Black''''s veterinary dictionary 21st edition - U docx

Ulcer A break on the surface of the skin, or of any mucous membrane of a cavity of the body, which does not tend to heal.. Unsaturated Fatty Acids see under LIPIDS; VITAMINS– Vitamin E U

(see MAMMARY GLAND)

Uitpeuloog

‘Bulging eye disease’– an oculovascular myiasis

of domestic animals in South Africa

Ulcer

A break on the surface of the skin, or of any

mucous membrane of a cavity of the body,

which does not tend to heal The process by

which an ulcer spreads, which involves necrosis

(death) of minute portions of the healthy

tis-sues around its edges, is known as ulceration

Most ulcers are suppurative; bacteria prevent

healing and often extend the lesion

An ulcer consists of a ‘floor’ or surface which,

in consequence of the loss or destruction of

tis-sue, is usually depressed below the level of the

surrounding healthy structures; and an ‘edge’

around it where the healthy tissues end

Callous ulcer is a type of chronic ulcer often

encountered in horses and dogs, when there is

any pressure or irritation that interferes with the

blood supply but does not necessarily cause

immediate destruction of the skin In most cases

it is covered by a hard, leathery piece of dead

skin from under which escapes a purulent fluid

‘Bedsores’ in all animals may be of this nature

‘Rodent ulcer’ is a term reserved in human

medicine for an ulcerating carcinoma of the

skin, but it is often colloquially used by

dog-and cat-owners for an EOSINOPHILIC

GRANULO-MA Skin cancer occurs in domestic animals,

and such malignant tumours may ulcerate

Tubercular ulcers may occur in dogs’ and cats’

skin in the form of raised plaques which ulcerate

Internal ulcers may occur in the mouth (see

MOUTH,DISEASES OF), in the stomach (see

GAS-TRIC ULCERS), in the bowels (see INTESTINES,

DISEASES OF), and in other parts

Glanders ulcers are typically encountered in

the mucous membrane of the nostrils, and have

a ‘punched-out’ appearance

Lip-and-leg ulcers occur in sheep with ORF

CausesAny condition that lowers the general

vitality of the animal, such as old age, chronic

disease, malnutrition, and defective circulation,

will act as a predisposing cause Among direct

causes may be bacteria gaining access to

wounds; irritation from badly fitting harness, pressure of bony prominences upon hard floors insufficiently provided with bedding, and application of too strong antiseptics to wounds

TreatmentIn the smaller animals a vitamin supplement may be indicated An antibiotic or one of the sulfa drugs may be used

Local treatment aims at converting the ulcer into what virtually becomes an ordinary open wound The surface is treated with some suit-able antiseptic, such as cetrimide, gentian violet, dilute hydrogen peroxide, etc If one or two days of such treatment does not result in a clean, bright-red, odourless wound, or where there are shreds of dead tissue adherent to the surface, it may be necessary to curette the surface so that the dead cells may be separated from the healthy ones below them

Animal-owners should note that after the surface of the ulcer has been rendered as healthy

as possible, use of strong antiseptics or (worse still) disinfectants should cease, as these retard healing by the destruction of surface tissues Corneal ulcers are referred to under EYE,

DISEASES OF– Keratitis (See also CRYOSURGERY.)

Ulcerative Dermatosis of Sheep

A viral infection, which has to be differentiated from ORF, and is characterised by ulcers on the face, feet, legs, and external genitalia It also in Europe and Africa

Ulcerative Dermal Necrosis

A disease of adult salmon which occurs when they enter fresh water on their way to spawning grounds Grey lesions are seen above the eyes,

on the snout and on the side of the opercula (gill coverings) If they do not heal, the lesions spread

to the skin of the head, ulcerate, and become

prone to infection by Saprolegnia fungus The

fungal infection may be treated with zinc-free malachite green The cause is unknown

Ulcerative Enteritis of Chickens, Pheasants and Quails

Ulcerative enteritis is seen in chickens between

4 and 7 weeks, and in quail, turkeys, partridge and grouse at any age Birds are depressed, with watery droppings; mortality can be very high, reaching 70 to 100 per cent The cause is a virus

Ulcerative Lymphangitis

Ulcerative lymphangitis, also called ulcerative cellulitis, is a contagious chronic disease of horses, characterised by inflammation of the

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lymph vessels and a tendency towards ulceration

of the skin over the parts affected

CauseCorynebacterium bovis

(pseudotuberculo-sis) It gains access through abrasions Infection

may be carried by grooming tools, harness,

utensils, etc., from one horse to another

SignsThe commonest seat of the disease is the

fetlock of a hind-leg This part becomes swollen

and slightly painful Small abscesses appear;

ulcers follow The condition gradually spreads

up the leg

TreatmentAntibiotics

Ulcerative Spirochaetosis of

Pigs

This has been reported in the UK, Australia,

New Zealand, South Africa, and the USA It

may give rise to foot-rot in pigs, ulceration of

the skin, and scirrhous cord

Ulna

This is the inner of the 2 bones of the fore-arm

The shaft has gradually reduced in size as the

number of digits has decreased, so that while

the ulna is a perfect bone in the dog and cat, in

the horse its shaft has almost completely

disap-peared and the bone is only represented by the

olecranon process which forms the ‘point of the

elbow’ The shaft of the ulna is liable to become

fractured from violence to the fore-limb, but

the commonest seat of an ulnar fracture is the

olecranon process This occurs from a fall in

which the fore-limbs slip out in front of the

ani-mal, and the weight of the body comes down

suddenly on to the point of the elbow (See

FRACTURES.)

