Handbook of Plant Nutrition - chapter 9 pptx

Chlorine deficiency is also indicated by yield increases that may occur with various crops in response to chloride fertilization.. 9.2.3.2 Total Chlorine The total chlorine accumulation b

9 Chlorine

Joseph R Heckman Rutgers University, New Brunswick, New Jersey

CONTENTS

9.1 Historical Information 279

9.1.1 Determination of Essentiality 280

9.1.2 Functions in Plants 280

9.2 Diagnosis of Chlorine Status in Plants 281

9.2.1 Symptoms of Deficiency 281

9.2.2 Symptoms of Excess 283

9.2.3 Concentrations of Chlorine in Plants 283

9.2.3.1 Chlorine Constituents 283

9.2.3.2 Total Chlorine 283

9.2.3.3 Distribution in Plants 284

9.2.3.4 Critical Concentrations 285

9.2.3.5 Chlorine Concentrations in Crops 285

9.3 Assessment of Chlorine Status in Soils 285

9.3.1 Forms of Chlorine 285

9.3.2 Soil Tests 286

9.3.3 Chlorine Contents of Soil 286

9.4 Fertilizers for Chlorine 287

9.4.1 Kinds 287

9.4.2 Application 287

References 288

9.1 HISTORICAL INFORMATION

Chlorine is classified as a micronutrient, but it is often taken up by plants at levels comparable to a macronutrient Supplies of chlorine in nature are often plentiful, and obvious symptoms of

deficiency are seldom observed In many crops it is necessary to remove chlorine from air, chemi-cals, and water to induce symptoms of chlorine deficiency Using precautions to establish a rela-tively chlorine-free environment, Broyer et al (1) was able to convincingly demonstrate that chlorine is an essential nutrient Although crop responses to chlorine applications in the field were suspected as early as the mid-1800s, it was not until fairly recently that chlorine was considered a potentially limiting nutrient for crop production under field conditions In the 1980s, the respon-siveness of some crops to chlorine fertilization became recognized more widely (2) Even though chlorine has gained the attention of agronomists, much of the focus on chlorine in terms of crop production continues to be over the presence of excess levels of chloride salts in soils, water, and fertilizers (3,4) This chapter, however, is concerned primarily with chlorine as a plant nutrient

279

9.1.1 DETERMINATION OF ESSENTIALITY

Early observations of plant growth responses derived from the use of chlorine-containing fertilizers had suggested that chlorine was at least beneficial if not essential (5) Demonstrating the essentiality

of chlorine is experimentally challenging because chlorine is present widely in the environment, and special precautions are necessary to remove chlorine from chemicals, water, and air to induce

deficiency symptoms in most species (6) Solution culture experiments conducted in a relatively chlo-rine-free environment (1) provided the first recognition of chlorine as an essential microelement These experiments further showed that chlorine deficiency symptoms were alleviated specifically by the addition of chloride Using solution culture (7), acute chlorine deficiency or at least restricted

growth was demonstrated in lettuce (Lactuca sativa L.), tomato (Lycopersicum esculentum Mill.), cab-bage (Brassica oleracea var capitata L.), carrot (Daucus carota L.), sugar beet (Beta vulgaris L.), bar-ley (Hordeum vulgare L.), alfalfa (Medicago sativa L.), buckwheat (Fagopyrum esculentum Moench), corn (Zea mays L.), and beans (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) Under the same conditions however, squash (Praecitrullus fistulosus Pang.) plants failed to exhibit any signs of chlorine deficiency Species not

affected or least affected by low chlorine supply appear to accumulate more chlorine than provided by the culture solutions It has been assumed that chlorine was absorbed from the atmosphere and that plants differed in this ability (6,7) More recently, low-chlorine solution studies have produced chlo-rine deficiency symptoms in red clover (Trifolium pratense L.) and in wheat (Triticum aestivum L.)

