588128790-Reading-Practice-611-End.pdf

Most people can reduce their alcohol consumption without professional help but it's not just about cutting down, it's about editing your life to remove the reasons you are drinking too m Trang 1 an acknowledgement that a leader was prepared to justify his actions 7 _ an expression of regret for mistakes made in the past 8 _ the importance of something which officially tried to prevent a certain type of gender discrimination 9 _ the idea that everyone should have the same opportunities for advancement 10 _ Trang 2 Answer: 1.F Its ideals were stated in the preamble to the proposed charter: ‘We the peoples of the United Nations are determined to save succeeding generations from the scourge of war, which twice in our lifetime has brought untold sorrow to mankind.’ 2.A He freed the slaves, declared that all people had a right to choose their own religion, and established racial equality These and other decrees were recorded on a baked-clay cylinder in the Akkadian language with cuneiform script Known today as the Cyrus Cylinder, this ancient record has now been recognised as the world’s first charter of human rights

an acknowledgement that a leader was prepared to justify his actions 7 _

an expression of regret for mistakes made in the past 8 _ the importance of something which officially tried to prevent a certain type of

gender discrimination

9 _

the idea that everyone should have the same opportunities for advancement 10 _

Answer:

1.F

Its ideals were stated in the preamble to the proposed charter: ‘We the peoples of the United Nations are determined to save succeeding generations from the scourge of war, which twice in our lifetime has brought untold sorrow to mankind.’

2.A

He freed the slaves, declared that all people had a right to choose their own religion, and established racial equality These and other decrees were recorded on a baked-clay cylinder in the Akkadian language with cuneiform script Known today as the Cyrus Cylinder, this ancient record has now been recognised as the world’s first charter of human rights

3.E

The main principles laid down and adopted by the later Geneva Conventions provided for the obligation to extend care without discrimination to wounded and sick military personnel and respect for the marking of medical personnel transports and equipment with the distinctive sign

of the red cross on a white background

4.B

In 1215, after King John violated a number of ancient laws and customs by which England had been governed, his subjects forced him to sign the Magna Carta, which enumerates what later came to be thought of as human rights

5.D

Just six weeks after the storming of the Bastille, and barely three weeks after the abolition of feudalism, the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen was adopted by the National Constituent Assembly as the first step towards writing a constitution for the Republic of France 6.A

In 539 BC, the armies of Cyrus the Great, the first King of ancient Persia, conquered the city of Babylon But it was his next actions that marked a major advance for the human race

7.C

On 4 July 1776, the United States Congress approved the Declaration of Independence Its primary author, Thomas Jefferson, wrote the Declaration as a formal explanation of why Congress had voted on 2 July to declare independence from Great Britain, more than a year after

the outbreak of the American Revolutionary War, as a statement announcing that the thirteen American Colonies were no longer a part of the British Empire

9.B

It established the rights of widows who owned property to choose not to remarry, and established principles of due process and equality before the law It also contained provisions for forbidding bribery and official misconduct

10.D

Equality, on the other hand, was defined as judicial equality, which ‘must be the same for all, whether it protects or punishes All citizens, being equal in its eyes, shall be equally eligible to all high offices, public positions and employments, according to their ability, and without other distinction than that of their virtues and talents.’

Exercise 27:

HEALTH ADVICE MAGAZINE

A There are now five times as many cases of food poisoning as there were 20 years ago It's

partly down to the fact that we eat out more often Consider that one in men and one in three five women admit that they don't wash their hands after going to the toilet or before preparing food; it's enough to put you off popping out for a quick bite on a Friday night And before you reach for one of those mints sitting on the counter by the till, think how many non-hand-washers have dipped their fingers into that bowl But the problem isn't restricted to grubby eateries More than half of food poisoning infections are acted in the home This may be because people are eating more pre-prepared food and shopping less often, so is stored for longer But most food poisoning is preventable if you know what you're doing

B Next time you have a headache, don't automatically reach for painkillers Using them too

often could be more dangerous than you think For a vulnerable minority, the route to addiction can be alarmingly fast It's thought that overusing painkillers leads to changes

in the way the handles pain signals, so it becomes oversensitive to stimuli that wouldn't normally cause pain As the pain threshold lowers, people seek out stronger medication and increase the dosage and soon they are hooked Somewhere along the line we have become blasé about the dangers of these medicines which are available in petrol stations, news agents and supermarkets People must not assume that over the counter drugs are safe because clearly this is not the case