Ultra-High-Temperature

Treatment of Milk (UHT)

Ultra-high-temperature treatment of milk

(UHT) involves heating it to between 135°and

149°C (275° and 300°F) for a few seconds

Suggested in 1913, UHT is used to produce

long-life milk, on sale in Britain from 1965

onwards This process does not affect the

calci-um nor the casein, but destroys some vitamins

and probably some serum proteins (immune

globulins) Calves grow less well on it than on

raw or pasteurised milk

Ultrasound

Sound at a frequency above 20,000 cycles per

second Propagated by applying an electric

cur-rent to one side of a piezoelectric crystal, which

deforms and produces a sound wave

Ultrasound is generally defined as an auditory frequency beyond that perceived by the human ear Most humans hear and emit sound in the frequency range 2 to 20 kHz, while in some animals ranges are much greater Bats, dolphins, many rodents and some insects have ranges that extend as high as 120 kHz – well beyond the limit of human detection Pigs and poultry can detect higher ultrasound frequencies and may be disturbed by the noise given off by, for example, certain electronic equipment and dripping nipple-drinkers Female rabbits communicate with their litters in ultrasound

Ultrasound, in the range of 1 million to

10 million hertz, is used in non-invasive diag-nostic imaging of internal body structures It is widely used in pregnancy diagnosis of animals (See also PREGNANCY DIAGNOSIS.)

In human medicine, ultrasound has been shown to be beneficial for wound healing, both

in the treatment of pressure sores and in the preparation of trophic ulcers for skin grafting Studies have shown that it influences the activity

of fibroblasts

Ultra-Violet Rays

Ultra-violet rays are used in the treatment of various skin diseases, etc., and in the diagnosis of ringworm and porphyria; also in the fluorescent-antibody test for various infections including rabies

Ultra-violet rays and eye cancer

Analysis of data from 14 veterinary colleges in the USA, where 147 cases of eye cancer in

hors-es were studied, led to the conclusion that ultra-violet radiation may be of primary importance

in triggering cancer

Umbilical Cord, Cutting The

(see under PARTURITION)

Umbilicus

Umbilicus is another name for the navel

Umgana Tree

Elephants seek out and gorge themselves on the fruits of this tree, leading to in sexual excitement Ostriches may behave similarly

Uncinariasis

Infection with Uncinaria stenocephala, one of

the hookworms of the dog

Unconsciousness

(see under COMA; FITS; SYNCOPE; EPILEPSY;

NARCOLEPSY)

734 Ulcerative Spirochaetosis of Pigs

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Undecylenate Ointment

A fungicide, used in the treatment of ringworm,

etc

Undulant Fever in Man

Undulant fever in Man is caused by Brucella

melitensis, B abortus suis, or B abortus The

lat-ter organism is responsible for ‘contagious

abor-tion’ (brucellosis) of cattle, and it is probable

that most cases of undulant fever in man caused

by B abortus arise through handling infected

cows or from drinking their milk Infection

can readily occur through the skin Numerous

cases have occurred in veterinarians, following

mishaps with Strain 19 vaccine, e.g accidental

spraying into the eyes or injection into the hand

In America, B abortus suis is an important cause

of undulant fever in man; B canis likewise.

Signsare vague and simulate those of

influen-za except that undulant fever lasts for a much

longer time, even many months Temperature is

generally raised but fluctuates greatly; there are

muscle pains, headache, tiredness and inability

to concentrate One or more joints may swell

There may be constipation The organisms are

present in the bloodstream and in the spleen

The disease is serious, not so much because

of its mortality (1 to 2 per cent), but because of

incapacity occasioned by its long duration (See

BRUCELLOSIS and CHEESE.)

PreventionAnyone handling aborting cows,

or their fetal membranes, or even calving an

apparently normal cow, should wear protective

gloves or sleeves (which nevertheless sometimes

tear), and wash arms and hands in a

disinfec-tant solution afterwards Avoid drinking any

cold milk that has not been pasteurised

Unsaturated Fatty Acids

(see under LIPIDS; VITAMINS– Vitamin E)

Unstable Substances

(see under INJECTIONS)

Uraemia

Uraemia results when the waste materials that

should be excreted into the urine are retained in

the body, through some disease of the kidneys,

and are circulated in the bloodstream Blood

urea is in excess Death may be preceded by

convulsions and unconsciousness In the slower

types there is usually a strong urinous odour

from all the body secretions In acute cases the

administration of glucose saline subcutaneously

may help; likewise, withdrawal of a quantity

of blood (provided that saline is given) (See

URINE– Abnormal constituents; LEPTOSPIRO-SIS;KIDNEYS,DISEASES OF.)

