lại từ chức không chớ ?)

* Negative Question (câu hỏi phủ định)

+ Usage: to make suggestions or used when the speaker expect the listener to agree with

him

E.g: Why don’t we goto the cinema ? (making suggestion)

Aren’t you Jim’s brother? (expecting Yes)

* Questions with Statement Word Order

+ Usage:

● to show that the speaker are surprised

E.g: You’re coming with us after all ?

● in reported speech, the word order after question words is the same as that in statements E.g: Can’t you tell me where he is ? (Indirect Question)

* Rhetorical Questions (câu hỏi tu từ)

+ When we use a yes/no-question to offer help or to make a request, we still expect the answer

“yes” or “no” However, people sometimes say things which seem like yes/no-questions,although they do not expect an answer at all They are using the yes/no-question form toexpress a strong feeling, opinion, or impression Questions like these are called rhetoricalquestions

E.g: Does nothing ever worry you? (Chẳng có gì khiến anh phải lo lắng sao ?)

Doesn't the whole set-up strike you as crazy?

(Anh há chằng thấy toàn bộ trò dành cảnh này là điên rồ sao?)

Hasn't anyone round here got any sense?

(Mọi người quanh đây chẳng có ái có ý thức nào ư?)

+ Another kind of rhetorical question consists of a statement followed by an expression such as

“are you?” or “is it?”

E.g: So you want to be an actress, do you? (Thì cô muốn trở thnah2 diễn viên chứ gì ?)

So you are the new assistant, are you? (Thế anh là người trợ lý mới chứ gì ?)

+ Rhetorical questions can also begin with “how” They usually express a feeling of shock (sửngsốt) or indignation (phẫn uất)

E.g: How can you say such things ? (Sao anh lại có thể nói những điều như thế ?)

How dare you speak to me like that ? (Sao cô lại dám nói với tôi như thế ?)

+ Notes:

Rhetorical questions are commonly found in writing When used appropriately, they can be avery effective way to introduce new topics or problems in the course of a paper

* Questions without a verb (Câu hỏi không có động từ)

We can ask a question consisting of “what about” or “what of” in front of a noun group, without

a verb We ask a question like this to remind someone of something, or to draw their attention

to something With this kind of question, we often expect an action, rather than a reply

E.g: What about the others on the list? (Còn những người khác trong dan sách thì sao ?)

But what of the growing disadvantages of having too many children?

(Nhưng còn những bất lợi ngày càng tăng vì chuyện đông con quá thì sao ?)

* Tag Question (Câu hỏi đuôi)

+ We can ask for confirmation that something is true by making a statement in the declarativemood, then adding an expression such as 'isn't it?' or 'was she?' Constructions like these are

E.g: You’ve got a car, haven’t you?

He isn’t Joe, is he?

+ When we add a negative expression to a positive statement, we expect the answer 'yes'.When we add a positive expression to a negative statement, we expect the answer 'no'

E.g: “David's is quite a nice school, isn't it?” “Yes, it is.”

(“Trường của David đúng là đẹp thật, phải không ?”) (“Vâng, đúng vậy.”)

“We don't want these tables here like this, do we?” “No, Dr Kirk.”

(Chúng ta đâu có muốn mấy cái bàn ở đây như vậy, phải không ?)

(“Đúng thế ạ, thưa bác sĩ Kirk.”)

+ Usage:

● to confirm information

E.g: This meal is horrible, isn't it?

That film was fantastic, wasn't it?

● to check information

E.g: You haven't got a piece of paper, have you?

You don't know where the boss is, do you?

The meeting's tomorrow at 9am, isn't it?

● use falling intonation with the tag question when we are already sure of the answer and justwant confirmation

● use a rising intonation with the tag question If we do not know the answer

+ Notes:

 Negative tag questions must be in short forms

E.g: He is kind, isn’t he? (is he not ?)

 If the subject in statement is a noun, it must be change into a subjective pronoun

E.g: Your sister is a student, isn’t she ? (isn’t your sister?)