C The basic premise of detox is that we need to clear the toxic waste from our bodies every

so often in order to stay healthy It sounds a reasonable idea, but nutrition experts are quick to point out that there's no evidence to support it Detoxing is a concept that underestimates the abilities of our liver and kidneys Any toxins that do get absorbed are very efficiently dealt with and secreted by our bodies The concept of detox diets is irrational and unscientific Those promoting detox diets often claim that in order to detoxify, we should avoid foods such as wheat and dairy products The reality is that these foods provide us with important nutrients, and it is unnecessary potentially harmful

to exclude them from the diet

D There is a lot of publicity about the dangers of having 'high cholesterol' at the moment -

mainly coming from companies that make special foods that claim to lower it for you It

is a widespread problem though: according to the British Heart Foundation around two thirds of British people have a blood cholesterol level above the suggested healthy target figure And as there are no symptoms until it causes disease, many people with high cholesterol may not be aware that they have it However we need some cholesterol

because the body wouldn't function without it! It is a key part of cell membranes and it is also found in bile, which is important for digestion and absorption of fat

E Just like a real-time personal trainer (PT), an online coach discusses personal goals,

tailors exercise schedules and offers advice to clients of all abilities Instead of face guidance, however, the virtual trainer gives feedback via emails and texts - perfect for the self-conscious exerciser! While critics say that it is impossible to effectively rain clients without meeting them, online coaches offer a valuable compromise when it comes

face-to-to training First they are a cost-effective alternative Second, they represent a more flexible option, especially if your work takes up much of your time or makes it difficult for you to commit to regular sessions And just because your coach is in cyberspace, it doesn't mean he won't be keeping tabs on you The mere thought of the next email should have you racing to put on your sports kit

F Most of us are unclear as to where social drinking stops and alcohol dependency starts A

heavy-drinking student is fairly normal, but a 40-year-old party animal? A sozzled year-old? At what point do the questions demand a serious answer? Recommendations from the government are that men should consume no more than three to four units of alcohol a day and women only two to three units Of course, committed social drinkers of all ages often ignore units, taking comfort from the fact that they are not reaching for the bottle before lunchtime, and their friends are drinking as much as they are so it must be alright But you can even test yourself online by looking at Alcohol Concern's website to determine if alarm bells should be ringing Most people can reduce their alcohol consumption without professional help but it's not just about cutting down, it's about editing your life to remove the reasons you are drinking too much

60-In which extract is the following mentioned?

1 People may be unaware of something that is causing disease in their body

2 Cutting back too much can be harmful

3 If you feel self-conscious, this could be for you

4 A shocking hygiene confession is made

5 This could be a flexible way to monitor your activity and performance levels

6 A change in body reaction could be dangerous

7 Drastic measures may not achieve the expected results

8 You should reassess your lifestyle to see if it is causing a bad habit

9 People need to be aware of the dangers of something that seems safe

10 A high-profile health problem boosts manufacturers' turnover

Answer:

1.D

It is a widespread problem though: according to the British Heart Foundation around two thirds

of British people have a blood cholesterol level above the suggested healthy target figure And as there are no symptoms until it causes disease, many people with high cholesterol may not be aware that they have it

2.C

The reality is that these foods provide us with important nutrients, and it is unnecessary potentially harmful to exclude them from the diet

3.E

Instead of face-to-face guidance, however, the virtual trainer gives feedback via emails and texts

- perfect for the self-conscious exerciser!

The basic premise of detox is that we need to clear the toxic waste from our bodies every so often in order to stay healthy It sounds a reasonable idea, but nutrition experts are quick to point out that there's no evidence to support it

8.F

But you can even test yourself online by looking at Alcohol Concern's website to determine if alarm bells should be ringing Most people can reduce their alcohol consumption without

professional help but it's not just about cutting down, it's about editing your life to remove the reasons you are drinking too much

9.B

Somewhere along the line we have become blasé about the dangers of these medicines which are available in petrol stations, news agents and supermarkets People must not assume that over the counter drugs are safe because clearly this is not the case

10.D

There is a lot of publicity about the dangers of having 'high cholesterol' at the moment - mainly coming from companies that make special foods that claim to lower it for you

Exercise 28:

