640 CHAPTER 22 Image Watermarking: Techniques and Applicationsprotection[12].. An example of an image authentication procedure using the image “Opera of Lyon” http://www.petitcolas.net/f
Trang 1640 CHAPTER 22 Image Watermarking: Techniques and Applications
protection[12] The image authentication algorithm generates a watermark according tothe owner’s private key Subsequently, the watermark is imperceptibly embedded in theimage In the authentication detection procedure, the watermark is extracted from theimage and a measure of tampering is produced for the entire image The algorithm detectsthe regions of the image that are altered/unaltered and, thus, are considered nonau-thentic/authentic, respectively The alterations that are produced by a relatively mildcompression and do not change significantly the quality of the image are also detected
An example of an image authentication procedure using the image “Opera of Lyon”
(http://www.petitcolas.net/fabien/watermarking/image_database/index.html), which hasbeen used as a reference image for watermark benchmarking, is depicted inFig 22.8.The method in [12] has been extended to support tampering detection using ahierarchical structure in the detection phase that ensures accurate tamper localiza-tion[131]
A novel framework for lossless (invertible) authentication watermarking, whichenables zero-distortion reconstruction of the original image upon verification, has beenproposed in[132] The framework allows authentication of the watermarked imagesbefore recovery of the original image This reduces computational requirements in situ-ations where either the verification step fails or the zero-distortion reconstruction is notneeded The framework also enables public-key authentication without granting access
to the original and allows for efficient tamper localization Effectiveness of the framework
is demonstrated by implementing it using hierarchical image authentication along withlossless generalized-least significant bit data embedding
A blind image watermarking method based on a multistage vector quantizer ture, which can be used simultaneously for both image authentication and copyrightprotection, has been proposed in[133] In this method, the semifragile watermark andthe robust watermark are embedded in different vector quantization stages using differenttechniques Simulation results demonstrated the effectiveness of the proposed algorithm
struc-in terms of robustness and fragility Another semifragile watermarkstruc-ing method that is
FIGURE 22.8
(a) Original watermarked image; (b) tampered watermarked image; (c) tampered regions
Trang 2References 641
robust against lossy compression has been proposed in[134] The proposed method uses
random bias and nonuniform quantization to improve the performance of the methods
proposed in[121]
Differentiating between malicious and incidental manipulations in content
authen-tication remains an open issue Exploitation of robust watermarks with self-restoration
capabilities for image authentication is another research topic The authentication of
certain regions instead of the whole image when only some regions are tampered with
has also attracted the attention of the watermarking community
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The authoring of this chapter has been supported in part by the European Commission
through the IST Programme under Contract IST-2002-507932 ECRYPT
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Trang 1023
Fingerprint Recognition
Anil Jain 1 and Sharath Pankanti 2
1Michigan State University; 2IBM T J Watson Research Center,
New York
The problem of resolving the identity of a person can be categorized into two
fundamen-tally distinct types of problems with different inherent complexities[1]: (i) verification
and (ii) recognition Verification (authentication) refers to the problem of confirming
or denying a person’s claimed identity (Am I who I claim I am?) Recognition (Who am
I?) refers to the problem of establishing a subject’s identity.1 A reliable personal
iden-tification is critical in many daily transactions For example, access control to physical
facilities and computer privileges are becoming increasingly important to prevent their
abuse There is an increasing interest in inexpensive and reliable personal identification
in many emerging civilian, commercial, and financial applications
Typically, a person could be identified based on (i) a person’s possession (“something
that you possess”), e.g., permit physical access to a building to all persons whose identity
could be authenticated by possession of a key; (ii) a person’s knowledge of a piece of
infor-mation (“something that you know”), e.g., permit login access to a system to a person
who knows the user id and a password associated with it Another approach to
identifi-cation is based on identifying physical characteristics of the person The characteristics
could be either a person’s anatomical traits, e.g., fingerprints and hand geometry, or his
behavioral characteristics, e.g., voice and signature This method of identification of a
person based on his anatomical/behavioral characteristics is called biometrics Since these
physical characteristics cannot be forgotten (like passwords) and cannot be easily shared
or misplaced (like keys), they are generally considered to be a more reliable approach to
solving the personal identification problem
Accurate identification of a person could deter crime and fraud, streamline business
processes, and save critical resources Here are a few mind boggling numbers: about one
