04051002169 EFL teachers’ oral feedback and its effects on Vietnamese high school gifted students’ motivation 04051002169 EFL teachers’ oral feedback and its effects on Vietnamese high school gifted students’ motivation
INTRODUCTION
Rationale
Teacher feedback is crucial for enhancing students' learning, with numerous studies highlighting its impact on performance (Biber et al., 2011; Hashemifardnia et al., 2019; Hattie & Timperley, 2007; Karim & Nassaji, 2019; Thirakunkovit & Chamcharatsri, 2019) However, the motivational and emotional effects of feedback have received less focus, as research indicates that its effectiveness is more pronounced in academic achievement than in motivation or behavior (Wisniewski et al., 2020) Many researchers advocate for considering students' motivational outcomes when delivering feedback in the classroom (Alqahtani & Al-enzi, 2011; Ellis, 2009; Thompson et al., 2021) Motivation is especially vital in language learning, where factors like self-efficacy and test anxiety significantly affect learners' persistence and success (Pouratashi et al., 2013).
In Vietnamese high school education, particularly within gifted programs, understanding student motivation is increasingly important Many students enroll in these programs due to family traditions and parental expectations rather than personal interest (Vu, 2011) Although they show strong commitment to their studies, they often lack intrinsic motivation for advanced English lessons and National Talent Competitions, as their programs primarily emphasize grammar and vocabulary over essential speaking and listening skills needed for future communication and employment (Do & Nguyen, 2021) Additionally, the combination of heavy school workloads, external pressures, and well-being issues has created significant stress among students, highlighting the necessity for effective emotional support from teachers (Nguyen et al., 2016; Thai et al., 2020).
The Vietnamese education system, particularly in gifted schools, is heavily exam-oriented, leading to a lack of research on the relationship between teacher feedback and student motivation This study addresses this gap by examining how EFL teachers' oral feedback impacts the learning motivation of high school students in Vietnam By focusing on a gifted high school, the research aims to enhance understanding of the EFL teaching context in Asian countries and high school education specifically The findings may offer valuable pedagogical implications, helping EFL teachers develop effective feedback strategies to support student motivation in high-pressure academic settings.
Research objectives
This research investigates the oral feedback provided by EFL teachers at a Vietnamese high school for the gifted and its impact on student motivation Specifically, it seeks to address key questions regarding the effectiveness and perception of this feedback among students.
Q1 What types and levels of oral feedback are usually provided by EFL teachers at gifted high schools?
Q2 How does EFL teachers’ oral feedback influence students’ learning motivation, as perceived by high school gifted students?
Research scope
This research focuses on EFL teachers’ oral feedback and how it can affect students’ learning motivation Teacher feedback is defined by Lewis
In 2002, it was emphasized that informing students about their progress is essential for facilitating improvement During the teaching and learning process, teachers provide feedback to students through both oral and written forms This research specifically focuses on the collection of teachers' oral feedback regarding students' performance during lessons Motivation plays a crucial role in this context.
Motivation is defined by Pintrich and Schunk (2002) as "the process whereby goal-directed activity is instigated and sustained." In English Language Teaching (ELT), it is considered a crucial factor influencing learners' success or failure in acquiring a second language (Smith & Loewen, 2018).
The research is conducted at a gifted high school in Vietnam, focusing on English-majored students in Grades 10, 11, and 12 The researcher aims to collect observational data from these students, as well as from EFL teachers in the Faculty of Foreign Languages responsible for teaching the English-majored classes.
Research method
This qualitative study investigates the impact of English teachers' oral feedback on the motivation of high school students at a gifted school in Vietnam By focusing on perceptions and interpretations, the research employs a qualitative approach, which is deemed most appropriate for the study's objectives Data was gathered through classroom observations and stimulated recall interviews, enabling the researcher to capture both immediate feedback practices and participants' reflective insights.
Classroom observations revealed the various types and functions of feedback utilized by teachers in EFL lessons Following these observations, retrospective interviews allowed both teachers and students to reflect on key feedback moments, enhancing the understanding of feedback perception and its impact on student motivation The study involved 6 experienced English teachers and 6 classes of English-majored students, selected through purposive sampling.
This methodological overview sets the foundation for a more detailed description of the research design, data collection instruments, and analysis techniques, which are presented in Chapter 3 (Methodology).
Significance of the study
This study enhances the field of English Language Teaching (ELT) research by examining the motivational effects of teachers' oral feedback, an area that has received limited attention in previous literature By integrating affective constructs like intrinsic and extrinsic motivation, it expands theoretical discussions beyond the cognitive aspects of feedback Furthermore, the research includes both teachers and students, addressing the often-ignored perceptual gap between feedback delivery and reception Additionally, it provides a context-specific case study focused on Vietnamese gifted high schools, where an exam-oriented culture and academic pressure may shape students' perceptions.
The research findings provide valuable guidance for EFL teachers in implementing effective feedback strategies that boost student motivation while steering clear of those that may inadvertently discourage them Educators are encouraged to reflect on their feedback practices and interpersonal communication, gaining insight into the emotional impact of their feedback on students Additionally, insights from teacher interviews can help students grasp the intentions behind feedback, thereby enhancing feedback acceptance and improving classroom dynamics.
Organization of research paper
The research is structured into five main chapters, with Chapter 1 serving as an introduction that outlines the study's rationale, objectives, design, scope, and significance Subsequent chapters build upon this foundation, presenting additional content related to the research.