A.Samuel

It's a common misconception that those of us who have jobs which involve clocking up air miles are the lucky ones There is nothing worse than spending countless nights in a string of faceless hotels, because no matter what the standard is, they are still totally devoid of that essential element of homeliness which is present in your own environment or even when being put up by friends The night-time accommodation is only one of the aspects of imposed travel that I abhor

I always travel Business or First, the intention being that I lose no unnecessary time catching up

on sleep and the dramatic shifts from day to night have minimal impact on my sleep patterns But

no level of comfort can compensate for regular sleep! There is no way round the fact that if on a weekly basis you change time zone four times, - and we're not talking just a couple of hours' time difference - you are going to feel and see the side effects Bloating, bad skin, hormonal imbalances, not to mention fatigue Added to that, the disagreeable reality that office work left behind has to be dealt with on my return No, when my holiday comes round, the prospect of an exotic destination holds zero appeal I'd rather cycle round the park

B.Phoebe

I'm definitely a traveller, not a tourist My ultimate aim when seeking new travel experiences is

to expand my understanding of different cultures To that end, hotels are out for me I don't care much for them anyway and on the kind of budgets that I move around on, they are not really accessible I tend to find accommodation with local families; that way I get a better understanding of the real people, their habits, customs and the accepted forms of behaviour for

me and them It also allows exposure to language in a different way I might hear unrestricted slang used in a real context You'd never find that in a language learning book Language and culture are my passion and the more I travel, the more I see connections It's true we are all somehow connected I would never have realised half of these things from reading books I've worked with small indigenous communities on four continents and in ten different countries Every single experience has been unique, precious and taught me something new about myself It's a cliché, but travel really does broaden the mind

enjoy the cocktails, no visiting, cooking, cleaning, worrying The kids love the kids' clubs and I love the sun When I come to the end of my holidays, I feel rested and ready to go again I have friends who holiday independently with their offspring, only to come back and need a week's recovery period What's the point of that? Holidays are for unwinding Try out my tried-and-tested formula before you criticise

D.Marvin

Honesty seems to have come with age Were I absolutely truthful with myself, then I would admit that any holiday or trip is always greatly improved by hindsight When I look back at photos or read my travel diary or discuss experiences with old travelling companions, I realise that the memories are better than the actual reality Travelling is tiresome Flying is exhausting Constantly making whimsical decisions on what to visit, where to eat, how to choose is irritating because you feel a constant pressure: Is this the right thing to do? Are we missing something? Are we being swindled or taken for a ride? All these insecurities of the traveller are swept away when we think back, but when we're living them, we ask ourselves why we took steps to immerse ourselves in an alien culture, with an alien language and peculiar customs Perhaps it's because we want to force ourselves to battle with new experiences and manage, or maybe it simply serves as a point of reference from which we can safely conclude that home is best and

we are truly lucky Travel is an essential part of life, if only to see what we are not missing

Which person expresses each of these opinions about travel?

Travel undertaken through necessity is never pleasurable 1

Staying with friends is preferable to hotel accommodation

2

Extensive travel takes its toll on the body

3

Holidays are pointless if you can't recharge your batteries 4

Travel is a truly educational exploit

2.A

There is nothing worse than spending countless nights in a string of faceless hotels, because no matter what the standard is, they are still totally devoid of that essential element of homeliness which is present in your own environment or even when being put up by friends

3.A

There is no way round the fact that if on a weekly basis you change time zone four times, - and we're not talking just a couple of hours' time difference - you are going to feel and see the side effects Bloating, bad skin, hormonal imbalances, not to mention fatigue

Perhaps it's because we want to force ourselves to battle with new experiences and manage, or maybe it simply serves as a point of reference from which we can safely conclude that home is best and we are truly lucky

8.C

My everyday life is a hellfire of fatigue and a relentless treadmill of activities When I get my time off, all I want to do is put my feet up and enjoy the cocktails, no visiting, cooking, cleaning, worrying The kids love the kids' clubs and I love the sun When I come to the end of my holidays, I feel rested and ready to go again