(8–10) Thus, the essentiality of chlorine has been established by the observations of the deficiency in

a wide range of species

9.1.2 FUNCTIONS IN PLANTS

Chlorine is readily taken up by plants in the electrically charged form as chloride ion (Cl⫺) Although chlorine occurs in plants as chlorinated organic compounds (11), chloride is the major form within plants, where it is bound only loosely to exchange sites or is a highly mobile free anion

in the plant water As an essential element, chlorine has several biochemical and physiological func-tions within plants

Chloride appears to be required for optimal enzyme activity of asparagine synthethase (12), amy-lase (13), and ATPase (14) In photosynthesis, chloride is an essential cofactor for the activation of the oxygen-evolving enzyme associated with photosystem II (15,16) Chloride may bind (17) to the polypeptides associated with the water-splitting complex of photosystem II, and it may stabilize the oxi-dized state of manganese by acting as a bridging ligand (18–20) Chloride concentrations required for biochemical functions are relatively low in comparison to concentrations required for osmoregulation

In rapidly expanding tissues such as elongating cells of roots and shoots, chloride accumulates

in the tonoplast, to function as an osmotically active solute (21,22) This transport of chloride into the tonoplast occurs in association with the proton-pumping ATPase activity at the tonoplast, being specifically stimulated by chloride (14) This osmoregulatory function in specific tissues requires concentrations of chloride that are not typical of a micronutrient (23,24) The accumulation of chlo-ride in plant cells increases tissue hydration (25) and turgor pressure (26) This osmotic function of chloride works closely with potassium to facilitate cell elongation and growth The importance of this osmoregulatory role of chloride in plants depends on growing conditions and the presence

of alternative anions, such as nitrate, which might function as substitutes for chloride

Chloride along with potassium participates in stomatal opening by moving from epidermal cells

to guard cells to act as an osmotic solute that results in water uptake into and a bowing apart of the guard cell pair (27) In many plant species, depending on the external supply of chloride, malate synthesis may occur in the guard cells and replace the need for chloride influx (28,29) Chloride,

however, is essential for stomatal functioning in some plant species (30) In onion (Allium cepa L.),

for example, where the guard cells are unable to synthesize malate, there is a requirement for an

influx of chloride that is equivalent to potassium for stomatal opening to occur

Relative differences in the uptake of cations (NH4 ⫹, Ca2 ⫹, Mg2 ⫹, K⫹, Na⫹) and anions (NO3⫺,

Cl⫺, SO ⫺, HPO⫺) by plants require the maintenance of electroneutrality in plant cells as well as

in the external soil solution (31) As an anion, chloride serves to balance charges from cations In plants well supplied with chloride, this inorganic anion may serve as an alternative to the formation

of malate in its charge-balancing role (32) This role of chloride may be of greater importance when cation uptake exceeds anion uptake, as often occurs with plants provided with ammonium nutrition The functions of most of the over 130 chlorinated organic compounds (11) that have been identified in higher plants have not been determined Some legume species contain chlorinated indole-3-acetic acid (IAA) in their seeds The chlorinated form of IAA is more resistant to degra-dation, and this resistance may be responsible for increasing the rate of hypocotyl elongation over the rate of IAA production itself (4,33)

9.2 DIAGNOSIS OF CHLORINE STATUS IN PLANTS

9.2.1 SYMPTOMS OF DEFICIENCY

Visible deficiency symptoms for chlorine have been well characterized in several crops by growth

of plants in chlorine-free nutrient solutions (1,7,8,10) The most commonly described symptom of chlorine deficiency is wilting of leaves, especially at the margins As the deficiency becomes more severe, the leaves may exhibit curling, shriveling, and necrosis (Figure 9.1A) Roots of

chlorine-deficient plants have been described as stubby with club tips Deficiency symptoms of chlorine are not commonly exhibited visually in most crops growing in the field, but symptoms are sometimes

observed in wheat and coconut palm (Cocos nucifera L.) In chlorine-deficient wheat, the symp-toms are expressed as chlorotic or necrotic lesions on leaf tissue (Figure 9.1B) These sympsymp-toms that result from chlorine deficiency have been named ‘Cl-deficient leaf spot syndrome’ (9,10) It has also been shown that bromide (Figure 9.1C) does not substitute for chloride in the prevention

of deficiency symptoms (10) In coconut palm, the symptoms are exhibited as wilting and prema-ture senescence of leaves, frond fracprema-ture, and stem cracking and bleeding (34)

Chlorine deficiency is also indicated by yield increases that may occur with various crops in response to chloride fertilization Wheat and barley often respond to chloride fertilization with increases in grain yield on soils with low chloride on the Great Plains of North America (2,35–41) Corn exhibited no response to chloride fertilization in some studies (2,42–44), but in a high-yield environment in New Jersey, fertilization of corn with 400 kg Cl ha⫺1increased the 5-year average

FIGURE 9.1 (A) Wheat (Triticum turgidum L Durum Group) grown with chloride added at 30 mmol in 15

liters of nutrient solution (0.002M KC1); (B) Wheat grown in the absence of halide; (C) Wheat grown in absence

of chloride and with 1.5 mmol bromide in 15 liters of nutrient solution (0.0001M KBr) Photographs from Engel

et al., (9) Reprinted with permission of the authors and Soil Science Society of America (For a color presen-tation of this figure, see the accompanying compact disc.)