- Chapter 2, Literature Review, explores relevant literature about teacher feedback and learning motivation, as well as the relationship between them in the EFL field
- Chapter 3, Methodology, justifies the research methods used for the study and demonstrates the procedures of selecting participants, collecting and analyzing data
- Chapter 4, Findings and Discussion, reports data analysis results and further discusses the answers to the research questions alongside the reviewed literature from Chapter 2
- Chapter 5, Conclusion, summarizes the major findings and identifies limitations of the research, as well as practical implications for further studies.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Teachers’ oral feedback
Feedback, as defined by Hattie and Timperley (2007), is crucial for the learning process, serving as information regarding one's performance or understanding In education, Westberg and Jason (2001) describe feedback as guidance provided to students about their performance, aimed at helping them develop desired attitudes and skills Askew and Lodge (2004) highlight that feedback encompasses a wide range of classroom interactions Given its significant benefits for learners, the provision of feedback has become a key focus for educators.
The constructivist learning theories highly regard teachers’ role in facilitating student feedback engagement (Carless, 2015; Sadler, 1998; Toohey,
Feedback typically involves teachers providing comments on students' performance in learning or assessment tasks However, effective feedback is influenced by various factors, including teachers' methods and values, the teacher-student relationship, and external constraints like class size and lecture time To enhance the effectiveness of feedback, teachers should consider these factors and promote learner engagement and collaboration.
Feedback can be delivered in both planned and spontaneous ways, taking various forms such as oral responses, grades, or written comments that blend directives and dialogue In the context of English as a Foreign Language (EFL) classrooms, oral feedback is particularly crucial, as it underpins the interactive nature of instruction and learning Given its significant advantages and engaging format, oral feedback is one of the most prevalent types of feedback provided by teachers Therefore, this research specifically examines the oral feedback given by EFL teachers.
Among the common types of teacher feedback, oral feedback stands out as one that can be given immediately and on a frequent basis (Clarke, 2003)
Oral feedback, as defined by Brookhart (2008), encompasses verbal responses given to individuals, groups, or entire classes, extending beyond mere correction of linguistic errors in language learning (Sheen & Ellis, 2011) Its immediate delivery allows students to quickly identify strengths and areas for improvement right after their performance Additionally, this form of feedback fosters instant interaction, enabling students to address any concerns while their memory of the performance is still fresh This interactive approach enhances the feedback process, moving away from the traditional one-way communication often found in classrooms (Askew & Lodge, 2004) The next section will outline the theoretical frameworks used to categorize oral feedback.
2.1.2 Teachers’ oral feedback: Types and levels
Various models have been created to classify teacher feedback, each representing unique educational settings and theoretical perspectives A notable classic model introduced by Tunstall & Gipps (1996) has become a key reference for researchers, educators, and policymakers in subsequent years, as highlighted by Brookhart (2017), Dixon (2005), Knight (2003), and Wiliam (2011).
Categorization of descriptive and evaluative feedback by Tunstall and Gipps
Note From “Teacher feedback to young children in formative assessment: a typology,” by P Tunstall and C Gsipps, 1996, British Educational Research
Copyright 1996 by the British Educational Research Association
Teacher feedback can be classified into evaluative and descriptive types Evaluative feedback judges the quality of student performance and includes four subtypes: Rewarding and Approving as positive reinforcement, and Punishing and Disapproving as negative responses for correction In contrast, descriptive feedback focuses on achievement and improvement, with subtypes such as Specifying attainment and Constructing achievement, which recognize accomplishments, and Specifying improvement and Constructing the way forward, which guide students toward better performance These eight subtypes reflect the emotional tone and instructional intent of teacher responses, making them particularly relevant for formative assessment in early education, where praise, encouragement, and correction are essential for guiding young learners.
This model outlines targeted pedagogical actions linked to various types of feedback, providing a valuable reference for teachers to evaluate their practices However, its applicability is limited, as it was developed based on observations from primary school education, particularly emphasizing praising and punishing feedback, which may not be suitable for other educational contexts, such as high school settings.
To offer a more holistic perspective, Panadero and Lipnevich (2022, p
13) conducted a meta-analysis of fourteen most popular frameworks to classify feedback types The result of their study, named as the Integrative Model of Feedback Elements, is shown in Figure 2 and described as one that combined the similarities and individual characteristics of the models from previous literature in the field, synthesizing five major themes surrounding teacher feedback: Message, Implementation, Student, Context, and Agents, also referred to as MISCA The Message refers to the content and structure of the feedback (e.g., whether it is directive, evaluative, or dialogic) Implementation concerns how feedback is delivered and acted upon The Student element includes learner characteristics such as prior knowledge, motivation, and self- regulation Context refers to the instructional environment, including class size, subject matter, and assessment purpose Finally, Agents identifies the source of feedback, whether from the teacher, peers, or students themselves
Panadero and Lipnevich analyzed various frameworks and identified five common elements, leading to the development of a comprehensive feedback model This expanded model encompasses all aspects of feedback, including input from peers and students However, it may not align closely with the current research focus, which specifically targets teacher feedback.
The MISCA feedback model by Panadero and Lipnevich (2022, p 13)
Note From “A review of feedback models and typologies: Towards an integrative model of feedback elements,” by E Panadero and A Lipnevich,
(https://doi.org/10.1016/j.edurev.2021.100416) Copyright 2021 by The
The widely recognized feedback typology model, established by Hattie and Timperley in 2007, is extensively referenced in the field, as noted by Lipnevich and Panadero (2021) This model serves as the analytical framework for examining EFL teachers' oral feedback in the present study.
Categorization of feedback by Hattie and Timperley (2007, p 87)
Note From “The power of feedback,” by J Hattie and H Timperley, 2007, Review of Educational Research, 77(1), p 87
(https://doi.org/10.3102/003465430298487) Copyright 2007 by Sage
Hattie and Timperley categorize effective teacher feedback into three key questions: "Where am I going?" (feed up), "How am I going?" (feed back), and "Where to next?" (feed forward), as illustrated in Figure 3.
Effective feedback is crucial for guiding students towards their learning goals and assessing their progress It can be categorized into four levels: task level, which evaluates the correctness of the task; process level, which examines the steps taken during the task; self-regulation level, which provides students with strategies for self-correction; and self level, which focuses on personal evaluation of the student This framework highlights the importance of providing constructive feedback that goes beyond superficial praise, encouraging a deeper cognitive engagement in the learning process.