B Evelyn

Whater benefits we derive from the use of technology in our daily lives are very dearly paid for, in my opinion It really bugs me to see kids binging on social networking sites at the expense of connecting with one another in real space and time in a meaningful way It hit me how transfixed by technology mine are the other day at dinner when I realised that I was the only one not eating in silence with a smartphone attached to one of my upper extremities On the one hand, I'm fully aware that it would be rather unrealistic to place bans on the use of technology around the house, as it is so intertwined with many different aspects of our lives

that I would be risking placing my kids at a disadvantage But on the other, I strongly believe

that teenagers especially need to be weaned off streamed online entertainment and to reconnect with the real world where no one has 756 friends and no one feels obliged to

inform the whole wide world of what they're up to every five minutes

C Charles

It's curious how some of the most intelligent people are duped by mobile technology All

they see in front of them is the carrot of easy and cheap communication, especially when it's over the Internet What they fail to see is that by subscribing to it they waive their right to

privacy Businesses have devised cookies to collect data from the sites we visit on our smartphones and use them to decide which adverts to feed us next time we go online Anyone with the right equipment can tell our exact location at any time of the day, courtesy

of the IMEI number on our phone which can be traced anywhere in the world It's one thing

to see it happen in our crime series of choice on TV, but another to be on the receiving end Personally, I am very much aware of the significance of all this We might, for now, be revelling in the novelty of technological advancement, but at the same time, we are ushering

in a new, more sinister era For all our cleverness, we might end up living in the dystopian future so bleakly portrayed in blockbuster Hollywood films Only in real life, there won't be any end credits

D Alexa

Technology is supposed to be helping us move forward and achieve greater things, not holding us back Overdependence can leave us feeling distressed and unable to function when we don't have access to it, with some people going so far as to consider losing their Internet connection, for example, tantamount to being shut in solitary confinement While it

is reasonable to delegate more complicated and time-consuming tasks to machines, we cannot allow them to dominate our lives 24/7 availability, for example, is not something to boast about but to fear, as we never learn how to be alone with our thoughts Our addiction to technology perpetually staves off the dreaded spectre of boredom instead of letting us use it

to fire up our dormant creativity Technology dictates even the way we manage stressful situations, like breaking up by text, for example It's the easy way out; we don't have to deal with the reality or rawness of it Such regression in human capabilities, I'm afraid, is bound to affect both our physical and emotional health

Which person do you associate with the following opinions about technology?

1 We unwittingly leave ourselves exposed to predators

2 Some people would view life without technology as a form of punishment

3 We should make careful use of it so that we only reap the benefits

4 It distorts our perception of reality

5 We use it to avoid confronting real emotions

6 It is essential for many things we do

7 It might lead us to experience unpleasant situations

8 It hinders our personal development

9 It has freed us from certain constraints

10 It prevents us from forming real life relationships

1 C

It's curious how some of the most intelligent people are duped by mobile technology All they

see in front of them is the carrot of easy and cheap communication, especially when it's over the

Internet What they fail to see is that by subscribing to it they waive their right to privacy

2 D

Over¬dependence can leave us feeling distressed and unable to function when we don't have

access to it, with some people going so far as to consider losing their Internet connection, for example, tantamount to being shut in solitary confinement

3 A

As with everything, moderation is the key to preventing technology from backfiring on you

4 B

But on the other, I strongly believe that teenagers especially need to be weaned off streamed

online entertainment and to reconnect with the real world where no one has 756 friends and no

one feels obliged to inform the whole wide world of what they're up to every five minutes

5 D

Our addiction to technology perpetually staves off the dreaded spectre of boredom instead of

letting us use it to fire up our dormant creativity

6 B

On the one hand, I'm fully aware that it would be rather unrealistic to place bans on the use of

technology around the house, as it is so intertwined with many different aspects of our lives

that I would be risking placing my kids at a disadvantage

7 C

Businesses have devised cookies to collect data from the sites we visit on our smartphones and use them to decide which adverts to feed us next time we go online Anyone with the right equipment can tell our exact location at any time of the day, courtesy of the IMEI number on our phone which can be traced anywhere in the world

8 D

Such regression in human capabilities, I'm afraid, is bound to affect both our physical and emotional health

in silence with a smartphone attached to one of my upper extremities

B It was not until the twentieth century that the health care industry branched out into the preservation of the body, producing the efficacious, and most profitable arm of medicine today Treatments generally rely on plastic surgery of one sort or another; facelifts, tummy-tucks, liposuction and the like Your local chemist will also testify that anti-wrinkle creams sell well, and pills containing vitamin boosts, hormones and herbal concoctions can keep you looking good all the way to the end