TABLE 9.1 Diseases Suppressed by Chlorine Fertilization

Asparagus (Asparagus o fficinalis L.) Fusarium crown and root rot (Fusarium 47, 53, 74, 75

oxysporum and Fusarium proliferatum)

Barley (Hordeum vulgare L.) Common root rot (Cochliobolus sativus 55, 76, 77

and Fusarium spp.) Fusarium crown and root rot (Fusarium 70

graminearum)

Spot blotch (Bipolaris sorokiniana) 77

oxysporum f.sp apii)

Coconut palm (Cocos nucifera L.) Gray leaf spot (Pestalotiopsis palmarum; 34

Helminthosporium incurvatum)

Corn (Zea mays L.) Stalk rot (Gibberella zeae; Colletotrichum 46, 79

graminicola; Diplodia maydis)

Durum (Triticum durum Desf.) Common root rot (Cochliobolus sativus 70

and Fusarium spp.) Pearl millet (Pennisetum glaucum R Br.) Downy mildew (Sclerospora graminicola) 70

Spring wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) Leaf rust (Puccinia triticina) 80

Septoria (Stagonospora nodorum) 70

Tanspot (Pyrenophora triticirepentis) 66

Table beets (Beta vulgaris L.) Rhizoctonia crown and root rot 81

(Rhizoctonia solani) Winter wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) Leafspot (Pyrenophora triticirepentis) 9, 10

Leaf rust (Puccinia triticina) 82

Stripe rust (Puccinia striiformis) 70

Take-all root rot (Gaeumannomyces 26, 83

graminis var tritici)

yield by 1000 kg ha⫺1over the unfertilized control (45,46) Positive responses from chloride

fertil-ization have also been observed with rice (Oryza sativa L.), sugarcane (Saccharum edule Hassk.), potato (Solanum tuberosum L.), kiwifruit (Actinidia deliciosa A Chev.), coconut palm, sugar beet, and asparagus (Asparagus o fficinalis L.) (2,47) These responses indicate that chloride is sometimes

a yield-limiting nutrient in field environments where chlorine inputs from rainfall and other natural sources are inadequate

The beneficial effects of chloride fertilization are sometimes not the result of a plant response directly to enhanced chloride nutrition, but rather may result from suppression of plant diseases Addition of chloride has been reported to reduce the severity of at least 15 different foliar and root diseases on 11 different crops (Table 9.1) Several possible mechanisms may explain the effects of chloride nutrition on disease suppression and host resistance

In acid soils, chloride inhibits nitrification (48,49) Keeping nitrogen in the ammonium form can lower rhizosphere pH and influence microbial populations and nutrient availability in the rhi-zosphere (31,50) Competition between chloride and nitrate for uptake also tends to reduce nitrate concentrations in plant tissues (4,51) When plants take up more ammonium and less nitrate, it usually causes rhizosphere acidification, which in turn, may enhance manganese availability (52) Chloride can also enhance manganese availability by promoting manganese-reducing microor-ganisms in soil (53) Factors which increase manganese availability have been associated with improved host resistance to diseases such as take-all on grain crops (54) Higher concentrations

of chloride in plant tissues can also enhance water retention and turgor when roots have been

attacked by pathogens (26) The amount of organic acids, such as malate, in plant tissues and exuded from roots, decreases with chloride supply; this action deprives pathogens of an organic substrate (55)

9.2.2 SYMPTOMS OF EXCESS

Chloride toxicity symptoms have been observed in many field, vegetable, and fruit crops (6,56) Curling of the leaf margins, marginal leaf scorch, leaf necrosis, and leaf drop are typical symptoms Older leaves are usually the first to exhibit symptoms that may progress upward, affecting the entire foliage Dieback of the terminal axis and small branches may occur in cases of severe toxicity These symptoms of chloride toxicity occur in the absence of sodium, but they are also similar to symptoms of salt toxicity that occur when chloride is accompanied by sodium Crops and cultivars within crops vary widely in tolerance to high levels of chloride, with corn being relatively tolerant

to chloride (56) compared to soybean (Glycine max Merr.) (57).