1 Often, recognition is also referred to as identification.
649
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billion dollars in welfare benefits in the United States are annually claimed by “doubledipping”welfare recipients with fraudulent multiple identities[44] MasterCard estimatescredit card fraud at $450 million per annum which includes charges made on lost andstolen credit cards: unobtrusive personal identification of the legitimate ownership of acredit card at the point of sale would greatly reduce credit card fraud About 1 billiondollars worth of cellular telephone calls are made by cellular bandwidth thieves—many
of which are made using stolen PINs and/or cellular phones Again an identification ofthe legitimate ownership of a cellular phone would prevent loss of bandwidth A reliablemethod of authenticating the legitimate owner of an ATM card would greatly reduceATM-related fraud worth approximately $3 billion annually[9] A method of identifyingthe rightful check payee would also save billions of dollars that are misappropriatedthrough fraudulent encashment of checks each year A method of authentication of eachsystem login would eliminate illegal break-ins into traditionally secure (even federalgovernment) computers The United States Immigration and Naturalization Service hasstated that each day it could detect/deter about 3,000 illegal immigrants crossing theMexican border without delaying legitimate persons entering the United States if it had
a quick way of establishing personal identification
High-speed computer networks offer interesting opportunities for electronic merce and electronic purse applications Accurate authentication of identities over net-works is expected to become one of the most important applications of biometric-basedauthentication
com-Miniaturization and mass-scale production of relatively inexpensive biometric sors (e.g., solid state fingerprint sensors) has facilitated the use of biometric-basedauthentication in asset protection (laptops, PDAs, and cellular phones)
A smoothly flowing pattern formed by alternating crests (ridges) and troughs (valleys) onthe palmar aspect of a hand is called a palmprint Formation of a palmprint depends onthe initial conditions of the embryonic mesoderm from which they develop The pattern
on the pulp of each terminal phalanx (finger) is considered as an individual pattern and
is commonly referred to as a fingerprint (seeFig 23.1) A fingerprint is believed to beunique to each person (and each finger) Even the fingerprints of identical twins aredifferent
Fingerprints are one of the most mature biometric technologies and are consideredlegitimate evidence in courts of law all over the world Fingerprints are, therefore, rou-tinely used in forensic divisions worldwide for criminal investigations More recently, anincreasing number of civilian and commercial applications are either using or activelyconsidering the use of fingerprint-based identification because of a better understand-ing of fingerprints as well as demonstrated matching performance better than any otherexisting biometric technology
Trang 1223.4 History of Fingerprints 651
FIGURE 23.1
Fingerprints and a fingerprint classification schema involving six categories: (a) arch; (b) tented
arch; (c) right loop; (d) left loop; (e) whorl; and (f) twin loop Critical points in a fingerprint,
called core and delta, are marked as squares and triangles, respectively Note that an arch type
fingerprint does not have a delta or a core One of the two deltas in (e) and both the deltas in
(f) are not imaged A sample minutiae ridge ending(◦) and ridge bifurcation (⫻) is illustrated
in (e) Each image is 512⫻ 512 with 256 gray levels and is scanned at 512 dpi resolution All
feature points were manually extracted by one of the authors
Humans have used fingerprints for personal identification for a very long time[29]
Mod-ern fingerprint matching techniques were initiated in the late 16th century[10] Henry
Fauld, in 1880, first scientifically suggested the individuality and uniqueness of
finger-prints At the same time, Herschel asserted that he had practiced fingerprint identification
for about 20 years[29] This discovery established the foundation of modern fingerprint
identification In the late 19th century, Sir Francis Galton conducted an extensive study
of fingerprints[29] He introduced the minutiae features for fingerprint classification
in 1888 The discovery of the uniqueness of fingerprints caused an immediate decline