C But there lies the problem The average lifespan is about 70 years, the maximum 120-odd We don't even rank at the top of the animal kingdom —giant tortoises get up to 150 often enough, and the giant clam 200 (though both have low-stress lifestyles) So the quest of the ages has always been for immortality as well as youth, and the traditional paths to this are two The first is religion and either everlasting life after death or reincarnation The other method is by way of people's minds; the immortality of fame As long as people talk about you, you live; Shakespeare

is not called the Immortal Bard for nothing To be gone from the minds of the collective unconscious is to truly die

D But neither option is enough for some people As Woody Allen said, 'I don't want to achieve immortality through my work I want to achieve immortality by not dying.' Many people throughout history have felt the same way, and have striven to find a way to reach this most happy of goals The Chinese thought the precious metal gold was the key, to be drunk down as dust in a liquid suspension The alchemists, ancestors of present-day chemists, felt that since they believed that base metals such as lead could become gold, so gold could be refined into the most precious material of all: the Philosopher's Stone, source of eternal youth

E Today the search continues People who are close to death even have the choice of cryonics; to have their bodies or just their heads frozen solid, to be thawed out once science has solved the problems of disease and old age And it is hard at work; the science of genetics is looking into

the possibility of there being some kind of trigger in our chromosomes which tells our bodies to start to slow down and wrinkle up If it is found, the theory goes, couldn't it be switched off? Computer technology, too, is on the act Once the necessary level of complexity has been reached, couldn't our personalities be simply downloaded onto a hard drive, to live there in the machine for all time?

F There is a warning, however, in every tale and myth of eternal life; that those who lose that fear or knowledge of death cease to be fully human Dorian Gray lived for his pleasure and his needs alone, no matter what suffering they caused The vampire, of course, has eternal life (being undead), but preys on the living and is hunted by them The one thing we know for sure is that one day we will die Is it not this knowledge that fills us with the urge to create beyond ourselves, leave something behind, whether in the form of stories, inventions, children or whatever? And is it not in these that our greatest achievements lie?

In which section are the following mentioned?

44 a belief that converting metallic substances could provide the key to everlasting youth

45 those who attain eternal youth in literature pay for it with their humanity

46 medical procedures are effective in creating a youthful appearance

47 the realisation of immortality through making your mark on history

48 individuals being preserved in the hope of medical breakthroughs resulting in extending their lives

49 the prevalence of the preoccupation with immortality in written works

50 our mortal state inspiring us to great heights

51 how products which promise to retain youth are extremely lucrative

52 not being content at the achievement of immortality through enduring fame

53 the conviction that immortality is obtainable in the afterlife

44 D

The Chinese thought the precious metal gold was the key, to be drunk down as dust in a liquid suspension The alchemists, ancestors of present-day chemists, felt that since they believed that base metals such as lead could become gold, so gold could be refined into the most precious material of all: the Philosopher's Stone, source of eternal youth

45 F

There is a warning, however, in every tale and myth of eternal life; that those who lose that fear

or knowledge of death cease to be fully human

But neither option is enough for some people As Woody Allen said, 'I don't want to achieve immortality through my work I want to achieve immortality by not dying.'

53 C

The first is religion and either everlasting life after death or reincarnation

B While in the altered, hypnotic state, the attention of the subject is withdrawn from, though still conscious of, the outside world Instead, a state of consciousness is assumed in which the focus

is on the self, in particular, on the subject's mental, sensory and physiological experiences When

a hypnotist induces a trance in a subject, a close relationship inevitably develops between the two parties, especially if the hypnosis is being used in psychiatric treatment

C While most people can be hypnotised, the depth of the trance will vary widely This is usually dependent on the emotional state of the subject, though the skill of the hypnotist plays a role too Apparently, only twenty per cent of subjects can actually be made to enter what are known as somnambulistic states using the usual methods of hypnotism This is a profound sleep-like trance, in which the subject is completely unaware of what is going on in the outside world This kind of trance is necessary if the subject is to respond automatically to post-hypnotic suggestions and it is something that many subjects do not achieve, partly, perhaps, because of their own resistance As far as therapy is concerned, a light trance is all that needs to be achieved