Your bicycle was stolen last night, wasn’t it. (wasn’t your bicycle?)

 In the present tense, if the subject is 'I', the auxiliary changes to 'are' or 'aren't'

E.g: I'm sitting next to you, aren't I?

 With “let's”, the tag question is “shall we”

E.g: Let's go to the beach, shall we?

 With an imperative, the tag question is “will you” : (Don’t ) + V0 …., will you?E.g: Open the window, will you?

 We use a positive tag question after a sentence containing a negative word such as never,hardly, little, few, nobody

E.g: You've never liked me, have you?

Very little progress has been made, has it ? (little = not much)

but A little progress has been made, hasn’t it ? (a little = some)

 When the subject is nothing, something anything, we use “it” in the tag question.

E.g: Nothing bad happened, did it?

Nothingcan stop us, can it?

 When the subject is nobody, somebody, everybody, no one, someone, or everyone… we use

they in the tag question.

E.g: Nobody asked for me, did they?

 With used to, we use didn't in the tag question With had better, we use hadn’t.

E.g: They used to work here, didn't they? You'd better stop now, hadn't you?

 We can use positive question tags after positive statements to express a reaction such assurprise or interest

E.g: You're moving to Brazil, are you?

Oh, you’re Jim’s brother, are you?

+Special Tag Questions:

E.g: So you thought it would be a good idea to reprogram the computer, did you?

It's quite an achievement, isn't it, to win a Nobel prize!

Oh I must, must I?

I just adore Beethoven, don't you?

I'm coming with you, all right?

You've been there, right?

Easier said than done, eh?

You went there, no?

IV Imperative Sentence (Câu Cầu Khiến/Mệnh Lệnh)

1 Definition: A sentence that gives advice or instructions or that expresses a request orcommand

E.g: Cheryl, try the other door

Be careful!

*Notes:

 An imperative sentence can end either with a period or with an exclamation mark, depending

on how forceful the command is

E.g: Sit!

Read this book for tomorrow

 We should not usually use an exclamation mark with the word "please".

E.g: Wash the windows!

Please wash the windows

Be + Adjective/noun Be + Not + Adjective/noun

2 Usage

* Orders & instructions (Mệnh lệnh & Chỉ Thị)

When someone gives a very clear order or instruction, they usually use imperativesentences

E.g: Put that gun down. (Bỏ súng xuống.)

Tell your mother as soon as possible. (Báo cho mẹ con biết càng sớm càng tốt.)Written instructions are given in imperative sentences

E.g: Boil up a little water with washing up liquid in it.

(Nấu sôi một ít nước lã có hòa thuốc rửa chén.)

Fry the chopped onion and pepper in the oil.

(Chiên hành đã băm trước với tiêu trong dầu ăn.)

An order can be made more forceful by putting "you" in front of the verb

E.g: You get in the car. (Anh lên xe đi!)

* Advice & Warnings (Khuyên bảo & Răn đe)

We can use imperative sentences when giving advice or a warning

E.g: Be sensible (Phải biết ý tứ.)

You be careful (Anh phải cẫn thận.)

Often advice or a warning is expressed in a negative form We form a negativeimperative by putting "don't" or "do not" in front of the base form of the verb

E.g: Don't be discouraged. (Đừng có nản lòng.)

Do not move out of your home without getting legal advice.

(đừng có ra khỏi nhà mà không được hướng dẫn về mặt pháp lý.)

We can also form a negative imperative by putting "never" in front of the base form of averb

E.g: Never open the front door without looking through the peephole

(Đừng bao giờ mở cửa chính mà không nhìn qua khe nhắm trước.)

Another way of giving advice or a warning is to use one of the modals "should" or "oughtto" in a declarative sentence

E.g: You should get to know him better (Anh nên tìm hiểu hắn kỹ hơn.)

You shouldn't keep eggs in the refrigerator (Cô không được để trứng trong tủ lạnh.)