The model has gained recognition among scholars for its educational implications and is frequently utilized to analyze teachers' feedback practices (Brooks et al., 2019; Lipnevich & Panadero, 2021; Mandouit & Hattie, 2023) Research indicates that this framework can be enhanced with more detailed feedback examples, strategies, and success criteria (Harris & Brown, 2013; Mapplebeck & Dunlop, 2021) This study seeks to address this gap by integrating Hattie and Timperley’s model with the feedback matrix proposed by Brooks et al (2019, p 28), which offers specific prompts and strategies aligned with various feedback types and levels While the self-level feedback is excluded from the matrix due to its limited effectiveness, this research still incorporates it to explore its connection to student motivation.
A matrix of feedback for learning (Brooks et al., 2019, p 28)
Note From “A matrix of feedback for learning” by C Brooks, A Carroll, R
M Gillies, and J Hattie, 2019, Australian Journal of Teacher
Education, 44(4), p 28 (https://doi.org/10.14221/ajte.2018v44n4.2)
Copyright 2019 by Edith Cowan University
To enhance the quality of teacher feedback, merely categorizing feedback types is insufficient (Dixon, 2005) Recent studies highlight the importance of understanding feedback from the students' perspective (Hattie & Clarke, 2018) This necessitates a thorough analysis of teacher feedback effectiveness by deconstructing feedback types, exploring teachers' underlying beliefs, and investigating students' perceptions, behaviors, and motivations in response to the feedback they receive.
Student motivation
Motivation plays a crucial role in second and foreign language learning, as highlighted by Gardner (2006), who views it as a key element in the socio-educational model of language acquisition He defines motivation as the interplay of students' efforts, their aspirations for language learning, and their positive attitudes towards the process While traditional views see motivation as a fixed trait, Dürnyei (1994) argues for its dynamic nature, describing it as a fluid process that initiates, sustains, and directs learning in second language acquisition He categorizes motivation into three levels: language level (cultural and practical aspects), learner level (personal traits like self-esteem), and learning situation level (factors related to the course and instructor) This perspective aligns with social constructivism, suggesting that motivation varies among individuals and is influenced by social and contextual factors (Doiz et al., 2014; Meşe & Sevilen, 2021; Volet, 2001; Williams & Burden, 1997).
2.2.2 Key theories of student motivation in EFL
Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation, as defined by Self-Determination Theory (Deci & Ryan, 2012), are fundamental types of motivation based on the reasons behind actions Intrinsic motivation arises when individuals find interest and joy in an activity, making the activity itself the primary reason for engagement In contrast, extrinsic motivation occurs when individuals participate in an activity solely for external rewards For educators, understanding these motivations is crucial; while fostering intrinsic motivation is often emphasized for enhancing learning quality, leveraging extrinsic motivation can also lead to improved performance Therefore, strategically using active forms of extrinsic motivation can be an effective approach for successful lesson delivery.
Affective factors related to student motivation
Teacher feedback plays a crucial role in influencing student motivation, particularly through the concepts of self-efficacy and test anxiety The relationship between these factors is illustrated in Figure 4, highlighting how self-efficacy and test anxiety interact to affect overall student motivation (Pouratashi et al.).
The connection among self-efficacy, test anxiety, and student motivation (Pouratashi et al., 2013, p 88)
Note From “Effects of agricultural students’ self-efficacy beliefs and test anxiety on their achievement motivation and academic performance,” by M
Pouratashi, C Zhub, H M Mohammadi, A Rezvanfara, and S M Hosseinia,
2013, The New Educational Review, 34(4), p 88 Copyright 2013 by
Self-efficacy, as defined by Bandura (1977), refers to students' beliefs in their ability to effectively utilize their existing knowledge and skills to learn new cognitive skills This belief significantly impacts their choice of activities and the effort they are willing to invest Pajares (2012) emphasizes that students with high self-efficacy are more likely to take action when confronted with challenges, as they believe their efforts can lead to positive outcomes Research has consistently shown that learners with high self-efficacy tend to outperform their peers on achievement tasks (Ahmad & Safaria, 2013; Kửseoglu, 2015; Mills et al., 2007).
Test anxiety, characterized by heightened negative thoughts, emotions, and physiological arousal before assessments, negatively impacts academic performance (Adesola & Li, 2018) According to Cassady (2010), it is a form of academic anxiety influenced by context-specific stimuli, like classroom instructions, and subject-related reactions, such as those experienced in Math or English The key factor that sets test anxiety apart from other anxiety types is the focus on evaluative situations (Von der Embse et al., 2018).
Previous studies
This section explores previous studies on the connection between teacher feedback and student motivation in the context of English as a Foreign Language (EFL) The research is categorized into two main groups: international studies and those conducted in Vietnam.
Research indicates that fostering student motivation in EFL classrooms is complex (Dửrnyei, 2010) An exploratory study by Bahous et al (2011) identified key motivation-related issues hindering students' English learning, including an overemphasis on writing skills, lack of engaging learning experiences, uninteresting course content, and insufficient connections between language courses and students' majors Teachers also reported frustrations with unmotivated learners, linking these challenges to inflexible curricula that restrict communicative teaching methods Overall, the findings highlight that both internal and external factors significantly influence students' motivation to learn a foreign language.
The complexity of student motivation has prompted educators and researchers to explore effective strategies to enhance learner motivation Wong (2014) utilized lesson observations and questionnaires to assess teachers' and students' perceptions of various motivational strategies The study identified twenty-five strategies from Western EFL research to evaluate their effectiveness in Asian educational contexts Ultimately, only six strategies were recognized as successful by participants and the researcher, including providing incentives, ensuring adequate preparation and support, emphasizing instrumental motivation in EFL, integrating humor, and avoiding face-threatening behavior The findings highlight that no single motivational technique is universally applicable across all EFL classrooms, emphasizing the need for teachers to consider contextual factors when implementing specific strategies.