D One of the benefits of hypnotism is that it can bring the subject into deeper contact with their own emotional life and make-up This can result in the lifting of repressions and the exposure of hidden conflicts and fears In the hands of a skilled hypnotist, this kind of therapy can be life-changing for many people However, it also lends itself to misinterpretation Some of a subject's supposed early and, possibly, repressed memories may, in fact, be combined with fantasy If the hypnotist cannot recognise this or distinguish truth from fiction, there is a danger of false accusations being made At the end of the last century, the US witnessed a spate of court cases in which adults blamed their parents for mistreating them as children The memories on which these accusations were based, however, turned out not to be true in most cases

E Hypnosis can be used to treat a number of behavioural and physiological problems For example, it can be used successfully to alleviate back pain and the pain resulting from burns It

has also been used by some obstetricians as the sole analgesic for natural childbirth Its use in dentistry is also becoming increasingly popular, more as a means of relaxing the patient than as a way of reducing pain and discomfort, though Research done into hypnotism as a therapy for the conditions outlined above has shown time and again that the effect of hypnosis exceeds that of other methods which use the 'mind over matter' approach Few doctors, however, include hypnosis as part of their normal practice Problems such as smoking, overeating and insomnia also seem treatable with hypnosis Nonetheless, the majority of psychiatrists still feel that more fundamental psychiatric conditions should be treated with the patient in a normal state of consciousness

In which section are the following mentioned?

44 only a minority of people can be put into the deepest state of hypnosis

45 when hypnotised the subject's thoughts are concentrated on themselves

46 hypnosis being more effective than techniques of using thoughts to control physical feelings

47 a hypnotist's use of verbal instructions and minimal voice intonation

48 the possibility of hypnotists being unable to distinguish between imagined scenarios as real events

49 the practice of people putting themselves into trance-like states for non-therapeutic purposes

50 cases of hypnosis not being preferred when treating mental problems

51 an individual's state of mind is significant as to what stage of hypnosis can be induced

52 the potential for hypnosis as a treatment to access repressed memories

53 hypnosis invariably entails a strong bond between subject and operator

49 A

Hypnosis can also be self-included, brought on by certain relaxation techniques such as concentrating on one's own breathing, or by a variety of other rituals that form part of many mystical and religious systems

53 B

When a hypnotist induces a trance in a subject, a close relationship inevitably develops between the two parties, especially if the hypnosis is being used in psychiatric treatment

Exercise 32

You are going to read a magazine article about people and animals For questions 44-53, choose from the sections A-F

A Giant Leap for Mankind

A In 1859, Charles Darwin published his classic study, The Origin of Species, in which he presented his theory of evolution by natural selection Though many people ridiculed the connection he made between man and ape at the time (pictures of him in Punch caricatured him

as half-monkey), the idea has come to be accepted by nearly everyone One thing that remains is the question of how human beings managed to get so far ahead of gorillas, chimpanzees and the rest so quickly After all, the first recognisably human foot trod the earth a mere 150,000 years ago; a long time if you're waiting for your coffee to arrive, but not long enough in evolutionary terms for large shifts in our physical stature

B It cannot be denied, however, that the gap between ape and human societies is enormous Apes live a day-to-day existence in small groups, without making shelter or clothing, subsisting mostly

on fruit and berries This is how our predecessors lived, but now we live in our millions in huge cities, cultivate our food and have done things as extreme as reaching the moon and plumbing the mysteries of the oceans

C One of the arguments proposed to explain how we evolved so quickly cites the advantages of human hands and the use of tools The dexterity our hands have is unparalleled in the animal kingdom, and there is no doubt that the availability of tools has allowed us to do things otherwise impossible Some apes, however, display primitive tool use (chimpanzees use blades of grass to 'fish' for termites in mounds), so it seems that we have simply developed that which was already there

D Other candidates put forward for the post of most influential cause of human advancement include our upright stature (allowing us to see further; but apes can also stand on two legs) and our weakness (forcing us to find other means of defence; however, if you see chimpanzees scaring away lions with sticks and stones, you can assume we were at least as resourceful) The other candidate is language Apes are highly sociable, intelligent and communicative, yet they communicate in terms of sounds (denoting, for example, anger), facial expressions and gestures

A language is not just sounds or even words, but a system In other words, it must have a structure, a grammar, that allows users to manipulate the sounds to vary their meaning Though apes can get a lot of information across in their way, there are obvious limitations, such as the impossibility of conveying abstract ideas