* Appeals (Thỉnh cầu)

We use the imperative sentences when we are appealing to someone to do something.E.g: Come quickly Come quickly Hurry! (Đến đây mau lên Đến mau Nhanh lên !)

We can make an appeal more forceful by putting "do" in front of the verb

E.g: Do help me out. (Giúp tôi thoát ra đi.)

And now, please do stop crying. (Còn bây giờ, xin hãy nín đi.)

* Explanations (Giải thích)

We can use imperative sentences with some verbs when we are explaining somethingand we want the listener or reader to think about a particular thing or possibility, or to comparetwo things

E.g: Take, for instance, the new proposals for student loans.

(Chẳng hạn, hãy xét tới những đề nghị mối trong vấn đề cho sinh viên vay học bổng.)

Imagine, for example, an assembly line worker in a factory making children's blocks.

(Hãy hình dung một công nhân đứng dây chuyền trong một nhà máy sản xuất khối gỗ xếp hình của trẻ em, chẳng hạn.)

But suppose for a moment that the automobile industry had developed at the same rate

Let is used in imperative sentences in four different ways:

+ It is used to give an order or instruction

E.g: Let Phillip have a look at it. (Hãy cho Phillip xem nó một cái.)+ We use it followed by "us" when we are making a suggestion about what we and someoneelse should do "Let us' is almost always shortened to "Let's"

E.g: Let's go outside. (Ta ra ngoài đi thôi.)

Let's creep forward on hands and knees. (Ta hãy bò tới trước đi.)

+ We use it followed my "me" when we are offering to do something

E.g: Let me take your coat.

+ in very formal English, it is used to express a wish

E.g: Let the joy be universal. (Mong sao niềm vui này sẽ hiện hữu mọi nơi.)

Let the best man or woman win. (Mong cho người tài giỏi nhất chiến thắng.)

V Wish Sentence (Câu Ao Ước)

*Usage: to express regret that things are not different.

+ Future Wish

E.g: Gwyneth wishes she would get an A in Statistics

S + wish (that) + S + would/should/could + Vo

(she might, but she doesn't know yet)

MN wishes her husband would take her dancing tonight

(he might, but he might not)

+ Present Wish

E.g: Mary wishes she were taller (but she isn't)

Leif wishes he spoke Japanese fluently (but he can't)

+ Past Wish

E.g: Anne wishes she hadn’t been out of the office when the President called her yesterday

Emily wishes she could have taken ballet lessons last year when her friend took them

*Notes:

 We use “wish + past continuous (were+ Ving)” to express that we want to be doing adifferent action in the present (or future)

E.g: I wish I was lying on a beach now (I'm sitting in the office.)

I wish it wasn't raining (It is raining.)

I wish you weren't leaving tomorrow (You are leaving tomorrow.)

 We use “wish + would + Vo” to express impatience, annoyance or dissatisfaction with apresent action

E.g: I wish you would stop smoking (You’re smoking at the moment and it is annoying me.)

I wish it would stop raining (I'm impatient because it’s raining and I want to go outside.

I wish she would be quiet. (I am annoyed because she is speaking.)

 To express that you want something to happen in the future (not talking about wanting anaction or situation to be different, and not talking about impatience or annoyance) we use

“hope”, not “'wish”

E.g: I hope it's sunny tomorrow I wish it was sunny tomorrow

I hope she passes her exam next week I wish she were passing her exam next week

I hope the plane doesn't crash tomorrow I wish the plane wouldn't crash tomorrow

 We can use “wish + Vo” or “wish + O + Vo” to mean “want” in a formal situation

E.g: I wish to speak to your supervisor please

I do not wish my name to appear on the list (+ object + infinitive)

 We can use “(I) wish you” in fixed expressions

E.g: I wish you a happy birthday

S + wish (that) + S + V2/ed

(to be  were)

S + wish (that) + S + had + V3/ed

We wish you good luck in your new job.