Urates

(see URIC ACID)

Urea (Carbamide)

Urea (carbamide) is a crystalline substance

of the chemical formula CO(NH2)2, which is very soluble in water and alcohol It is the chief waste product discharged from the body in the urine, being formed in the liver and carried by the blood to the kidneys The amount excreted varies with the nature and the amount of the food taken, being greater in the carnivora, and when large amounts of protein are present in the food It is also increased in quantity during the course of fevers Urea is rapidly changed into ammonium carbonate after excretion and when in contact with the air, owing to the action of certain micro-organisms

Determination of the blood urea level is an important aid to the diagnosis of kidney failure

Urea As a Ruminant Feed

Some of the micro-organisms which inhabit the rumen can synthesise protein from urea It was accordingly suggested that urea might be substi-tuted for protein in concentrates fed to cattle This has been called the protein-sparing effect of urea, which is a non-protein source of nitrogen The emphasis has now shifted more to the value of urea in increasing the intake and aiding the digestion of low-quality roughages, and it has been widely used as a dietary supplement for cattle and sheep on poor pasture in many parts

of the world Where extra energy, in the form of readily digestible carbohydrate, is provided in addition to the urea, both roughage digestibility and feed intake improve In these circumstances the urea stimulates multiplication of cellulose-digesting organisms, so that the urea-fed animal may be able to make more effective use of roughage than the one receiving no urea

In the ruminant animal, any injudicious feeding of urea can give rise to poisoning by ammonia, since it is this which is released in the rumen and then converted into microbial protein Excess ammonia can cause the animal’s death It is essential, therefore, that urea is taken

in small quantities over a period, and not fed a large amount at a time

Urea is often added to molasses and fed via ball feeders which prevent rapid and excessive uptake of the liquid and ensure maximum utili-sation of urea Under optimum farm conditions only 15 to 30 per cent of the dietary protein can

be replaced by urea As a rule of thumb, urea, if

Urea As a Ruminant Feed 735

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incorporated uniformly within the dairy ration,

has been shown to be safe at a level of 1 per cent

Combined with 5 per cent barley, that mix can

replace 5 per cent ground-nut meal in the

ration In the diets of finishing beef cattle, the

animals can gradually have the proportion of

urea increased

Some guidelines for urea feeding

1 Introduce urea feeding gradually, i.e at a

slowly increasing level over a period of 3 to 4

weeks, with adequate minerals and vitamins

provided

2 Avoid starting newly calved cows on it (but

it may be included in the steaming-up ration),

or giving it to calves under 3 months of age

3 Ensure that urea is fed with adequate

readi-ly digestible carbohydrate, as is contained in

cere-als, molasses, sugar-beet pulp, maize silage, etc

4 Do not exceed levels of urea recommended

by the supplier

5 Ensure that urea is fed little and often, and

not irregularly or at long intervals

Urea poisoning Symptoms include

saliva-tion, excitement, running and staggering, jerking

of the eyeballs, and scouring

Acute urea poisoning killed 17 beef cows in a

group of 29 in the south of Scotland The

ani-mals died over an 8-hour period as a result of

drinking water which had been carried to a

trough in a tanker previously used for

transport-ing urea fertiliser It was calculated that as little

as 10 litres of the water would have provided a

fatal dose of urea to a 500 kg cow

Ureaplasmas

Formerly known as T-mycoplasmas, these have

been isolated from the lungs, and also the

uro-genital tract of several species of animals They

are a likely cause of pneumonia and infertility

Ureter

The ureter is the tube which carries the urine

excreted by a kidney down to the urinary bladder

Each ureter begins at the pelvis (main cavity) of

the corresponding kidney, passes backwards and

downwards along the roof and walls of the pelvis,

and finally ends by opening into the neck of the

bladder The wall of the ureter is composed of a

fibrous coat on the outside, a muscular coat in the

middle, and this is lined by a mucous membrane

consisting of cubical epithelium

Urethra

The urethra is the tube which leads from the

neck of the bladder to the outside, opening at

the extremity of the penis in the male, and into

the posterior part of the urino-genital passage

in the female It serves to conduct the urine from the bladder to the outside; also the semen

Urethra, Diseases of

Owing to its extreme shortness in the female, the urethra is not subject to the same disease conditions as in the male, where the tube is considerably longer In fact, disease of the ure-thra in the female hardly ever arises except as a complication of either disease of the bladder, on the one hand, or of the vagina on the other

Urethritis Inflammation of the urethra is usually associated with cystitis, and may be the result of an infection, or of some irritant poison (such as CANTHARIDES) present in the urine The lining mucous membrane may also be inflamed by crystalline deposits (See FELINE UROLOGICAL SYNDROME; UROLITHIASIS; URE-THRAL OBSTRUCTION.)