9.2.3 CONCENTRATIONS OF CHLORINE IN PLANTS

9.2.3.1 Chlorine Constituents

Most of the chlorine in plants is present in the form of the anion, chloride However, more than 130 natural chlorine-containing compounds have been isolated from plants (11) They may include polyacetylenes, thiophenes, iridoids, sesquiterpene lactones, pterosinoids, diterperenoids, steroids and gibberellins, maytansinoids, alkaloids, chlorinated chlorophyll, chloroindoles and amino acids, phenolics, and fatty acids Although the functions of naturally occurring chlorine-containing com-pounds in plants have not received much attention in plant nutrition, the fact that these comcom-pounds often exhibit a strong biological activity suggests a need to investigate their potential importance Some chlorine-containing compounds may behave as hormones in the plant, or they may have a function in protection against attack from other organisms

9.2.3.2 Total Chlorine

The total chlorine accumulation by crops varies greatly, depending on chloride supply from soil Many studies (45,56,58–62) of plant responses to applied chloride have shown that plant tissue chloride concentrations increase markedly with increasing application rates of chloride A few stud-ies have measured total chlorine uptake by crops, and these studstud-ies also indicate that chloride accu-mulation by crops increases with increasing amounts of chloride fertilization A study (25) conducted in North Carolina with corn fertilized with 0, 50, 100, 150, and 200 kg Cl ha⫺1in the form of KCl found that the aboveground biomass at 77 days after emergence accumulated 26, 50,

63, 79, and 81 kg Cl ha⫺1, respectively A Wisconsin study (62) found that alfalfa accumulated only

5 kg Cl ha⫺1on unamended soil, but on soil fertilized with 1017 kg Cl ha⫺1as KCl in the fall of the previous season, the herbage accumulated 86 kg Cl ha⫺1 These accumulation values for chloride by corn or alfalfa indicate that the potential for total crop accumulation for this nutrient is potentially large on soils well supplied with chloride Even though chlorine is classified as a micronutrient, total chlorine accumulation often exceeds the levels of crop accumulation of macronutrients such

as phosphorus or sulfur

The amount of chlorine accumulation required to prevent deficiency symptoms in most crops however, is much less than that which is typically accumulated (Table 9.2) A laboratory study (7) that determined the chlorine requirements of 11 different crop species estimated that plants require

1 lb of chlorine for each 10,000 lb of dry matter produced, or a concentration of about 0.1 g kg⫺1

On a land area basis, large crops may need about 2.24 kg ha⫺1or more of chlorine This estimate for plant chlorine requirement is presumed to be for biochemical functions (2) The benefits that are

sometimes observed from higher concentrations of chlorine are likely due to its osmoregulatory role

in plants (36)

9.2.3.3 Distribution in Plants

Most of the chlorine in plants is not incorporated into organic molecules or dry matter, but remains

in solution as chloride and is loosely bound to organic molecules Chloride concentrations

TABLE 9.2

Chloride Concentrations in Plants

Concentration Ranges of Tissue Cl

(mg g⫺⫺1 DM) Crop Latin Name Plant Part Deficient Normal Toxic a Reference

palm

Corn Zea mays L. Ear leaves ⬎3.2 45

Corn Zea mays L. Ear leaves 1.1–10.0 ⬎32.7 56

Corn Z mays L. Shoots 0.05–0.11 7

A Chev.

Pear Pyrus communis L. Leaves ⬍0.50 ⬎10.0 91

Rice Oryza sativa L. Shoot ⬍3.0 ⬎7.0–8.0 95

Rice O sativa L. Mature straw 5.1–10.0 ⬎13.6 73, 96

wheat

clover

esculentum Mill.

a The plant yields decline or the plant shows visible scorching symptoms in leaves.

expressed on a tissue-water basis may typically range from 50 to 150 mmol L⫺1(4) A study (25) that determined chloride in the tissue water and the dry matter of whole corn plants at 35 days after emergence found a concentration of 66 mmol Cl L⫺1(1.83 g kg⫺1dry matter basis) for corn grown

on soil fertilized with 200 kg Cl ha⫺1applied as KCl and only 10 mmol Cl L⫺1(2.5 g kg⫺1dry mat-ter basis) for corn plants grown on unamended soil In general, chloride concentrations are higher

in tissues that have high water content Chloride concentrations are presumably highest in the rap-idly expanding zones of root and shoot tissue Pulvini and guard cells also have higher concentra-tions of chloride than the bulk tissue (4)