Research in English language teaching highlights the significant role of teacher feedback in enhancing student motivation A study by Hamidun et al (2012) in Thailand demonstrated that constructive feedback positively influenced EFL students' motivation to improve their writing skills, even among those with lower proficiency Similarly, Ruegg's (2018) research on Japanese university students showed that those receiving teacher feedback on their essay drafts exhibited greater improvements in writing self-efficacy compared to peers who received only peer feedback These findings underscore the importance of effective teacher feedback in fostering student motivation and confidence in writing.
A mixed-method study by Zarei et al (2020) confirmed the link between teachers' feedback strategies and EFL students' motivation, involving 54 Iranian pre-intermediate students across three experimental groups Different feedback strategies were employed, and data was gathered through semi-structured interviews and a motivation questionnaire The quantitative results revealed that students' learning motivation is influenced by the type of feedback provided by teachers However, the study's limitation lies in its focus on single feedback types within each group, potentially neglecting the effects of varied feedback combinations To address this gap, the current study will utilize observation methods to analyze EFL teachers' feedback practices and identify emerging patterns and their impact on advanced students' motivation.
Research indicates a strong link between teacher feedback and student motivation, highlighting its role in enhancing academic performance through improved self-efficacy Duijnhouwer et al (2012) found that feedback incorporating improvement strategies can negatively affect self-efficacy, particularly for students with initially low self-belief, while feedback aimed at revision fosters motivation to write Similarly, Guo and Wei (2019) demonstrated that scaffolding feedback engages students, boosting their motivation and self-efficacy Additionally, effective feedback strengthens teacher-student relationships, further enhancing motivation and academic success (Poulou, 2020) Sincere and detailed praise from teachers is also shown to significantly elevate students' extrinsic motivation and self-efficacy (Haimovitz & Corpus, 2011) Thus, when delivered effectively, teacher feedback can significantly nurture both intrinsic and extrinsic motivation, as well as self-efficacy beliefs in students (Brookhart, 2008).
Ineffective teacher feedback can harm student motivation, particularly when it is poorly delivered (Aikina & Bolsunovskaya, 2020; Rattan et al., 2012) Specifically, when feedback is irrelevant or inefficient, it can lead to student demotivation (Clarke, 2012).
Negative feedback from teachers, including criticism and biased evaluations, can diminish students' intrinsic motivation and self-efficacy (Thompson et al., 2021) Even well-intentioned feedback may negatively impact motivation, as the students' interpretation plays a crucial role (Reitbauer et al., 2013) This underscores the importance for teachers to thoughtfully plan their feedback while closely observing their students during the teaching and feedback process, allowing for necessary adjustments to their methods.
Besides examining how teachers provide feedback in the classroom, it is also beneficial to find out their beliefs underlying such practices Roothooft
A study conducted in 2014 examined the beliefs of ten adult EFL teachers regarding oral feedback and their actual classroom practices The findings indicated that many teachers were unaware of their feedback tendencies and strategies Although they recognized the significance of feedback, concerns about interrupting students and eliciting negative emotional responses led them to favor implicit feedback methods The research highlights the importance of understanding students' emotional reactions to teacher feedback and identifies a "mismatch" between the beliefs of students and teachers regarding corrective feedback However, a notable limitation of the study is the absence of data on students' perceptions and attitudes towards teacher feedback Consequently, the current study seeks to gather information from both teachers and students about oral feedback and its impact on student motivation.
A notable study by Ha et al (2021) explores the beliefs of 250 Vietnamese EFL high school students regarding oral corrective feedback (CF), identifying six key factors that influence these beliefs The research also examines the relationship between students' beliefs about CF and their English learning motivation, revealing that students preparing for exams tend to have a more positive attitude towards CF compared to those learning English for communication or career purposes This indicates that students' motivational orientations significantly affect their interpretation and appreciation of teacher feedback.
While Ha et al highlight a link between feedback and motivation, research in Vietnam has largely overlooked this connection Most studies have focused on the beliefs of students or teachers, failing to examine how feedback practices influence learner motivation For instance, Nguyen and Truong (2021) explored the attitudes of 60 EFL teachers towards writing assessment in Central Vietnam high schools Their findings indicated that teachers preferred practices such as setting clear criteria, using diverse evaluation methods, and providing constructive comments on student writing However, despite their use of various assessment techniques beyond traditional exams, the teachers demonstrated limited knowledge of alternative assessment methods, which could negatively affect their ability to provide effective writing feedback and ultimately undermine student motivation.
A study by Phuong (2022) explored the feedback on pronunciation from ten experienced English teachers at a Vietnamese institution not focused on English majors The findings from interviews and classroom observations revealed that most teachers view feedback as essential for improving students' pronunciation The teachers tended to concentrate on individual errors rather than group mistakes and preferred immediate feedback over delayed responses Additionally, the techniques used for providing feedback varied significantly among teachers, influenced by their differing expectations regarding pronunciation instruction, knowledge, and beliefs about correction methods and their intended beneficiaries These factors can intricately affect students' motivation in response to feedback.
Recent Vietnamese studies have shed light on teacher and student perceptions of feedback; however, there is a lack of research on how teacher feedback practices affect student motivation, especially among EFL high school students in gifted programs This study aims to fill that gap by engaging both EFL teachers and gifted students to explore their perspectives By utilizing interviews and observations, the research seeks to investigate the connection between teacher feedback and student motivation, examining how responses from students and teachers correspond with actual classroom practices.