In most cases of urethritis there are signs of pain and distress whenever urine is passed or when the parts are handled A little blood may

be seen

Strictureis an abrupt narrowing of the calibre

of the tube at one or more places In almost all cases of true stricture there has been some injury

to the urethra or penis, resulting in the forma-tion of scar tissue, which eventually contracts and decreases the lumen of the tube A few cases, however, are caused by a rapidly growing tumour

Injuries to the urethramay follow a severe crush or blow which causes fracture of the pelvis

or of the os penis in the dog They are usually obvious when the injury has involved the sur-face of the body, and may be suspected if there

is an inability to pass urine, or if the urine con-tains blood or pus following upon a severe injury to the hindquarters of the body A com-plication of urethral injuries is abscess formation around the urethra and consequent stricture at a later period

Urethral Obstruction

In sheep, the injudicious use of hormones to increase liveweight gain has killed lambs, appar-ently as the result of urethral obstruction In one incident in the USA, 200 out of 9000 lambs died after receiving 12 mg stilboestrol by injection

In the UK, an increased incidence of urethral obstruction in male calves and lambs followed the incorporation of too high a level of magnesium in the concentrates fed

736 Ureaplasmas

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Analysis of the calculi (stones) causing the

obstruction showed them to be crystals of

mag-nesium ammonium phosphate After reducing

the level of magnesium supplementation to 200

mg MgO per tonne of feed, there were no cases

of urolithiasis in intensively fattened male

lambs offered a cereal-based diet ad lib (See also

under URINARY BLADDER,DISEASES OF– Urinary

calculi.)

Five outbreaks in male calves of various

ages investigated by the Veterinary Research

Laboratory, Stormont, showed a magnesium

content of the concentrates (fed from the first

week of life) to range from 4.9 to 9.2 g/kg dry

matter (The AFRC recommendation is not

more than 1.4 g/kg dry matter.)

Obstruction of the male urethra is a common

condition in cats, and fairly common in the

dog (See FELINE UROLOGICAL SYNDROME.)

Unless relieved, urethral obstruction can lead

to rupture of the bladder and death

Urethrostomy

Perineal urethrostomy is a surgical operation for

the treatment of urethral obstruction; it consists

of making a permanent opening in the urethra,

the lining mucous membrane and the skin

being joined by sutures (Urethrostomy differs

in this respect from urethrotomy, in which the

urethra is incised – to remove a wedged calculus,

for example – but immediately closed.)

Urethrostomy is performed mainly in cats

suf-fering from feline urological syndrome It is not

in itself a cure for this, but rather for the

often-associated urethral obstruction The operation is

an alternative to euthanasia when the cat cannot

be catheterised, or has already been subjected to

this on 2 or more occasions, when repetition

could be regarded as inhumane

Urethrostomy, skilfully performed, can be

successful, in both the short and the long term

Complicationscan arise, however, after both

urethrotomies and urethrostomies, and include:

extravasation of urine into surrounding tissues;

haemorrhage; and stricture, as the result of scar

formation Should the latter occur, it leaves

the cat in the same state as it was before the

operation, so that nothing has been gained

Urethrostomy makes the male cat

anatomi-cally similar to the female, so that ascending

infections may occur

Uric Acid

Uric acid is a crystalline substance, very slightly

soluble in water, white in the pure state, and

found in the urine of flesh-eating animals in

nor-mal conditions It is also found in some kidney

stones and urinary calculi, and may be present in joints affected with GOUT

Urinary Antiseptics

Urinary antiseptics include hexylresorcinol, mandelic acid, hexamine (for acid urine; not effective in alkaline urine), buchu

Urinary Bladder

In some animals the bladder is situated in the pelvis, but in the dog and cat it is placed further forward in the abdomen, while in the pig and

ox it may be almost entirely abdominal when distended The size of the organ varies with the breed and sex of the animal, and its capacity depends upon the individual Two small tubes – called ureters – lead into the bladder, one from each kidney, and the larger, thicker urethra con-veys urine from it to the exterior The

constrict-ed portion from which the urethra takes origin

is called the neck of the bladder, and is guarded

by a ring of muscular tissue – the sphincter

StructureThe wall of the bladder is some-what similar to that of the intestine, and con-sists of a mucous lining on the inside, possessing flat, pavement-like epithelial cells; a loose sub-mucous layer of fibrous tissue very rich in blood vessels; a strong, complicated muscular coat in which the fibres are arranged in many direc-tions; and on the surface an incomplete peri-toneal coat covering the organ In places this peritoneal covering is folded across to parts of the abdominal or pelvic wall in the form of lig-aments which retain the bladder in its position

