Managing and Mining Graph Data part 39 doc

Two size-? + 1 frequent subgraphs are joined only when the two graphs have the same size-? subgraph.. TheApriori-based algorithms mentioned above have considerable overhead when two size

𝑓 (𝑣)) ∈ 𝐸(𝑔′) and 𝑙(𝑢, 𝑣) = 𝑙′(𝑓 (𝑢), 𝑓 (𝑣)), where 𝑙 and 𝑙′ are the labeling functions of 𝑔 and 𝑔′, respectively 𝑓 is called an embedding of 𝑔 in 𝑔′.

Definition 12.2 (Frequent Graph) Given a labeled graph dataset 𝐷 =

{𝐺1, 𝐺2, , 𝐺𝑛} and a subgraph 𝑔, the supporting graph set of 𝑔 is 𝐷𝑔 = {𝐺𝑖∣𝑔 ⊆ 𝐺𝑖, 𝐺𝑖 ∈ 𝐷} The support of 𝑔 is 𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑡(𝑔) = ∣𝐷𝑔 ∣

∣𝐷∣ A frequent graph is a graph whose support is no less than a minimum support threshold, min sup.

An important property, called anti-monotonicity, is crucial to confine the

search space of frequent subgraph mining

Definition 12.3 (Anti-Monotonicity) Anti-monotonicity means that a size-𝑘

subgraph is frequent only if all of its subgraphs are frequent.

Many frequent graph pattern mining algorithms [12, 6, 16, 20, 28, 32, 2, 14,

15, 22, 21, 8, 3] have been proposed Holder et al [12] developedSUBDUEto

do approximate graph pattern discovery based on minimum description length and background knowledge Dehaspe et al [6] applied inductive logic pro-gramming to predict chemical carcinogenicity by mining frequent subgraphs Besides these studies, there are two basic approaches to the frequent subgraph mining problem: theApriori-based approach and the pattern-growth approach

Apriori-based frequent subgraph mining algorithms share similar character-istics withApriori-based frequent itemset mining algorithms The search for frequent subgraphs starts with small-size subgraphs, and proceeds in a

bottom-up manner At each iteration, the size of newly discovered frequent subgraphs

is increased by one These new subgraphs are generated by joining two simi-lar but slightly different frequent subgraphs that were discovered already The frequency of the newly formed graphs is then checked The framework of Apriori-based methods is outlined in Algorithm 14

Typical Apriori-based frequent subgraph mining algorithms include AGM

by Inokuchi et al [16], FSGby Kuramochi and Karypis [20], and an edge-disjoint path-join algorithm by Vanetik et al [28]

TheAGMalgorithm uses a vertex-based candidate generation method that

increases the subgraph size by one vertex in each iteration Two size-(𝑘 + 1) frequent subgraphs are joined only when the two graphs have the same size-𝑘 subgraph Here, graph size means the number of vertices in a graph The newly formed candidate includes the common size-𝑘 subgraph and the additional two vertices from the two size-(𝑘 + 1) patterns Figure 12.1 depicts the two subgraphs joined by two chains

Algorithm 14Apriori(𝐷, min sup, 𝑆𝑘)

Input: Graph dataset𝐷, minimum support threshold min sup,

size-𝑘 frequent subgraphs 𝑆𝑘

Output: The set of size-(𝑘 + 1) frequent subgraphs 𝑆𝑘+1

1:𝑆𝑘+1 ← ∅;

2:for each frequent subgraph 𝑔𝑖 ∈ 𝑆𝑘do

3: for each frequent subgraph 𝑔𝑗 ∈ 𝑆𝑘do

4: for each size-(𝑘 + 1) graph 𝑔 formed by joining 𝑔𝑖and𝑔𝑗do

5: if 𝑔 is frequent in 𝐷 and 𝑔 ∕∈ 𝑆𝑘+1then

6: insert𝑔 to 𝑆𝑘+1;

7:if 𝑆𝑘+1 ∕= ∅ then

8: callApriori(𝐷, min sup, 𝑆𝑘+1);

9:return;

+

Figure 12.1 AGM: Two candidate patterns formed by two chains

The FSG algorithm adopts an edge-based candidate generation strategy

that increases the subgraph size by one edge in each iteration Two size-(𝑘 + 1) patterns are merged if and only if they share the same subgraph having𝑘 edges