Vegetative plant tissues usually accumulate increasing concentrations of chloride with increas-ing supply of chloride, but plants parts can also exclude chloride (4,25,63) Corn seed may have only 0.44 to 0.64 g Cl kg⫺1on a dry weight basis, and chloride accumulation in the grain is not

influenced by chloride supply (45) In many crops, chloride transport from roots to shoots is restricted by a mechanism that resides in the roots (4,64,65) Soybean cultivars that exclude chlo-ride from the shoots are more salt-tolerant than cultivars that accumulate chlochlo-ride (57)

9.2.3.4 Critical Concentrations

Reports on critical tissue concentrations of chloride for crops grown in the field are few in number (Table 9.2) Studies conducted in the Great Plains of the United States have examined the relation-ship between tissue chloride concentration and relative yield of wheat In wheat plants at head emergence, a critical chloride concentration of 1.5 g kg⫺1was given in a 1986 report (66) In a more recent and larger study (67) that was based on an assessment of 219 wheat cultivars, three zones of chloride status were identified: (i) a deficiency zone with a plant chloride concentration

⬍1.0 g kg⫺1, (ii) an adequate chloride status zone with concentrations ⱖ4.0 g kg⫺1, (iii) and a tran-sition, or critical range, between these two zones A study (45) of corn grown in high-yield envi-ronments in New Jersey suggested a critical ear-leaf chloride concentration of 3.2 g kg⫺1, derived from a comparatively small database

9.2.3.5 Chlorine Concentrations in Crops

A review (4) of chlorine nutrition tabulated the concentrations of chloride in a wide variety of crops The compilation of data in Table 9.2 shows that concentrations of chloride classified as deficient, normal, or toxic vary widely among plant species

9.3 ASSESSMENT OF CHLORINE STATUS IN SOILS

Chlorine is present in the soil solution primarily in the anionic form as chloride Chloride concen-trations in soil extracts may range from ⬍1 mg kg⫺1to more than several thousand mg kg⫺1(68) Chlorine may also be present in organic forms such as chlorinated hydrocarbon pesticide residues Some of these chlorine-containing molecules are recalcitrant, whereas others can be metabolized or mineralized to release the chlorine

Although plants can accumulate chlorine foliarly and from the atmosphere, the concentration

of chlorine in plant tissue is often closely related to the supply or concentration of chloride in soil Testing soils for chloride is routine in laboratories involved in salinity problems, but soil testing for chloride supply to predict crop response to fertilization is a fairly recent development Soil test interpretations for chloride supply are currently conducted in the North American Great Plains and are limited to only a few crops (2)

In this large land-locked geographical region, little potassium fertilizer (KCl) is applied, and chloride input from rainfall is low Soil test interpretations for chloride have not been developed

outside this region because chloride inputs from various sources are often greater and because sup-plies of this nutrient are generally considered adequate for most crops

9.3.2 SOIL TESTS

The solubility and mobility of chloride in soil is similar to nitrate, and soil sampling depths for chloride, like nitrate, are typically greater than for less mobile nutrients Although the best soil sampling depth may vary depending on the rooting depth of the crop, a sampling to a depth of

60 cm has been found to be a good indicator of chloride availability to potato (58) and to spring wheat (2) Crops, such as sugar beet and winter wheat with deeper rooting depths, may need a deeper sampling depth (2,37)

Because chloride is highly soluble and only weakly adsorbed, it can be extracted from soil with water or any dilute electrolyte The choice of extractant may depend on the analytical method employed to determine the concentration of chloride in the extract Methods of analysis for quanti-fying extractable chloride may include colorimetric, potentiometric, or chromatographic procedures (69) Precautions should be taken to avoid potential sources of chloride contamination (e.g., perspi-ration, soil sample containers, dust, glassware, water) during soil sampling and laboratory analysis

9.3.3 CHLORINE CONTENTS OF SOIL

In the Great Plains of the United States, soil tests are performed to assess the soil chloride level as

a factor to be considered in decisions regarding application of chloride fertilizer The relative responsiveness of the various wheat and barley cultivars to chloride is also considered Some culti-vars of spring wheat and barley frequently exhibit responses to chloride, while others seldom exhibit a response (41,66,70,71) Chloride response trials conducted at 36 locations found that a critical level of 43 kg Cl ha⫺1in the top 60 cm layer of soil would generally separate responsive sites from nonresponsive sites (66,70) On the basis of this research, soils were classified as low (ⱕ34 kg