In young animals the bladder is elongated and narrow, and reaches much further forward than it does in the adult In the unborn fetus its forward extremity communicates with the out-side of the body until just before birth, when the passage becomes closed at the umbilicus, or navel, and the bladder shrinks backwards

Urinary Bladder, Diseases of CystitisInflammation of the bladder is often infective in origin, with micro-organisms com-ing either from the kidneys via the ureters, or,

in the female, in the reverse direction – i.e via the urethra from an infected vagina

Leptospirosis is a common cause of nephritis

and cystitis in farm animals and in dogs E coli

is another common pathogen in dogs; and

Corynebacterium suis in pigs.

In dogs, cystitis is occasionally found to be

due to the bladder worm Capillaria plica; and

in cats to C feliscati The parasites’ eggs may be

found in the urinary sediment Anthelmintics may be used for treatment

Urinary Bladder, Diseases of 737

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Inflammation of the bladder may be caused

by the abrasive action of a sand-like crystalline

deposit as in the FELINE UROLOGICAL

SYN-DROMEor, to a lesser extent, by sizeable urinary

calculi

SignsIn acute cystitis, small quantities of urine

may be passed frequently, with signs of pain

and/or straining on each occasion Blood may be

seen in the urine The larger animals may walk

with their hind legs slightly abducted, and the

back is often arched in all animals

TreatmentThis will naturally vary according

to the cause An appropriate antibiotic may be

used to overcome infection, along perhaps with a

urinary antiseptic Urine acidifiers, such as

ascor-bic acid or ammonium chloride, or alkalisers,

such as potassium citrate or sodium bicarbonate,

may also be used to adjust the pH of the urine

Pain-relievers may be needed

Urinary calculiThese, associated with high

grain rations and the use of oestrogen, produce

heavy losses among fattening cattle and sheep in

the feed-lots of the USA and Canada However,

this condition does not seem to present the

same problem in the barley beef units in this

country, although outbreaks do occur in sheep

fed high grain rations The inclusion of 4 per

cent NaCl in the diet decreased the incidence of

urinary calculi

In male calves and lambs, crystalline deposits

of magnesium ammonium phosphate cause

ure-thral obstruction if the animals are receiving too

high a level of magnesium supplement in their

concentrate feed (See URETHRAL OBSTRUCTION.)

Urinary calculi may occur in an individual

animal irrespective of its diet, or of hormone

implants There may be one large calculus

pre-sent in the bladder, or several small ones, or the

crystalline sand-like deposit already mentioned

In such cases, although hyaluronidase might be

tried, treatment usually has to be surgical, i.e

cystotomy

Rupture of the bladderThis condition is

usually quickly fatal, and is brought about by a

painful over-distension of the bladder due to

urethral obstruction

TumoursThese may cause difficulty in

pass-ing urine, and sometimes the presence of blood

in the urine

In a study of 70 cases in the dog, no urinary

signs were found in 9 In the other 61, signs

included haematuria, dysuria, tenesmus,

inconti-nence, and polyuria Sixty-two dogs had primary

tumours; 44 of these were carcinomas Several papillomas were found during cystotomy for urinary calculi

Urinary Calculi

(see above,and under URINARY BLADDER,DISEASES

OF)

Urinary Incontinence in Dogs and Cats

(see INCONTINENCE)

Urinary Organs

(see KIDNEYS;URETER;BLADDER;URETHRA)

Urine

A brief outline of the formation of urine is given under KIDNEYS – Function (See also HOMEOSTASIS.)

Not only are waste products removed from the bloodstream by the kidneys, but most poisons taken into the body are eliminated from the sys-tem by way of the urine; thus, quinine, mor-phine, chloroform, carbolic acid, iodides, and strychnine can be recognised in the urine by means of appropriate tests, while there is abun-dant evidence to show that during bacterial dis-eases, the kidneys eliminate toxins

Specific gravityThe specific gravity of the urine of animals varies between wide limits; for average purposes the following figures are given:

Reaction The urine of the herbivorous animals is usually alkaline, and that of the flesh-eating animals, acid The alkalinity in her-bivores is due to the salts of the organic acids that are taken in with the vegetable diet, such as malic, citric, tartaric, and succinic; these acids are converted into carbonates in the body, and these latter are excreted in solution In the case

of some foods, such as hay and oats, an acid urine may be produced when they are fed to the horse In the carnivorous animals the acidity is due to sodium acid phosphate The pig’s urine may be acid or alkaline according to the nature

of its food

Amount The quantities of urine excreted depend upon many factors, among which may

738 Urinary Calculi

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Lowest Average Highest

be noted: season, diet, amount of water

con-sumed, condition of the animal, secretion of

milk, pregnancy, age, and size of the animal

(See also PREGNANCY DIAGNOSIS.)