In the edge-disjoint path method [28], graphs are classified by the number of

disjoint paths they have, and two paths are edge-disjoint if they do not share any common edge A subgraph pattern with𝑘+1 disjoint paths is generated by joining subgraphs with𝑘 disjoint paths

TheApriori-based algorithms mentioned above have considerable overhead when two size-𝑘 frequent subgraphs are joined to generate size-(𝑘 + 1) candi-date patterns In order to avoid this kind of overhead, non-Apriori-based algo-rithms were developed, most of which adopt the pattern-growth methodology,

as discussed below

Pattern-growth graph mining algorithms include gSpan by Yan and Han [32],MoFaby Borgelt and Berthold [2],FFSMby Huan et al [14],SPINby Huan et al [15], andGastonby Nijssen and Kok [22] These algorithms are

inspired by PrefixSpan [23], TreeMinerV[37], and FREQT [1] in mining sequences and trees, respectively

The pattern-growth algorithm extends a frequent graph directly by adding

a new edge, in every possible position It does not perform expensive join operations A potential problem with the edge extension is that the same graph can be discovered multiple times ThegSpanalgorithm helps avoiding the

discovery of duplicates by introducing a right-most extension technique, where the only extensions take place on the right-most path [32] A right-most path

for a given graph is the straight path from the starting vertex 𝑣0 to the last vertex𝑣𝑛, according to a depth-first search on the graph

Besides the frequent subgraph mining algorithms, constraint-based sub-graph mining algorithms have also been proposed Mining closed sub-graph pat-terns was studied by Yan and Han [33] Mining coherent subgraphs was stud-ied by Huan et al [13] Chi et al proposed CMTreeMiner to mine closed and maximal frequent subtrees [5] For relational graph mining, Yan et al [36] developed two algorithms, CloseCutand Splat, to discover exact dense fre-quent subgraphs in a set of relational graphs For large-scale graph database mining, a disk-based frequent graph mining method was introduced by Wang

et al [29] Jin et al [17] proposed an algorithm,TSMiner, for mining frequent large-scale structures (defined as topological structures) from graph datasets For a comprehensive introduction on basic graph pattern mining algorithms including Apriori-based and pattern-growth approaches, readers are referred to the survey written by Washio and Motoda [30] and Yan and Han [34]

A major challenge in mining frequent subgraphs is that the mining process often generates a huge number of patterns This is because if a subgraph is fre-quent, all of its subgraphs are frequent as well A frequent graph pattern with

𝑛 edges can potentially have 2𝑛 frequent subgraphs, which is an exponential

number To overcome this problem, closed subgraph mining and maximal

sub-graph mining algorithms were proposed.

Definition 12.4 (Closed Subgraph) A subgraph 𝑔 is a closed subgraph in a

graph set 𝐷 if 𝑔 is frequent in 𝐷 and there exists no proper supergraph 𝑔′ such that 𝑔 ⊂ 𝑔′ and 𝑔′has the same support as 𝑔 in 𝐷.

Definition 12.5 (Maximal Subgraph) A subgraph 𝑔 is a maximal subgraph

in a graph set 𝐷 if 𝑔 is frequent, and there exists no supergraph 𝑔′ such that

𝑔⊂ 𝑔′and 𝑔′is frequent in 𝐷.

The set of closed frequent subgraphs contains the complete information of frequent patterns; whereas the set of maximal subgraphs, though more com-pact, usually does not contain the complete support information regarding to

its corresponding frequent sub-patterns Close subgraph mining methods in-clude CloseGraph[33] Maximal subgraph mining methods include SPIN [15] andMARGIN[26]

While most frequent subgraph mining algorithms assume the input graph data is a set of graphs 𝐷 = {𝐺1, , 𝐺𝑛}, there are some studies [21, 8, 3]

on mining graph patterns from a single large graph Defining the support of a subgraph in a set of graphs is straightforward, which is the number of graphs

in the database that contain the subgraph However, it is much more difficult

to find an appropriate support definition in a single large graph since multiple embeddings of a subgraph may have overlaps If arbitrary overlaps between non-identical embeddings are allowed, the resulting support does not satisfy the anti-monotonicity property, which is essential for most frequent pattern mining algorithms Therefore, [21, 8, 3] investigated appropriate support mea-sures in a single graph

Kuramochi and Karypis [21] proposed two efficient algorithms that can find frequent subgraphs within a large sparse graph The first algorithm, called HSIGRAM, follows a horizontal approach and finds frequent subgraphs in a breadth-first fashion The second algorithm, called VSIGRAM, follows a ver-tical approach and finds the frequent subgraphs in a depth-first fashion For the support measure defined in [21], all possible occurrences 𝜑 of a pattern 𝑝 in

a graph 𝑔 are calculated An overlap-graph is constructed where each

occur-rence𝜑 corresponds to a node and there is an edge between the nodes of 𝜑 and

𝜑′if they overlap This is called simple overlap as defined below.