Chapter summary
The literature review examined theoretical frameworks and previous research on the impact of teachers' oral feedback on student motivation within the context of English as a Foreign Language (EFL) It outlined the various types, functions, and effects of teacher feedback, emphasizing its role in enhancing student motivation Additionally, the review identified a significant gap in the existing literature regarding Vietnamese EFL settings, thereby establishing a foundation for the current study.
METHODOLOGY
Research design
The study took place at a gifted high school in Vietnam, involving six advanced English as a Foreign Language (EFL) classes Each grade level—10, 11, and 12—consists of two English-majored classes, designated as English 1 and English 2, with class sizes varying from 27 to 31 students The research included all six English-majored classes and six teachers responsible for instructing these EFL classes.
Students with B2 - C1 English proficiency were divided into English 1 and English 2 classes based on their high school entrance exam scores, which include Math, Literature, and English results This sorting sometimes leads to students with higher English scores being placed in English 2 Each class meets 4-6 times a week, focusing on skill-based lessons Advanced vocabulary and grammar are taught to prepare students for standardized international exams and prestigious English competitions at the city and national levels.
The teaching staff consists of six teachers assigned to the English-majored classes, with the possibility of two teachers sharing responsibility for the same class Among them, two younger teachers possess 3 to 5 years of experience, while the remaining teachers have significantly more, ranging from 10 to 20 years at the school All teachers hold C1 certificates in English proficiency and have completed pedagogical training from their universities as well as programs sponsored by the Ministry of Education and Training For more details on the teacher participants, please refer to Table 2 below.
List of EFL Teacher Participants
No Pseudonyms Years of teaching experience
Number of English classes assigned
This study aims to explore the oral feedback provided by EFL teachers at a gifted high school in Vietnam and its impact on students' learning motivation To achieve this goal, a qualitative case study approach was selected, considering the nature of qualitative data, its limitations, and its relevance to the research subject.
This study examines the feedback practices of EFL teachers in a high school for the gifted, highlighting the influence of the educational context, school administration policies, and classroom settings A qualitative approach is advantageous for this context-specific case, enabling data collection in authentic environments and facilitating in-depth analysis of diverse perspectives (Baxter & Jack, 2008; Nunan, 1992) The research will also investigate the experiences, perceptions, and motivations of both teachers and students through qualitative instruments like observation and retrospective interviews, yielding rich, nuanced data that is often difficult to quantify Motivation, recognized as a multifaceted construct by various scholars (Hartnett et al., 2011; O’Keefe et al., 2017; Schumacher & Ifenthaler, 2018), encompasses elements that cannot be adequately measured through numerical methods Thus, qualitative methods are particularly suitable for exploring these complexities at a deeper, more meaningful level.
This study was conducted to answer the following research questions:
Q1 What types and levels of oral feedback are usually provided by EFL teachers at gifted high schools?
Q2 How does EFL teachers’ oral feedback influence students’ learning motivation, as perceived by high school gifted students?
The research procedures consist of two phases The sequential qualitative mixed methods were applied here, in which data gathered in the former phase would contribute to the latter (Morse, 2010)
This phase aimed to investigate the types and levels of oral feedback provided by EFL teachers in the classroom With the consent of students and teachers, the researcher observed a total of 13 EFL lessons, each lasting approximately 45 minutes Data collection involved video and audio recordings, while in classes where video recording was not permitted, the researcher took detailed notes on lesson activities and relevant observations regarding teacher and student behavior This data collection occurred in September 2023.
Following the observation of all lessons, the audio and video recordings, along with the notes, were analyzed to investigate the feedback practices of EFL teachers A preliminary analysis was performed to identify key insights.
- The type of feedback that was given (feeding up, feeding back, feeding forward);
- The level of feedback provided (task, process, self-regulation, self);
- The students’ immediate responses to the teachers’ feedback (intriguing moments that arose during the lessons were noted)
The upcoming section will provide a detailed discussion of the data analysis process, which played a crucial role in selecting student participants for interviews in the subsequent phase of the study.
Semi-structured retrospective interviews were conducted with selected student participants to gain deeper insight into their perceptions and motivation following teacher feedback Purposive sampling was employed to choose the interviewees.
- All of the six EFL teachers who delivered the observed lessons;
- The students who received feedback during the lessons;
- Additional students who witnessed feedback moments and could offer their interpretations
Individual interviews were conducted with both students and teachers to promote comfort and encourage honest responses The questions aimed to explore participants' beliefs about teacher feedback, their personal experiences with giving and receiving feedback in EFL lessons, and the motivational effects of such feedback.
Data collection instruments
This research utilizes a combination of observation and retrospective interviews to gain insights into teachers' feedback in the classroom Observation effectively captures real-time interactions, while interviews provide a deeper understanding of participants' perceptions, beliefs, and behaviors This methodological pairing is recommended for qualitative studies involving participant observation (Kendall, 2014) The subsequent sections will elaborate on the detailed application of these instruments.
Observation is a key method in social sciences for collecting data on individuals, processes, and cultures, making it a vital tool for teacher researchers in classrooms (Kawulich, 2012) This study utilized both direct and indirect observation methods, where the researcher actively engaged in classroom lessons while recording them through audio, video, or notes for later analysis This approach provides a deeper understanding of the research context while allowing the researcher to maintain an objective, third-person perspective (Ciesielska et al., 2018).
Before the observation sessions, all teachers signed a consent form outlining the study's details and ethical considerations To protect participants' privacy, pseudonyms were used, and all recorded data and personal information were kept confidential, utilized solely for research purposes A sample of the observation scheme can be found in Appendix 1.
A retrospective interview is a process that involves identifying and discussing significant past events from a participant's experiences (Fitzgerald & Surra, 1981) According to Obeng (2022), this method offers several advantages, enhancing the depth and quality of insights gained from participants.
Retrospective interviews foster enhanced collaboration in the interview process by allowing participants to identify and emphasize what they consider important, rather than having researchers solely categorize data into thematic groups This approach encourages a more inclusive and meaningful exchange of insights.