The following are average figures of the

amounts excreted during 24 hours:

Horse: 3 to 11 litres (5 to 20 pints), average

5 litres (9 pints)

Cow: 5.7 to 22 litres (10 to 40 pints), average

12.5 litres (22 pints)

Sheep: 285 to 855 ml (0.5 to 1.5 pints),

average 570 ml (1 pint)

Pig: 1.4 to 8 litres (2.5 to 14 pints), average

4.5 litres (8 pints)

Dog: 440 to 995 ml (0.75 to 1.75 pints),

average 680 ml (1.25 pints)

Abnormal constituents of urine

Albumin may be excreted when there is some

disease of the kidneys Sugar is found in

dia-betes and it is also found in smaller amounts

after an animal has been fed on a diet that is

too rich in sugar In this latter case – known as

glycosuria – the sugar disappears when the

feed-ing is corrected Pus and tube-casts are the signs

of inflammation or ulceration in some part of

the urinary system Bile in the urine is a sign

that there is some obstruction to the outflow of

bile into the intestines, and that the bile is being

reabsorbed into the bloodstream and excreted

by the kidneys

Urine-Drinking, or Licking

Urine-drinking, or licking, by cattle may be a

symptom of sodium deficiency (See ‘LICKING

SYNDROME’.)

Urine Scald

Loss of hair and inflammation of the skin caused

by persistent wetting with urine

Urine-Spraying by Cats

This is the normal method used by the male cat

to mark out his territory Under natural

condi-tions this may be some 2 km2(5 acres) or so in

extent The territory-marking serves as a

warn-ing to other males to keep out, and perhaps also

as an invitation to females in oestrus to enter

Urine-spraying is not confined to the entire

male, but may also be indulged in by the entire

female, and even by neuters of either sex It may

also be an expression of sexual excitement

Spraying indoors is often the result of the

invasion of a cat’s territory by an intruder such

as a new person (if the owner marries, for

exam-ple), the arrival of a baby or another pet The

appearance of a cat at the window of a house

or in the garden may trigger spraying Another

cause is the installation of a cat flap, if the flap does not keep other cats out of the house A move to a new home, or even the rearrange-ment of furniture, may initiate urine-spraying indoors Spraying is common in households where several cats are kept

Hormonal drugs such as progestins, which block the effects of male hormones, can be used

in male cats Tranquillisers may be of benefit in more intractable cases If a particular area is tar-geted, the cat’s food bowl can be placed there, as cats will not spray close to where they eat Feline pheromone, in an aerosol, is said to inhibit the cat’s desire to spray

Urinometer

An instrument designed for the estimation of the specific gravity of urine

Urogenital Papilla

A small projection at the urogenital opening of fish Damage or infection at this area can lead

to problems in shedding eggs or semen (‘milt’)

Urolithiasis

The formation of calculi (stones), or of a crys-talline sand-like deposit, in the urinary system A bacterial or viral infection may precede or follow the condition (See URETHRAL OBSTRUCTION;

URINARY BLADDER, DISEASES OF; FELINE URI-NARY SYNDROME; and URETHRA,DISEASES OF.)

Uroliths

The mineral composition of 2700 of these were studied, after their removal from dogs Their composition was struvite in nearly 60 per cent

of those tested In horses the most common mineral was calcium carbonate

Urotropine

(see HEXAMINE)

Urticaria (Nettle Rash)

Urticaria (nettle rash) is a disease of the skin in which small areas of the surface become raised in weals of varying sizes It occurs in horses, cattle (when it is often called blaines), pigs, and dogs

CausesThe condition is not necessarily

specif-ic It may follow exposure to the leaves of the stinging nettle (hence one of its names); insect bites may produce it; it may be associated with diet; it may occur during the course of certain specific conditions, such as purpura, dourine, influenza, etc Urticaria is usually, if not always,

of an allergic nature

Factitious urticaria, common in the dog but not recorded in the cat, is a term for an abnormal

Urticaria (Nettle Rash) 739

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tendency for the skin to weal when rubbed or