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in the prevalent use of anthropometric methods of identification and led to the tion of fingerprints as a more efficient method of identification [36] An importantadvance in fingerprint identification was made in 1899 by Edward Henry, who (actu-ally his two assistants from India) established the famous “Henry system” of fingerprintclassification[10, 29]: an elaborate method of indexing fingerprints very much tuned
adop-to facilitating the human experts performing (manual) fingerprint identification In theearly 20th century, fingerprint identification was formally accepted as a valid personalidentification method by law enforcement agencies and became a standard procedure inforensics[29] Fingerprint identification agencies were set up worldwide and criminalfingerprint databases were established[29] With the advent of livescan fingerprintingand availability of cheap fingerprint sensors, fingerprints are increasingly used in govern-ment (US-VISIT program [40]) and commercial (Walt Disney World fingerprintverification system[8]) applications for person identification
The architecture of a fingerprint-based automatic identity authentication system isshown inFig 23.2 It consists of four components: (i) user interface, (ii) system database,(iii) enrollment module, and (iv) authentication module The user interface providesmechanisms for a user to indicate his identity and input his fingerprints into the system.The system database consists of a collection of records, each of which corresponds to
an authorized person that has access to the system In general, the records contain
FIGURE 23.2
Architecture of an automatic identity authentication system[22] © IEEE
Trang 1423.6 Fingerprint Sensing 653
the following fields which are used for authentication purposes: (i) user name of the
person, (ii) minutiae templates of the person’s fingerprint, and (iii) other information
(e.g., specific user privileges)
The task of the enrollment module is to enroll persons and their fingerprints into
the system database When the fingerprint images and the user name of a person to
be enrolled are fed to the enrollment module, a minutiae extraction algorithm is first
applied to the fingerprint images and the minutiae patterns are extracted A quality
checking algorithm is used to ensure that the records in the system database only consist
of fingerprints of good quality, in which a significant number (default value is 25) of
genuine minutiae are detected If a fingerprint image is of poor quality, it is enhanced to
improve the clarity of ridge/valley structures and mask out all the regions that cannot be
reliably recovered The enhanced fingerprint image is fed to the minutiae extractor again
The task of the authentication module is to authenticate the identity of the person
who intends to access the system The person to be authenticated indicates his identity
and places his finger on the fingerprint scanner; a digital image of the fingerprint is
captured; minutiae pattern is extracted from the captured fingerprint image and fed to a
matching algorithm which matches it against the person’s minutiae templates stored in
the system database to establish the identity
There are two primary methods of capturing a fingerprint image: inked (offline) and
live scan (inkless) (seeFig 23.3) An inked fingerprint image is typically acquired in the
following way: a trained professional2 obtains an impression of an inked finger on a
paper, and the impression is then scanned using a flat bed document scanner The live
scan fingerprint is a collective term for a fingerprint image directly obtained from the
finger without the intermediate step of getting an impression on a paper Acquisition of
inked fingerprints is cumbersome; in the context of an identity authentication system,
it is both infeasible and socially unacceptable The most popular technology to obtain
a live-scan fingerprint image is based on the optical frustrated total internal reflection
(FTIR) concept[28] When a finger is placed on one side of a glass platen (prism), ridges
of the finger are in contact with the platen, while the valleys of the finger are not in
contact with the platen (seeFig 23.4) The rest of the imaging system essentially consists
of an assembly of an LED light source and a CCD placed on the other side of the glass
platen The light source illuminates the glass at a certain angle, and the camera is placed
such that it can capture the light reflected from the glass The light that incidents on
the platen at the glass surface touched by the ridges is randomly scattered while the
2 Possibly, for reasons of expediency, MasterCard sends fingerprint kits to their credit card customers.
The kits are used by the customers themselves to create an inked fingerprint impression to be used for
enrollment.
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Prism
LED
Lens CCD
FIGURE 23.4
FTIR-based fingerprint sensing[30]