The study enables participants to share significant experiences, allowing researchers to identify any differences in perspectives among the various participant groups by analyzing these pivotal moments.
The application of retrospective interviews is particularly beneficial for this study, which involves students and teachers, as it facilitates a comparison of their experiences and beliefs about feedback moments This method enables researchers to gain deeper insights into the students' perspectives, revealing differences that may not align with external observations (Sosniak, 2006).
In the second phase of this study, retrospective interviews were carried out using a semi-structured protocol, which was organized into three distinct parts The complete set of interview questions can be found in Appendix 2.
In the initial segment of each interview, participants answered standardized questions regarding their experiences and perceptions of teacher feedback in the EFL classroom The latter part of the interview involved reviewing recordings and footage of their lessons, prompting interviewees to reflect on key moments when they provided or received feedback.
The interview questions primarily aimed to investigate the experiences of teachers and students regarding teacher feedback and its impact on student motivation in EFL classes Additionally, background questions related to age, proficiency level, teaching experience, and general classroom behavior were included to provide context and serve as "distractor" questions This strategic placement helped to ease participants into the interview process and minimize the likelihood of biased or overly rehearsed responses.
Data analysis
In the analysis of Phase 1, a content analysis of teachers' feedback was performed on transcribed lesson recordings using Microsoft 365 Word, guided by the theoretical framework of Hattie and Timperley (2007) Feedback was categorized into three types—feeding up, feeding back, and feeding forward—and four levels: task, process, self-regulation, and self Comments with multiple elements were classified based on their dominant feature, enabling the researcher to examine the characteristics of EFL teachers' feedback, including the frequency of each type and level, as well as consistency among participants Patterns observed during this analysis informed the data collection for the subsequent interview phase To ensure reliability, an assistant independently analyzed the data using the same coding scheme, and inter-coder reliability was evaluated through percent agreement to confirm consistent coding practices.
In Phase 2 of the study, thematic analysis was employed to analyze the transcribed interview data, focusing on EFL teacher feedback and student motivation The researcher familiarized themselves with the data, coding it into various themes, and interpreted these themes in conjunction with the literature review and previous observational data Both inductive and deductive approaches were utilized, emphasizing the key constructs identified by Pouratashi et al.
In 2013, the data was analyzed to identify patterns and potential new themes, while also establishing connections between the emerging themes, existing literature, and the findings from Phase.
Excerpts of codebooks for Phase 1 and Phase 2 are presented in Appendix 4 and Appendix 5.
Chapter summary
This chapter outlines the qualitative methodology employed in the study, highlighting classroom observations and interviews It provides a comprehensive overview of the research environment, participant selection criteria, data collection instruments, and analysis methods, ensuring transparency, validity, and reliability throughout the process.
FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION
Teachers’ oral feedback used in the EFL classroom
4.1.1 Types of feedback used in the EFL classroom
The researcher analyzed a total of 227 feedback comments from six EFL teachers, with each teacher contributing approximately 14 to 40 comments over two lessons Notably, Viet, who taught three classes, provided over 90 comments during three lessons The feedback primarily addressed students' writing and speaking performance, as well as their errors in vocabulary, grammar, and reading skills on practice tests The comments were consistent with Hattie and Timperley's (2007) feedback typology framework, with examples detailed in Table 3.
Examples of EFL Teachers’ Feedback Types
Feeding up “For this exam, the evaluators require perfection.”
The text highlights the importance of summarizing content effectively by emphasizing that the first sentence must begin with "The text highlights" or "describe." Failing to adhere to this requirement will result in a significant loss of points, specifically half of the maximum score.
To complete the gapped text, start by reading the first paragraph and the entire text Next, focus on the missing paragraph, then review the last and first sentences to identify key words and references that will guide you to the correct paragraph.
“You have given a lot of good explanation and a lot of good examples over there.”
“Otherwise, most of the time your arguments are not in line with the argument, you just basically talking at cross purposes.”
“You got tricked by the comma here, but it’s a sign of an emphasis, not a relative clause.”
To enhance your vocal presence, it's important to use your throat more effectively and project your voice louder, ensuring it doesn't fade away.
“If you want to reach the advanced level, you need to prepare gap fillers and a logical flow of ideas.”
It's important to speak clearly and avoid mumbling, especially in a test room Here, you can practice and feel safe to express yourself without hesitation Just remember to maintain clarity during the actual test.
Table 4 presents a comprehensive categorization of feedback comments from teacher participants Among the three types of feedback utilized, feeding back emerged as the most prevalent, comprising 58.2% of the total, and was consistently the primary feedback type employed by each teacher.
Feeding forward represented about one third of the total comments, while feeding up was the least common type of feedback, accounting for only 20 out of 227 comments.
Frequencies of EFL Teachers’ Feedback Types
Teacher Number of feedback comments
The ranking of frequency among the three feedback types aligned with the EFL teachers’ explanation in the interview:
The students are already at advanced English level, so they know what to do (Phuc)
I would mark the students’ tests first, gave them their paper back, and I only bring up the criteria if they have any questions about their results (Minh)
Both teachers and students agree that instead of focusing on feeding up, educators should prioritize providing feedback on mistakes and offering guidance on how learners can enhance their performance.
In Viet's teaching approach, feedback was nearly balanced between feeding back and feeding forward, with 47 comments focused on past performance and 43 on future improvement He emphasized the importance of oral feedback during mock speaking tests, aiming to avoid overwhelming students with mistakes to encourage their practice Additionally, he believed that sharing strategies for individual improvement would benefit other students facing similar challenges.
4.1.2 Levels of feedback used in the EFL classroom
Teachers employed multiple feedback levels, including task, process, self-regulation, and self, as illustrated in Table 5 They often integrated various feedback types in their comments, typically starting with compliments at the self-level, followed by evaluations of task performance at the task level For more detailed feedback, teachers provided insights on improvement strategies at the process level, concluding with questions or advice to help students monitor their progress at the self-regulation level.