scratched

SignsAs a rule there is little to be seen beyond

the local swellings of the skin These may vary

in size from a pea to a walnut, and are

general-ly more or less almond-shaped They are

pain-less to the touch, show no oozing discharge, are

scattered irregularly over the whole body, and

sometimes involve the skin of the eyelids,

nos-trils, and perineum In cattle especially they

may attain a great size in the throat region and

produce difficulty in breathing

TreatmentConsists of the use of

ANTIHISTA-MINES, a light diet, and calamine lotion An

antibiotic may be used to prevent infection from

occurring

Ustu Virus

Ustu virus is closely related to WEST NILE VIRUS

An outbreak in Vienna in 2000 is thought to

have been carried by swallows migrating from

Africa The disease is transmitted by

mosqui-toes, In humans, the signs are fever and a rash,

but serious illness has not been reported

Humans and primates are terminal hosts for the

virus and so are not a source of infection for

other animals

Uterine Infections

These are discussed under UTERUS,DISEASES OF

and INFERTILITY A list of the principal

organ-isms which infect the uterus in the various

species is given under ABORTION; but for the

mare, see EQUINE GENITAL INFECTIONS

Uterus

The uterus is a Y-shaped organ consisting of a

body and two horns, or cornua; it is lined by an

elaborate mucous membrane which presents

special features in different species of animals

The uterus lies in the abdomen below the

rec-tum and at a higher level than the bladder It

becomes continuous with the vagina posteriorly

Its most posterior portion, known as the cervix,

usually lies partly in the pelvis From the tip of

each horn to the ovary on the corresponding

side runs the Fallopian tube or oviduct, which

conducts the ova from the ovary into the uterus

In the human female the body is large and

horns, for practical purposes, do not exist In

rabbits the 2 horns open into the vagina

sepa-rately The uteri of domesticated animals are

intermediate between these types

The walls consist of 3 coats:a peritoneal

cov-ering on the outside continuous with the rest of

the peritoneum; a thick muscular wall arranged

in 2 layers, the fibres on the outside being longitudinal and those on the inside circular; an innermost coat, which is mucous membrane This latter is very important, since it is by its agency that the ovum and the sperms are nour-ished before they fuse; it is through the mucous membrane that nutrients and oxygen are con-veyed from dam to fetus, and that much of the waste products leave the fetal circulation to pass into the maternal bloodstream It consists of epithelial cells, amongst which lie the uterine glands which secrete the so-called ‘uterine milk’ serving to nourish the newly fertilised ovum The most posterior extremity of the uterus is called the os uteri, and this forms the opening into the cervix uteri, which is a thick-walled canal guarding entrance into the cavity of the body of the uterus Normally this is almost or completely shut, but during oestrus it slackens, and during parturition it becomes fully opened

to allow exit of the fetus The uterus is held in position by means of a fold of peritoneum attached to the roof of the abdomen, which carries blood vessels, nerves, etc This is known

as the ‘broad ligament’; it is capable of a considerable amount of stretching

The mareThe shape of the uterus of the mare most nearly approaches that of the human being

It possesses a large body and comparably small horns During pregnancy the fetus generally lies

in horn and body The mucous membrane is corrugated into folds

The cow The body is less in size than the horns, which are long, tapering, and curved downwards, outwards, backwards, and upwards

to end within the pelvis at about the level of the cervix The fetus lies in the body and one horn in single pregnancy, and when twins are present each usually occupies one horn and a part of the body The mucous membrane presents upon its inner surface a large number (100 upwards) of mushroom-shaped projections – cotyledons The fetal membranes are attached to the dome-like free surface of the cotyledons, in which are a large number of crypts, which receive projections called villi from the outer surface of the chorion

The ewehas a uterus similar to that of the cow except that it is smaller and that the cotyledons are cup-shaped

The sowhas a small uterine body and a pair

of long convoluted horns that resemble pieces of intestine The mucous membrane is ridged but has no cotyledons The young lie in the horns only

740 Ustu Virus

U

The bitch and cathave uteri with

compar-atively short bodies and long, straight, divergent

horns that run towards the kidneys of the

corresponding sides

(See PREGNANCY;PARTURITION.)

Uterus, Diseases of

Inflammation of the uterus (metritis) may be

acute or chronic, localised (e.g confined to the

cervix), or involving more than one uterine tissue

A list of uterine infections giving rise to

infertility and abortion in the various species

will be found under ABORTION, but for the

mare, see under EQUINE GENITAL INFECTIONS

The mare

Acute MetritisThis may occur either before

or after foaling When it takes place prior to the

act it is usually associated with the death of the

foal and its subsequent abortion, with or without

discharge of the whole or a part of the

mem-branes In such cases the inflammatory condition

may persist in an acute form and cause the death

of the mare, or it may assume a chronic form

after the abortion and render the mare incapable

of further breeding; other cases are followed by

recovery Acute metritis occurring after normal

foaling may arise through the conveyance of

infection into the uterus by the arms or hands

of the attendants, or by the ropes, instruments,

or other appliances that are used to assist the birth of the foal; or it may be the direct result of retained membranes that undergo bacterial decomposition (This may happen after a large part, but not all, of the fetal membranes have come away.)