************************

Chapter 4:

Nouns

I Nouns Defining People & Objects

Nouns are used to define people or objects Many nouns have plural forms with differentmeanings from the meanings of its singular forms Some nouns can be put into manycategories at the same time because of the changes in meaning: this depends on whether anoun is countable, uncountable or singular… There are six main categories of nouns as follows:

1 Countable Nouns

* Forms:

Countable nouns have two forms: singular (referring to one person/object) and plural (referring

to two or more than two people/objects)

E.g: a book, three brother, ten minutes…

* Determiners (articles, possessives):

+ A countable noun in its singular form is usually preceded by a determiner

E.g: They left the house to go to for a walk after tea.

He got into the car and started the motor.

+ A plural countable noun does not require a determiner when used to refer to a general thingbut it only does when defining a specific example of some thing

Our computers can give you all relevant details. (Specific)

* Some Common Countable Nouns:

* Plural Formations:

+ Formation of Plural Nouns:

- Singular countable noun + -s Plural countable noun

E.g: a book – some books

an apple – three apples

- Singular countable noun + -es Plural countable noun

(ending in –c, -o, -ch, -sh, -s, -z, -x)

E.g: bus - buses buzz - buzzes fox –foxes

marsh – marshes potato –potatoes watch – watches

 It It should be noted that when a plural is formed by adding s to words ending in ce, ge, se or

ze, the final es is pronounced as a separate syllable

house houses size sizes

In each of the above examples, the singular noun consists of one syllable, whereas the pluralnoun consists two syllables

- Singular countable noun ending in –y preceded by a consonant change -y to –i+ es

Plural countable nounE.g: city – cities lady – ladies candy - candies

buddy – buddies story – stories

key – keys monkey – monkeys toy – toys

- Singular countable noun ending in –f, -fe change –f, -fe into –v + es

Plural countable nounE.g: calf – calves knife – knives shelf – shelves

thief –thieves wife – wives wolf - wolves

- Exceptions:

alto, casino, piano, radio, ratio, solo, soprano, studio, zoo … + -s  plural nounsbuffalo, innuendo, mosquito, motto, tornado, volcano … + -s/-es  plural nounsbelief, chief, cliff, cuff, gulf, giraffe,muff, proof, reef, roof, safe + -s  plural nounshoof, scarf, staff, wharf … + -s/-ves  plural nouns+ Nouns with the Same Singular/Plural Forms

Some nouns have the same forms for both plural and singular Many of these nouns are oftennames of fish while others are more diversified in meaning

E.g: a sheep – many sheep

2 Uncountable Nouns

* Forms & Determiners:

In English, there are some nouns referring to general things like quality, material, process, ortopic instead of specific objects or facts Such nouns have only plural form and cannot be usedwith numbers or determiners (a/an, the)

E.g: I talked with people about religion, death, marriage, money and happiness.

bison cod whitebait fruit ~

greenfly goldfish aircraft grapefruit chassis

grouse halibut hovercraft insignia corps

moose mullet spacecraft mews patois

reindeer salmond ~ offspring précis

sheep shellfish crossroads series rendezvous

The donkey needed food and water.

…new techniques in industry and agriculture.

* Some Common UnCountable Nouns:

- Some nouns referring to things are uncountable in English but countable in other languages.The following table contains such nouns

* Defining the Quantity for Uncountable Nouns:

+ Although uncountable nouns refer to facts that cannot be counted and used with numbers, it

is usually possible to use such nouns to define some quantity of a described fact

+ Sometimes, a general determiner (all, enough, little or some…) is used before anuncountable noun,

to define its quantity

E.g: It gave him little time.

There’s some chocolate cake over there.

+ It is also possible for an uncountable noun to be preceded by a quantifier (little of, muchof…)

E.g: For mentioning water, it is possible to say:

drops of water, a cup of water or four litres of water …

*Mass Nouns:

+ Quantifiers are no longer required when it is certain that the listeners or readers clearlyunderstand some quantity of a thing the speakers are talking about

agriculture experience luck respect violence

furniture information machinery progress traffic