Definition 12.6 (Simple Overlap) Given a pattern 𝑝 = (𝑉 (𝑝), 𝐸(𝑝)), a

sim-ple overlap of occurrences 𝜑 and 𝜑′of pattern 𝑝 exists if 𝜑(𝐸(𝑝))∩𝜑′(𝐸(𝑝)) ∕=

∅.

The support of𝑝 is defined as the size of the maximum independent set (MIS)

of the overlap-graph A later study [8] proved that the MIS-support is anti-monotone

Fiedler and Borgelt [8] suggested a definition that relies on the non-existence of equivalent ancestor embeddings in order to guarantee that the

resulting support is anti-monotone The support is called harmful overlap

sup-port The basic idea of this measure is that some of the simple overlaps (in

[21]) can be disregarded without harming the anti-monotonicity of the support measure As in [21], an overlap graph is constructed and the support is defined

as the size of the MIS The major difference is the definition of the overlap

Definition 12.7 (Harmful Overlap) Given a pattern 𝑝 = (𝑉 (𝑝), 𝐸(𝑝)), a

harmful overlap of occurrences 𝜑 and 𝜑′ of pattern 𝑝 exists if ∃𝑣 ∈ 𝑉 (𝑝) :

𝜑(𝑣), 𝜑′(𝑣)∈ 𝜑(𝑉 (𝑝)) ∩ 𝜑′(𝑉 (𝑝)).

Bringmann and Nijssen [3] examined the existing studies [21, 8] and identi-fied the expensive operation of solving the MIS problem They defined a new support measure

Definition 12.8 (Minimum Image based Support) Given a pattern 𝑝 =

(𝑉 (𝑝), 𝐸(𝑝)), the minimum image based support of 𝑝 in 𝑔 is defined as

𝜎∧(𝑝, 𝑔) = min

𝑣∈𝑉 (𝑝)∣{𝜑𝑖(𝑣) : 𝜑𝑖 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛 𝑜𝑐𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑝 𝑖𝑛 𝑔}∣

It is based on the number of unique nodes in the graph 𝑔 to which a node of the pattern𝑝 is mapped This measure avoids the MIS computation Therefore

it is computationally less expensive and often closer to intuition than measures proposed in [21, 8]

By taking the node in𝑝 which is mapped to the least number of unique nodes

in𝑔, the anti-monotonicity of 𝜎∧can be guaranteed For the definition of sup-port, several computational benefits could be identified: (1) instead of𝑂(𝑛2) potential overlaps, where𝑛 is the possibly exponential number of occurrences, the method only needs to maintain a set of vertices for every node in the pat-tern, which can be done in𝑂(𝑛); (2) the method does not need to solve an NP complete MIS problem; and (3) it is not necessary to compute all occurrences:

it is sufficient to determine for every pair of𝑣∈ 𝑉 (𝑝) and 𝑣′ ∈ 𝑉 (𝑔) if there

is one occurrence in which𝜑(𝑣) = 𝑣′

Most graph mining methods follow the combinatorial pattern enumeration paradigm In real world applications including bioinformatics and social net-work analysis, the complete enumeration of patterns is practically infeasible

It often turns out that the mining results, even those for closed graphs [33] or maximal graphs [15], are explosive in size

exploratory task graph index graph classification graph clustering bottleneck

Figure 12.2 Graph Pattern Application Pipeline

Figure 12.2 depicts the pipeline of graph applications built on frequent sub-graphs In this pipeline, frequent subgraphs are mined first; then significant patterns are selected based on user-defined objective functions for different ap-plications Unfortunately, the potential of graph patterns is hindered by the limitation of this pipeline, due to a scalability issue For instance, in order to find subgraphs with the highest statistical significance, one has to enumerate all the frequent subgraphs first, and then calculate their p-value one by one Obviously, this two-step process is not scalable due to the following two rea-sons: (1) for many objective functions, the minimum frequency threshold has

to be set very low so that none of significant patterns will be missed—a low-frequency threshold often means an exponential pattern set and an extremely slow mining process; and (2) there is a lot of redundancy in frequent subgraphs; most of them are not worth computing at all When the complete mining re-sults are prohibitively large, yet only the significant or representative ones are

of real interest It is inefficient to wait forever for the mining algorithm to finish and then apply post-processing to the huge mining result In order to complete mining in a limited period of time, a user usually has to sacrifice patterns’ qual-ity In short, the frequent subgraph mining step becomes the bottleneck of the whole pipeline in Figure 12.2