Examples of EFL Teachers’ Feedback Level
Task “The fluency is good You managed to maintain a good fluency and flow of ideas from the beginning to the end of your speech.”
“If we see an essay like this in the exam, we barely give it a six.”
“You still made a lot of mistakes in this vocabulary exercise Vocabulary clearly is your problem.”
You possess a strong command of language and the ability to express your opinions; however, it seems that self-judgment is hindering you from sharing your thoughts openly.
Neglecting pronunciation can stem from overconfidence in your own speaking abilities, leading to a lack of self-correction To improve, it's essential to focus on sentence stress and intonation.
Addressing social disparity and the weaknesses of the current system is crucial While it's important to acknowledge these issues, it's equally vital to present solutions By stating, "with this solution, we could " you can effectively refute the concerns and highlight the potential for positive change.
“What ideas do you intend to change?”
“Then how is it going to start?”
“Make sure to check the dictionary carefully to see why you mistake this word with the others.”
Self “Good! As expected from you.”
“You’re in an advanced class and you still get it wrong?”
“Your writing is chimpanzee-level.”
Table 6 illustrates the distribution of feedback comments across four levels, revealing that task-oriented feedback was the most prevalent, accounting for 44.1% of the 227 comments This was followed by process-level feedback at 32.6%, self-regulation feedback at 14.5%, and self-level feedback at 8.8% However, individual teacher preferences varied; Minh and Viet predominantly utilized process-oriented feedback, while three out of six teachers rarely employed this level Notably, Thu frequently used self-regulation feedback, with only one less comment than task-level feedback.
Frequencies of EFL Teachers’ Feedback Level
Teacher Number of feedback comments
The early literature highlights the prevalence of task-oriented feedback (Lipsch-Wijnen & Dirkx, 2022), yet significant variations among teachers' approaches are evident This discrepancy may stem from differing teaching styles and the specific language skills being addressed For instance, Minh and Viet focused on essay writing and speaking, which necessitate more in-depth process-level feedback In contrast, Thu and Hoan, who taught vocabulary and reading, deemed it "unnecessary" to delve deeply into students' mistakes, opting instead for self-regulatory feedback to foster learning autonomy.
The effects of EFL teachers’ feedback on students’ motivation
Following the observation phase, a retrospective interview was conducted with 6 teachers and 13 students to explore the impact of EFL teacher feedback on learning motivation Among the 13 students, 7 received individual feedback publicly in class The researcher aimed to assess how this feedback influenced the motivation of both students who received direct feedback and those who did not The findings revealed that EFL teacher feedback significantly affected students' extrinsic and intrinsic motivation.
4.2.1 Effects of EFL teacher feedback on students ’ extrinsic motivation Teachers ’ perspectives
Teachers have noted that students exhibit increased motivation when feedback is linked to tangible rewards like grades, recognition, or external validation Minh shared that he employs small incentives to boost student engagement with feedback.
Public recognition of students, such as praising them or encouraging applause, can significantly enhance their willingness to participate in class Khanh supports this by noting that such strategies boost students' motivation to accept and act on feedback, highlighting the impact of extrinsic factors on learning However, Thai warns against an overreliance on these methods, pointing out that some students may only value feedback when it directly affects their grades, which could hinder their long-term engagement with learning This indicates that while extrinsic motivation is beneficial, it is essential to balance it with approaches that foster deeper learning and genuine interest.
Teachers observed that feedback significantly influenced students' experiences of test anxiety Minh noted that some students deliberately skipped mock speaking tests, perceiving her feedback as criticism and feeling embarrassed to perform in class Despite her intention to help them improve for the actual tests, this feedback sometimes heightened their anxiety about the real assessments.
Viet recognized the emotional weight of feedback, emphasizing the necessity of immediate and direct responses for serious issues to prevent performance decline He highlighted the importance of balancing encouragement with constructive criticism The teachers collectively agreed on the need for feedback to be both constructive and reassuring, aiming to alleviate student anxiety while enhancing their performance.
Extrinsic motivation was evident in student responses, with many viewing feedback primarily as a means to achieve higher scores rather than for personal growth This mindset was especially prevalent among gifted students, who, already proficient in English, focused on strategies to excel in National English Competitions for Excellent Students Students appreciated feedback like, “Your performance will get a score of 7.0 in IELTS, but it’s not enough for national competitions,” as it helped them identify weaknesses and enhance their performance in future assessments.
Some students in my class benefit from clear feedback to identify their weaknesses and strengths, which is essential for their improvement and achieving higher scores in the future.
Many students initially experienced embarrassment or fear regarding their English tests, but they ultimately found value in the feedback they received One student expressed that although she felt self-conscious at first, the teacher's insights were instrumental in identifying her speech issues, leading to a sense of satisfaction and determination to improve.
Many students reacted negatively to extrinsic motivators, often feeling compelled to improve their performance out of fear of negative consequences, such as teacher reprimands or GPA deductions This indicates that they viewed teacher feedback primarily as a measure of academic success rather than a tool for skill enhancement, leading to a punitive perception of motivation Furthermore, feedback was frequently associated with test anxiety, causing students to feel pressured, especially when it highlighted multiple errors Some even chose to abandon their studies for national competitions due to the intensity of the feedback, believing they were unqualified to compete This highlights that while detailed feedback can be beneficial, its delivery significantly affects whether students find it constructive or overwhelming.
4.2.2 Effects of EFL teacher feedback on students ’ intrinsic motivation Teachers ’ perspectives
Feedback plays a vital role in enhancing students' intrinsic motivation by nurturing their curiosity and passion for learning Teachers have observed that emphasizing students' progress and effort, rather than merely correct or incorrect answers, fosters a deeper interest in the subject matter Additionally, the importance of autonomy is underscored, as one teacher noted the value of encouraging students to self-assess their work before and after receiving feedback, which empowers them to take ownership of their learning journey.