E Extensive research has gone into the ability of apes to learn language The theory was that if they showed a capability, it would indicate that the rudiments of language could have come

before the explosion in human development Attempts to teach them to speak ended in failure due to the fact that the ape's larynx is not well enough developed to produce such complex sounds Sign language, however, was more successful Apes could learn up to 200 signs, and one gorilla in particular began to put signs into different orders to express different things; the beginnings of a grammar

F It would appear that apes are perfectly capable of using words, which implies that we are still not very far from them in terms of brain structure This suggests that it was language that produced the giant leap forward our ancestors took all those years ago Language is, after all, a unique way of communicating the unseen, and of imagining the future and hypothetical It is perhaps the ultimate tool in the struggle for survival, and enabled us to spread to the four corners

of the world

In which section are the following mentioned?

44 a range of theories to explain our rapid evolution

45 the considerable time span required for major advances in development

46 apes being successfully taught an alternative communication system

47 physiology preventing advanced language use

48 other species demonstrating rudimentary handling skills

49 the contrast in lifestyles due to evolutionary leaps

50 apes being unable to express theoretical concepts

51 highly-developed spoken language allowing humanity to dominate the world

52 the widespread derision of a theory

53 grammatical awareness shown through an alternative form of communication

44 D

Other candidates put forward for the post of most influential cause of human advancement include our upright stature (allowing us to see further; but apes can also stand on two legs) and our weakness (forcing us to find other means of defence; however, if you see chimpanzees scaring away lions with sticks and stones, you can assume we were at least as resourceful) The other candidate is language

45 A

After all, the first recognisably human foot trod the earth a mere 150,000 years ago; a long time

if you're waiting for your coffee to arrive, but not long enough in evolutionary terms for large shifts in our physical stature

46 E

Sign language, however, was more successful Apes could learn up to 200 signs, and one gorilla

in particular began to put signs into different orders to express different things; the beginnings of

Though apes can get a lot of information across in their way, there are obvious limitations, such

as the impossibility of conveying abstract ideas

51 F

It is perhaps the ultimate tool in the struggle for survival, and enabled us to spread to the four corners of the world

52 A

In 1859, Charles Darwin published his classic study, The Origin of Species, in which he presented his theory of evolution by natural selection Though many people ridiculed the connection he made between man and ape at the time (pictures of him in Punch caricatured him

as half-monkey), the idea has come to be accepted by nearly everyone

53 E

Apes could learn up to 200 signs, and one gorilla in particular began to put signs into different orders to express different things; the beginnings of a grammar

Exercise 33

Read the article and for questions 1-10, choose from the sections (A-E) The sections may

be chosen more than once

In which section is the following mentioned?

1 an instance in which an individual felt averse to divulge certain information

2 the potential of a means of transport to carry cargo at high speeds

3 the necessity to overhaul contemporary transit systems

4 an instance in which an individual underestimated the potential of a technology

5 a means of transport which has recently been put to public use

6 a collaborative effort at developing rapid transit technology

7 the view that contemporary transports systems are underdeveloped

8 uncertainty as to whether funds will be available to finance a project

9 the potential of a technology to surpass conventional expectations

10 the extent to which a proposed transit system could reduce ecological damage

Vacuum Trains: Space-Age Travel on Earth

Vacuum trains work on a very simple principle of physics, namely, it's easier to move an object through a vacuum than it is through a medium, such as air Are vacuum trains the future of travel?

A When compared to the many other scientific and technological advances of the late 20th and early 21st centuries, it could be said that little progress has been made in the field of mass transit systems But for Concorde, the turbo-jet powered airplane which retired due to budgetary concerns in 2003, and the bullet trains of Japan, little has changed in the way that groups of people travel to far-off destinations By and large, we still use the same transport technologies and travel at the same speeds to those of fifty years ago In times of scientific and technological sluggishness, it's often best to permit 'blue-sky' thinkers to take the stage One such individual whose creative thinking was not limited by current wisdom or beliefs was the American physicist Robert H Goddard (1882-1945) Known as the father of modern rocket propulsion, Goddard was often mocked during his lifetime for the seemingly pie-in-the-sky nature of his proposals The ridicule caused Goddard to become increasingly reticent about the nature of his work over the course of his career; so much so that many of his designs did not come to light until after his death Among Goddard's revolutionary ideas was one for a high-speed train known as vacuum tube train, or `vactrain' for short