Cl ha⫺1), medium (35 to 67 kg Cl ha⫺1), or high (⬎67 kg Cl ha⫺1) in relation to the probability of observing a response to chloride addition Chloride fertilization is recommended according to this equation: Cl⫺ to apply (kg ha⫺1)⫽ 67 – Cl⫺ (kg Cl ha⫺1to 60 cm sampling depth) This recom-mendation is specific to wheat and barley crops grown in the region, and it should not be extrapo-lated to other areas under different climate, soil, and cultural conditions

Soil test calibration data on chloride are unavailable for most crops and soils around the world However, an observation of chloride deficiency in Australia provides some insight into concentra-tions of chloride in soil that may limit growth of some plants (72) In this instance, it was found that

subterranean clover (Trifolium subterraneum L.) exhibited poor growth when the soil contained

only 3 to 5 µeq of Cl per 100 g (1 to 2 mg kg⫺1)

When other factors limit crop yield potential, the potential for a response to chloride fertiliza-tion is also limited For example, corn grown in high-yield environments in New Jersey (18 miles from the Atlantic Ocean) exhibited yield increases from chloride addition on soils that held 20 kg

Cl ha⫺1in the top 60 cm layer of soil (45,46) In other studies with corn under less favorable con-ditions, yield increases due to chloride fertilization were either small or nil (2,42–44)

In many instances, chloride is frequently supplied to crops as a consequence of the widespread use of KCl-based fertilizers that are applied with the intention of providing potassium Recommended application rates of potassium, when applied as KCl, will generally supply sufficient chloride to most crops It is possible that the supply of chloride is sometimes limiting for crops grown on a wider range of soils but that the crop responses to chloride go unrecognized because they are attributed to potassium

Chloride is widely distributed in soils Concentrations normally range from 20 to 900 mg kg⫺1 with a mean concentration of 100 mg kg⫺1(68) Because igneous rocks and parent materials in gen-eral contain only minor amounts of chloride, little of this nutrient arises from weathering Most of

the chloride present in soils arrive from rainfall, marine aerosols, volcanic emissions, irrigation waters, and fertilizers (4)

Chloride is not adsorbed by minerals at pH levels above 7.0 and is only weakly absorbed in kaolinitic and oxidic soils that have positive charges under acid conditions (68) Chloride accumu-lates primarily in soil under arid conditions where leaching is minimal and where chloride moves upward in the soil profile in response to evapotranspiration Poorly drained soils and low spots receiving chloride from runoff, seepage, or irrigation water also may accumulate chloride (57) Near the ocean, soils have high levels of chloride, but with increasing distance from the ocean, chloride concentration in soils typically falls (2,4)

How a crop is harvested influences the amount of chloride in soil When harvested only as seed, the amount of chloride removed is limited (⬍8 kg ha⫺1for a corn yield of 11.3 Mg ha⫺1), but when harvested as green biomass the amount of chloride removal may be substantial (81 kg ha⫺1for corn

as silage) (25) Because chloride leaches from aging leaves, harvest of mature biomass may remove only about half as much chloride as does harvest before the onset of senescence (59,61)

9.4 FERTILIZERS FOR CHLORINE

9.4.1 KINDS

Chlorine is added to soil from a wide variety of sources that include chloride from rainwater, irri-gation waters, animal manures, plant residues, fertilizers, and some crop protection chemicals The amount of chloride deposited annually from the atmosphere varies from 18 to 36 kg⫺1ha⫺1year⫺1 for continental areas to more than 100 kg⫺1ha⫺1year⫺1for coastal areas (4) Most of the chloride applied as animal manures or plant residues is soluble and readily available for crop uptake Because most of the chloride in animal manure is probably present in the liquid fraction, manure management and handling may influence the concentration of chloride

Potassium chloride is the most widely applied chloride fertilizer Although KCl is usually intended as a potassium fertilizer, it in effect supplies 0.9 kg of chloride for each kg of potassium Other chloride fertilizers include NaCl, CaCl2, MgCl2, and NH4Cl (Table 9.3) All these salts are soluble and readily available to supply chloride for plant uptake Organic agriculture, which dis-courages the use of KCl and most salt-based fertilizers, obtains chloride primarily from manure and other natural sources

9.4.2 APPLICATION

Chloride, like nitrate, is susceptible to loss from soil by leaching in areas of high rainfall (62,73) Management practices that minimize chloride leaching will enhance chloride accumulation by crops When crops with high chloride requirements are grown, the application of chloride in the

TABLE 9.3 Sources Commonly Used as Chlorine Fertilizers

(%)

spring or close to the time of plant growth should enhance chloride accumulation Owing to the potential for salt injury, it is safer to broadcast chloride fertilizers than to apply them as a band

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