Phuc emphasized that feedback in specialized classes must be well-structured, as advanced students often have strong opinions about language and may doubt corrections unless they trust the teacher This underscores the necessity of providing feedback that upholds the teacher's credibility and authority.
Some educators adopted a distinctive method by using snide remarks or humor to highlight students' mistakes, aiming to make these errors more memorable and encourage a desire for improvement Thai emphasized the importance of selecting students who are more approachable or have a positive rapport with him to ensure that the feedback is effectively received.
Self-efficacy plays a crucial role in enhancing students' intrinsic motivation, as highlighted by various teachers They noted the importance of positive reinforcement prior to discussing mistakes, which helps students feel more competent For instance, Viet mentioned that he begins with compliments to ensure that students view feedback in a constructive light rather than as solely negative.
Providing immediate feedback can be perceived as criticism, so it's essential to first boost students' confidence This approach encourages them to be more receptive to suggestions and minimizes the chance of negative perceptions Tailored feedback is crucial; focusing on individual progress rather than comparisons fosters a sense of capability in students.
Some educators acknowledge a tendency to begin with negative feedback, emphasizing students' mistakes Thu noted that gifted students often exhibit "overconfidence" in their abilities, necessitating a "reality check" to recognize their performance gaps compared to peers and identify areas for improvement Conversely, Khanh worries that her feedback may be disheartening if students view it as overly critical.
Discussion
This section analyzes the study's key findings in the context of existing literature and research questions While earlier sections detailed observations from both teachers and students, this discussion aims to interpret the implications of these findings regarding the characteristics of teacher feedback and how they align with or diverge from established theories and previous research.
4.3.1 Teacher feedback practices in the EFL classroom
The study found that EFL teachers at gifted high schools primarily focused on "feeding back," correcting students' language performance at the task level, aligning with established feedback typologies (Hattie & Timperley, 2007) This trend mirrors Phuong's (2022) findings, which highlighted teachers' tendencies to emphasize individual mistakes in their feedback However, students perceived "feeding forward," which suggests ways to enhance performance, as more beneficial Excessive focus on errors can lead to feelings of discouragement among learners, supporting Clarke's (2003) assertion that insufficient feedback can be demotivating Therefore, it is recommended that teachers incorporate more "feeding forward" feedback and diversify their feedback approaches to enhance depth and effectiveness, ultimately boosting student motivation.
4.3.2 Effects of EFL teacher feedback on student motivation
Teacher feedback plays a crucial role in enhancing students' extrinsic motivation, especially when linked to performance outcomes like praise and grades This aligns with Wong's (2014) findings on the effectiveness of incentives as a motivational strategy The context of gifted high school students, trained for national competitions, may lead them to view feedback from EFL teachers positively Ha et al (2021) also emphasize the significance of extrinsic motivation for students learning English for exams The study reveals that teacher feedback can either alleviate or heighten test anxiety, depending on its delivery and interpretation While students may feel pressured by repeated mistakes, they value feedback for exam preparation Moreover, effective feedback delivery fosters teacher-student rapport and can reduce test anxiety, supporting previous research that underscores the impact of sincere compliments on student motivation (Brookhart, 2008; Haimovitz & Corpus, 2011; Poulou, 2020) Such feedback offers clarity and reassurance, helping students understand how to improve and ultimately reducing anxiety over time.
Teacher feedback significantly influences students' intrinsic motivation, with positive effects arising from supportive feedback and negative effects from harsh criticism This aligns with Reitbauer et al (2013), who noted that the impact of feedback is largely determined by students' perceptions, regardless of the teacher's intentions Wong (2014) highlighted the absence of a universal motivational strategy effective across all EFL classrooms, as students from the same cultural background can interpret feedback differently, leading to varied motivational outcomes Constructive and detailed oral feedback can enhance self-efficacy by recognizing strengths and providing actionable improvement suggestions Some students reported that feedback helped them identify weaknesses, improving their clarity and coherence in speech and writing This contrasts with Duijnhouwer et al (2012), which found that feedback on improvement strategies could harm confidence, especially for those with initially low self-efficacy Thus, while constructive feedback may initially challenge confidence, it can ultimately benefit students if delivered effectively This study confirms that direct and constructive teacher feedback is linked to students' positive sense of progress and increased engagement, supporting findings from Hamidun et al (2012) and Guo and Wei (2019).
Chapter summary
The research on EFL teachers' feedback practices reveals that all three types of feedback—feeding up, feeding back, and feeding forward—were employed, with feeding back being the most prevalent, highlighting a focus on correcting student errors Individual teachers exhibited variations in their feedback strategies, shaped by their teaching styles and lesson goals Task-oriented feedback was the most common, consistent with existing literature, while the varied use of process-level, self-regulation, and self-level feedback illustrates the complexity of effective feedback Notably, process-oriented feedback was more frequently used in skill-based lessons like writing and speaking, whereas self-regulation feedback was preferred in vocabulary and reading activities to promote learner autonomy.
Findings for the second research question indicate that the effects of
EFL teacher feedback significantly influences students' motivation, impacting both extrinsic and intrinsic factors External rewards can enhance engagement, while personalized and constructive comments promote deeper learning Positive reinforcement boosts students' self-efficacy and confidence, but excessive focus on errors may lead to frustration Additionally, well-balanced feedback can alleviate test anxiety, whereas unclear or overly critical comments can increase stress These mixed effects highlight the importance of tailoring feedback to individual students' abilities, learning styles, and character traits, considering both the recipients and observers of the feedback.
These findings emphasize the necessity of balancing correction and encouragement in EFL classrooms The success of feedback relies on both its content and delivery, indicating that teachers must customize their feedback strategies to enhance student motivation and improve learning outcomes.