B The central rationale behind a vactrain as conceived by Goddard in the 1910s, is that trains could travel considerably faster and use up appreciably less energy if they were not held back by air resistance A conventional train pushes a wall of air ahead of it and in doing so causes an area

of low pressure to form behind it Both these phenomena end up `pulling' the train back and necessitate huge amounts of energy to be expended in order to counteract the forces But by placing a train line within a sealed tunnel and voiding the tunnel of all air (i.e creating a vacuum), this rolling resistance is nullified The sealed tunnel can be placed above ground or even in underground bored rock, the latter hypothetically enabling cross-oceanic travel at speeds once thought the sole domain of science fiction Such technology has the potential to unequivocally supplant the aircraft as the world's fastest mode of mass transit Goddard's early designs, for instance, proposed the possibility of travelling from Boston to New York in just 12 minutes at speeds averaging around 1,000 mph (1,600 km/h) In actual fact, by combining vactrain technology with another form of technology known as maglev, such trains could travel a great deal faster

C Maglev (short for magnetic levitation) trains are trains that float on a bed of magnets thus negating the recurrent friction that conventional trains experience from running on tracks using mechanical apparatuses such as wheels, axles and bearings By causing the train to, in effect, fly along its route, albeit just inches from the surface of a magnetic line, maglev trains can travel at

speeds of up to 361 mph (581 km/h) Maglev trains are currently operational (albeit in small numbers) in Japan, Korea and China Although still a nascent venture, they have not as yet proved to merit any undue concerns in terms of safety But what if a maglev train was placed within a vacuum? Some believe such trains could reach speeds of more than 4,000 km/h, allowing passengers to travel from Europe to North America in under an hour

D Certainly, much interest has been shown by scientists and innovators eager to cash in on the 'next big thing' Indeed, several patents have already been taken out proposing various uses for the merger of vactrain and maglev technologies One scientist in the front line of such research is American engineer, Daryl Oster, who holds a patent for what he calls 'Evacuated Tube Transport' (ETT) Oster's proposes using relatively small six-person automated capsules that could travel up

to 4,000 km/h on maglev lines within vacuumed tunnels His research has piqued the interest of the Chinese government who acquired a license to use ETT technology in combination with their own pre-existent maglev research According to Oster, the world could be using ETT for world travel within the next 10 years

E So, is ETT really a feasible transportation technology for the future? Some put paid to the idea because of its prohibitive cost For instance, a hypothetical underground ETT line from Los Angeles to New York City would cost an estimated US$1 trillion, with an elevated surface level alternative only lessening the brunt of the cost by a third Hence, the apathetic response most governments, bar the Chinese government perhaps, give to ETT proposals But some futurologists point to the mother of all invention: necessity The carbon footprint of current mass transit systems is considerable and must be reduced Fossil fuels deposits are dwindling and energy-efficient alternatives will soon be required Vactrains run entirely on electricity so there would be no carbon footprint whatsoever Thus, while construction would be expensive, supporters of ETT technology emphasise the long-term cost-effectiveness of the venture - in terms of the environment, energy usage, and the economic advantages attainable by a world having a speedier mass transit infrastructure Still, it remains to be seen who, if anyone, will take the plunge ETT technology could well remain just a pipe dream

1 A

Known as the father of modern rocket propulsion, Goddard was often mocked during his lifetime

for the seemingly pie-in-the-sky nature of his proposals The ridicule caused Goddard to become increasingly reticent about the nature of his work over the course of his career; so much so

that many of his designs did not come to light until after his death

The carbon footprint of current mass transit systems is considerable and must be reduced

Fossil fuels deposits are dwindling and energy-efficient alternatives will soon be required

4 B

Goddard's early designs, for instance, proposed the possibility of travelling from Boston to New York in just 12 minutes at speeds averaging around 1,000 mph (1,600 km/h) In actual fact, by combining vactrain technology with another form of technology known as maglev, such trains could travel a great deal faster

5 C

Maglev trains are currently operational (albeit in small numbers) in Japan, Korea and China

6 D

His research has piqued the interest of the Chinese government who acquired a license to use

ETT technology in combination with their own pre-existent maglev research

Angeles to New York City would cost an estimated US$1 trillion, with an elevated surface level alternative only lessening the brunt of the cost by a third

even in underground bored rock, the latter hypothetically enabling cross-oceanic travel at speeds once thought the sole domain of science fiction