In the following discussion, we will introduce recent graph pattern mining methods that overcome the scalability bottleneck The first series of studies [19, 11, 27, 31, 25, 24] focus on mining the optimal or significant subgraphs according to user-specified objective functions in a timely fashion by accessing only a small subset of promising subgraphs The second study [10] by Hasan

et al generates an orthogonal set of graph patterns that are representative All these studies avoid generating the complete set of frequent subgraphs while presenting only a compact set of interesting subgraph patterns, thus solving the scalability and applicability issues

Given a graph database 𝐷 = {𝐺1, , 𝐺𝑛} and an objective function 𝐹 ,

a general problem definition for mining significant graph patterns can be for-mulated in two different ways: (1) find all subgraphs 𝑔 such that 𝐹 (𝑔) ≥ 𝛿 where 𝛿 is a significance threshold; or (2) find a subgraph 𝑔∗ such that

𝑔∗ = argmax𝑔𝐹 (𝑔) No matter which formulation or which objective func-tion is used, an efficient mining algorithm shall find significant patterns di-rectly without exhaustively generating the whole set of graph patterns There are several algorithms [19, 11, 27, 31, 25, 24] proposed with different objective functions and pruning techniques We are going to discuss four recent studies: gboost[19],gPLS[25],LEAP[31] andGraphSig[24]

3.2 gboost: A Branch-and-Bound Approach

Kudo et al [19] presented an application of boosting for classifying labeled

graphs, such as chemical compounds, natural language texts, etc A weak

clas-sifier called decision stump uses a subgraph as a classification feature Then a boosting algorithm repeatedly constructs multiple weak classifiers on weighted training instances A gain function is designed to evaluate the quality of a

decision stump, i.e., how many weighted training instances can be correctly

classified Then the problem of finding the optimal decision stump in each it-eration is formulated as mining an “optimal" subgraph pattern gboostdesigns

a branch-and-bound mining approach based on the gain function and integrates

it intogSpanto search for the “optimal" subgraph pattern

A Boosting Framework. gboostuses a simple classifier, decision stump,

for prediction according to a single feature The subgraph-based decision stump is defined as follows

Definition 12.9 (Decision Stumps for Graphs) Let 𝑡 and x be labeled

graphs and 𝑦 ∈ {±1} be a class label A decision stump classifier for graphs

is given by

ℎ⟨𝑡,𝑦⟩(x) =

⊆ x

−𝑦, 𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒. The decision stumps are trained to find a rule⟨ˆ𝑡, ˆ𝑦⟩ that minimizes the error rate for the given training data𝑇 ={⟨x𝑖, 𝑦𝑖⟩} 𝐿

𝑖=1,

⟨ˆ𝑡, ˆ𝑦⟩ = arg min

𝑡∈ℱ,𝑦∈{±1}

1 𝐿

𝐿

∑ 𝑖=1 𝐼(𝑦𝑖 ∕= ℎ⟨𝑡,𝑦⟩(x𝑖))

𝑡 ∈ℱ,𝑦∈{±1}

1 2𝐿

𝐿

∑ 𝑖=1 (1− 𝑦𝑖ℎ⟨𝑡,𝑦⟩(x𝑖)), (3.1)

whereℱ is a set of candidate graphs or a feature set (i.e., ℱ =∪𝐿𝑖=1{𝑡∣𝑡 ⊆ x𝑖})

and𝐼(⋅) is the indicator function The gain function for a rule ⟨𝑡, 𝑦⟩ is defined as

𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛(⟨𝑡, 𝑦⟩) =

𝐿

∑ 𝑖=1

Using the gain, the search problem in Eq.(3.1) becomes equivalent to the prob-lem: ⟨ˆ𝑡, ˆ𝑦⟩ = arg max𝑡∈ℱ,𝑦∈{±1}𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛(⟨𝑡, 𝑦⟩) Then the gain function is used instead of error rate

gboostapplies AdaBoost [9] by repeatedly calling the decision stumps and finally produces a hypothesis𝑓 , which is a linear combination of 𝐾 hypotheses

produced by the decision stumps𝑓 (x) = 𝑠𝑔𝑛(∑𝐾

𝑘=1𝛼𝑘ℎ⟨𝑡𝑘,𝑦𝑘⟩(x)) In the 𝑘th

iteration, a decision stump is built with weights d(𝑘) = (𝑑(𝑘)1 , , 𝑑(𝑘)𝐿 ) on the training data, where∑𝐿

𝑖=1𝑑(𝑘)𝑖 = 1, 𝑑(𝑘)𝑖 ≥ 0 The weights are calculated to concentrate more on hard examples than easy ones In the boosting framework, the gain function is redefined as

𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛(⟨𝑡, 𝑦⟩) =

𝐿

∑ 𝑖=1

𝑦𝑖𝑑𝑖ℎ⟨𝑡,𝑦⟩(x𝑖) (3.3)

A Branch-and-Bound Search Approach. According to the gain function

in Eq.(3.3), the problem of finding the optimal rule ⟨ˆ𝑡, ˆ𝑦⟩ from the training dataset is defined as follows

Problem 1 [Find Optimal Rule] Let 𝑇 = {⟨x1, 𝑦1, 𝑑1⟩, , ⟨x𝐿, 𝑦𝐿, 𝑑𝐿⟩} be

a training data set where x𝑖 is a labeled graph, 𝑦𝑖 ∈ {±1} is a class label associated with x𝑖 and 𝑑𝑖 (∑𝐿

𝑖=1𝑑𝑖 = 1, 𝑑𝑖 ≥ 0) is a normalized weight as-signed tox𝑖 Given𝑇 , find the optimal rule⟨ˆ𝑡, ˆ𝑦⟩ that maximizes the gain, i.e.,

⟨ˆ𝑡, ˆ𝑦⟩ = arg max𝑡∈ℱ,𝑦∈{±1}𝑦𝑖𝑑𝑖ℎ⟨𝑡,𝑦⟩, whereℱ =∪𝐿𝑖=1{𝑡∣𝑡 ⊆ x𝑖}.

A naive method is to enumerate all subgraphsℱ and then calculate the gains for all subgraphs However, this method is impractical since the number of sub-graphs is exponential to their size To avoid such exhaustive enumeration, the method to find the optimal rule is modeled as a branch-and-bound algorithm based on the upper bound of the gain function which is defined as follows

Lemma 12.10 (Upper bound of the gain) For any 𝑡′ ⊇ 𝑡 and 𝑦 ∈ {±1}, the

gain of ⟨𝑡′, 𝑦⟩ is bounded by 𝜇(𝑡) (i.e., 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛(⟨𝑡′, 𝑦⟩) ≤ 𝜇(𝑡)), where 𝜇(𝑡) is

given by

𝜇(𝑡) = 𝑚𝑎𝑥(2 ∑

{𝑖∣𝑦 𝑖 =+1,𝑡 ⊆𝑥 𝑖 }

𝑑𝑖−

𝐿

∑ 𝑖=1

𝑦𝑖⋅ 𝑑𝑖, 2 ∑

{𝑖∣𝑦 𝑖 = −1,𝑡⊆𝑥 𝑖 }

𝑑𝑖+

𝐿

∑ 𝑖=1

𝑦𝑖⋅ 𝑑𝑖) (3.4) Figure 12.3 depicts a graph pattern search tree where each node represents

a graph A graph𝑔′ is a child of another graph𝑔 if 𝑔′ is a supergraph of𝑔 with one more edge 𝑔′ is also written as𝑔′ = 𝑔⋄ 𝑒, where 𝑒 is the extra edge In order to find an optimal rule, the branch-and-bound search estimates the upper bound of the gain function for all descendants below a node𝑔 If it is smaller than the value of the best subgraph seen so far, it cuts the search branch of that node Under the branch-and-bound search, a tighter upper bound is always preferred since it means faster pruning

cut

cut

search stop

Figure 12.3 Branch-and-Bound Search

Algorithm 15 outlines the framework of branch-and-bound for searching the optimal graph pattern In the initialization, all the subgraphs with one edge are enumerated first and these seed graphs are then iteratively extended to large subgraphs Since the same graph could be grown in different ways, Line 5 checks whether it has been discovered before; if it has, then there is no need

to grow it again The optimal𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛(⟨ˆ𝑡, ˆ𝑦⟩) discovered so far is maintained If 𝜇(𝑡)≤ 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛(⟨ˆ𝑡, ˆ𝑦⟩), the branch of 𝑡 can safely be pruned