SignsAcute metritis is a severe and often fatal condition Within 24 to 48 hours, the mare becomes greatly distressed and loses all interest in the foal She lies most of the time and refuses food; her temperature is usually high Greyish blood-flecked discharge escapes from the vagina and soils the tail and hindquarters The mare may become tucked up in her abdomen and stands with her back arched

LAMINITISmay develop

PreventionDuring foaling and after the act the greatest attention should be paid to the cleanliness of everything that is to come into contact with the genital tract of the mare The attendant’s fingernails should be trimmed short, and the hands and arms should be well scrubbed with soap and water containing some antiseptic, such as Dettol Finally the hand and arm should be lubricated with a suitable preparation marketed for this purpose All appliances that are to be used should be

Uterus, Diseases of 741

U

The reproductive tract of the cow (side view) B, Urinary bladder; C, cervix; F, Fallopian tube; L, broad ligament; O, ovary; P, pelvic bone (os coxae); R, rectum; S, suburethral diverticulum; U, uterine horn;

V, vestibule; Va, vagina; Vr, vertebral column (Hafez, Reproduction in Farm Animals, Lea & Febiger as

reproduced in R D Frandson, Anatomy and Physiology of Farm Animals, Baillière, Tindall.)

boiled and kept in a pail of hot water when not

actually in use

One other factor is of the greatest

impor-tance: after a mare foals, the fetal membranes

should be given attention Normally they are

discharged by means of a few comparatively

mild labour pains within an hour of the birth of

the foal If however they are retained for longer

than this period, the person in attendance

should suspect that something may be wrong

and seek veterinary advice

In other cases a series of violent pains may

commence, when the bulk of the membranes

are passed to the outside, where they hang

sus-pended Should this happen a sack or sheet

should be placed under the dependent mass,

and held so as to support the weight and relieve

the tension on that portion that is still retained

in the uterus This is necessary lest the weight of

the external membranes causes a tearing away

from the non-separated part Gentle traction

should then be exerted upon the imprisoned

portion; as a rule it will gradually detach itself

and come to the outside If no progress is made,

veterinary assistance should be sought promptly

Injections of PITUITRINmay obviate manual

removal of the fetal membranes A synthetic

oestrogen may be preferred (See HORMONE

THERAPY.)

Regarding complete retention of the fetal

membranes – when only a very small portion is

seen hanging from the vagina – professional

help should be obtained if there is no sign of any

attempt at expulsion within 4 to 6 hours after

foaling

Generally speaking, membranes that have

remained in position for 8 to 12 hours are

start-ing to decompose, and decomposition means

bacterial infection of the uterus (i.e metritis) in

almost every case

TreatmentThe case must be considered most

serious The use of antibiotics or one of the

sulfa drugs is indicated (See also under NURSING.)

Any retained fetal membrane must be removed

from the uterus by hand and as much discharge

as possible cleared out A solution of acriflavine,

proflavine, or brilliant green, 1 part in 1000

of boiled water, or some other suitable

non-irritant antiseptic solution at blood heat,

is douched into the cavity of the uterus by a

length of rubber tubing, and, after allowing

it to act for 2 to 5 minutes, is syphoned off A

special 2-way tube is sometimes used for this

purpose – the solution entering by one channel

and leaving by the other When all the fluid

has been removed, an antiseptic pessary may

be inserted When complications such as

LAMINITIS or PNEUMONIA co-exist, they must receive separate attention

Chronic Metritis This may originate as a sequel to an acute attack in some cases, but more commonly it is directly due to an injury

or infection which is not sufficiently severe to produce an acute attack

Signs There may be a general unthriftiness following upon foaling The mare’s appetite is capricious, but her thirst is unimpaired The temperature fluctuates a degree or two above normal There may or may not be a dirty, sticky, grey, or pus-like discharge from the vagina, which causes irritation and frequent erections

of the clitoris The mare resents handling of the genital organs, but if the lips of the vulva are gently separated the mucous membrane is seen

to be inflamed and swollen

In other cases the pus collects in the cavity of the uterus and is retained there through closure

of the os (See PYOMETRA.) It sometimes happens that after the pus has collected for a certain

peri-od the os suddenly opens and 4.5 litres (1 gallon)

or more of pus is discharged The os then closes once more Intervals between these evacuations may vary from a few days to 3 or 4 weeks The mare’s general condition shows an improvement immediately following a sudden discharge of pus, but as it re-accumulates she relapses into her former chronic state Chronic metritis may get gradually worse, and the mare dies Cases taken in time usually recover with treatment, but further breeding is often impossible

Treatment An early opportunity should be taken to evacuate the pus from the uterus, by douching and siphonage, or by irrigation as already described under ‘Acute metritis’ Sulfa drugs or antibiotics may be used

It should be emphasised that expert advice should be sought at the earliest opportunity (See also CONTAGIOUS EQUINE METRITIS.)

The cowIn the following brief account, much

of what has been said in relation to the mare must be understood to apply to the cow as well, and only the main differences will be stated

Acute MetritisIn some cases where birth of the calf has taken place easily and naturally, metritis supervenes in the course of the first week or 10 days after calving, but in the major-ity of cases there has been some injury or infec-tion at, or shortly after, parturiinfec-tion Reteninfec-tion

of the fetal membranes, which is so much more common in the cow than in other animals, is very often the contributory factor to an attack

742 Uterus, Diseases of

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