Algorithm 15 Branch-and-Bound

Input: Graph dataset𝐷

Output: Optimal rule⟨ˆ𝑡, ˆ𝑦⟩

1:𝑆 ={1-edge graph};

2:⟨ˆ𝑡, ˆ𝑦⟩ = ∅; 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛(⟨ˆ𝑡, ˆ𝑦⟩) = −∞;

3:while 𝑆 ∕= ∅ do

4: choose𝑡 from 𝑆, 𝑆 = 𝑆∖ {𝑡};

5: if 𝑡 was examined then

6: continue;

7: if 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛(⟨𝑡, 𝑦⟩) > 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛(⟨ˆ𝑡, ˆ𝑦⟩) then

8: ⟨ˆ𝑡, ˆ𝑦⟩ = ⟨𝑡, 𝑦⟩;

9: if 𝜇(𝑡) ≤ 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛(⟨ˆ𝑡, ˆ𝑦⟩) then

10: continue;

11: 𝑆 = 𝑆∪ {𝑡′∣𝑡′ = 𝑡⋄ 𝑒};

12:return ⟨ˆ𝑡, ˆ𝑦⟩;

Saigo et al [25] proposedgPLS, an iterative mining method based on par-tial least squares regression (PLS) To apply PLS to graph data, a sparse version

of PLS is developed first and then it is combined with a weighted pattern min-ing algorithm The minmin-ing algorithm is iteratively called with different weight vectors, creating one latent component per one mining call Branch-and-bound search is integrated into graph mining with a designed gain function and a prun-ing condition In this sense, gPLS is very similar to the branch-and-bound mining approach ingboost

Partial Least Squares Regression. This part is a brief introduction to partial least squares regression (PLS) Assume there are 𝑛 training examples (𝑥1, 𝑦1), , (𝑥𝑛, 𝑦𝑛) The output 𝑦𝑖 is assumed to be centralized ∑

𝑖𝑦𝑖 = 0 Denote by𝑋 the design matrix, where each row corresponds to 𝑥𝑇𝑖 The re-gression function of PLS is

𝑓 (𝑥) =

𝑚

∑ 𝑖=1

𝛼𝑖𝑤𝑖𝑇𝑥,

where𝑚 is the pre-specified number of components that form a subset of the original space, and𝑤𝑖 are weight vectors that reduce the dimensionality of𝑥, satisfying the following orthogonality condition,

𝑤𝑇𝑖 𝑋𝑇𝑋𝑤𝑗 =

{

1 (𝑖 = 𝑗)

0 (𝑖∕= 𝑗). Basically 𝑤𝑖 are learned in a greedy way first, then the coefficients 𝛼𝑖 are obtained by least squares regression without any regularization The solutions

to𝛼𝑖and𝑤𝑖are

𝛼𝑖=

𝑛

∑ 𝑘=1

and

𝑤𝑖= arg max

𝑤

(∑𝑛 𝑘=1𝑦𝑘𝑤𝑇𝑥𝑘)2

subject to𝑤𝑇𝑋𝑇𝑋𝑤 = 1, 𝑤𝑇𝑋𝑇𝑋𝑤𝑗 = 0, 𝑗 = 1, , 𝑖− 1

Next we present an alternative derivation of PLS called non-deflation sparse

PLS Define the 𝑖-th latent component as 𝑡𝑖 = 𝑋𝑤𝑖and𝑇𝑖−1 as the matrix of latent components obtained so far,𝑇𝑖−1= (𝑡1, , 𝑡𝑖−1) The residual vector is computed by

𝑟𝑖 = (𝐼− 𝑇𝑖−1𝑇𝑖𝑇−1)𝑦

Then multiply it with𝑋𝑇 to obtain

𝑣 = 1

𝜂𝑋

𝑇(𝐼 − 𝑇𝑖−1𝑇𝑖𝑇−1)𝑦

The non-deflation sparse PLS follows this idea