Handbook Factory Planning And Design.pdf

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Introduction

Stagnant Factories

Since the early 1990s, the significance of production has been a major topic of discussion in Germany, both in research and practical applications Despite the development of Computer Integrated Manufacturing (CIM) in the 1980s, it did not achieve the expected success in addressing high global labor costs Furthermore, the optimistic expectations following German reunification masked the growing weaknesses in the production sector.

Germany as a location for productions A study conducted by the Massachusetts Institute of

A study by M.I.T highlighted that German industrial companies, particularly in the automobile sector, were at risk of losing their competitiveness in productivity, delivery times, and quality This decline was primarily attributed to their inadequate capacity for innovation and adaptation to the rapidly evolving markets and technologies This issue, largely stemming from poor management practices, is referred to as a "stagnant factory," characterized by four key criteria.

In a stagnant factory, a long-standing organizational structure has emerged, characterized by five to seven hierarchical levels with rigidly defined tasks and competencies This environment discourages employee participation and bases remuneration on output rather than results The focus on optimizing marketing, design, and production processes leads to slow decision-making, resulting in a diffuse responsibility towards customers regarding order processing.

The absence of customer proximity is directly linked to a deficiency in market orientation As a result, the organizational structure prioritizes operational objectives, such as maximizing machinery utilization, over meeting customer needs and desires.

‘economical lots’ However, in order to suc- cessfully act in a market an enterprise has to

H.-P Wiendahl et al., Handbook Factory Planning and Design,

DOI 10.1007/978-3-662-46391-8_1, © Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2015

To enhance efficiency and customer satisfaction, businesses must adhere to the principle that anything not beneficial to the customer is considered waste Companies that stagnate often lack this customer-centric focus, leading to an inability to differentiate their products or services based on specific customer groups or markets This misalignment is evident through long lead times, excessive inventory, and reliance on central warehouses, all of which indicate a fundamental misorientation within the enterprise.

A company lacking a clear guiding vision often struggles to communicate its core operational goals to employees, leading to a loss of corporate identity and culture As employees feel disconnected from the organization and its products, they begin to see themselves as mere cogs in a machine, resulting in a sense of internal resignation This disengagement stifles creativity and innovation, leaving little energy for new ideas Consequently, customers notice this lack of engagement and express their dissatisfaction with the company.

Without a clear overall goal, enterprise development becomes unmanageable, leading to disorganized building structures that disrupt material flow and create lengthy transportation routes This lack of planning makes it difficult to adapt to increasing production demands, as there are no options for expansion The presence of unsightly buildings, scattered storage areas filled with raw materials and unfinished parts, along with cluttered and poorly lit workshops, contributes to a negative work environment and cultural decline Consequently, employees are reluctant to showcase the facilities to customers due to the stark contrast between the production claims and the factory's appearance.

The developments discussed create a misleading sense of security, as extensive inventories of raw materials and finished products mask an inability to respond effectively to non-routine orders, resulting in long delivery times and schedule delays This situation is exacerbated by a lack of leadership, stagnant factory conditions, and an absence of product differentiation, which contribute to a weak organizational identity and culture Additionally, the rigid work schedules and maladjusted wage systems hinder employee participation, while the hierarchical structure and confusing material flow lead to prolonged throughput times and reliance on a central store, ultimately neglecting crucial ecological considerations like resource conservation and environmental protection.

Fig 1.1 Characteristics of a stagnant factory © IFA G6181SW_Wd_B

The production area illustrated in Figure 1.2 exemplifies stagnancy in the industry, characterized by a non-directional material flow that results in products traveling over 1 km during processing This inefficiency contributes to prolonged throughput times exceeding four weeks, despite an actual processing time of only two days Factors such as extended setup times and a significant amount of rework further hinder order throughput A critical evaluation of this structure arose from the need to accommodate a new product, highlighting a space deficit of 1400 m² A study revealed that by focusing on three product categories—runners, repeaters, and rarities—standardizing work processes, and implementing a pull-principle for order management, throughput times could be reduced by 50% and floor space by 40%.

Previous Methods of Corporate

The previously effective strategies for managing industrial firms are now inadequate due to an increasingly unpredictable environment, as highlighted by recent developments Specifically, research by Lut96 and AbRe11 indicates that traditional maxims are no longer applicable in this changing landscape.

• Plan and optimize all operational processes as much as possible especially in production. This was typically characterized by a large amount of work preparation and strong emphasis on time management.

Establish clear departmental boundaries, specialized skills, and hierarchical responsibilities through an organized division of labor This structure is often detailed in comprehensive organizational handbooks that provide precise descriptions of roles and processes.

• Equate specialized competencies with hierar- chical positions This traditional career path inevitably led to increasing hierarchy instead of decreasing.

Prioritizing in-house solutions is essential, as companies often hesitate to share their specific expertise, leading to an increase in outsourced components and variations.

• Maximize the use of economies of scale This typically, resulted in large lots being gener- ated, orders being started too early or stock material flow

• strongly non-directional material flow

• setup times up to 16 hours

• lead time app 38 working days

Fig 1.2 Actual state of a production area © IFA G3207SW_Wd_B

1.1 Introduction 3 orders being released without concrete cus- tomer orders.

To maintain a competitive edge, companies should focus on incremental product innovation by making gradual enhancements to their existing offerings By building on a dominant base product, often created by the founder, businesses can foster strong customer loyalty that lasts over time.

Companies should focus on developing breakthrough innovations infrequently to tap into new markets These innovations typically stem from the capabilities of the company's technology rather than direct research into customer needs Ideally, such products not only address existing customer demands but also have the potential to create new ones.

Investments and innovations should prioritize workforce savings, as the market remains unsaturated The objective is to offset wages and associated labor costs while managing increasing overhead expenses through a strategic and disproportionate rationalization of the production process.

To effectively rationalize operations, it is crucial to externalize a wide range of costs and charges, particularly those associated with environmental impacts and specific social costs, such as layoffs or terminations related to operational changes.

Since the 1990s, the principles of corporate success have been challenged by unstable environmental conditions, making previous strategies less applicable In the past, market changes were often predictable, with mid-range corporate planning typically spanning three to five years Competition was limited, and businesses understood their rivals' strengths and weaknesses Additionally, raising investment capital was relatively easy, with minimal environmental impact influencing corporate success or stock market valuations Furthermore, a readily available pool of highly motivated and qualified workers contributed to business operations.

Since the early 1980s, rapid changes have transformed various conditions, with globalization emerging as a major challenge This shift has been propelled by advancements in logistics and the internet, facilitating the flow of goods and information worldwide.

A wealth of products surged onto the world market from young aggressive industrial nations. Consequently, changes in the market became more and more difficult to plan.

The term "turbulent environments," introduced by Warnecke and Westkämper, refers to the rapid and unpredictable changes in various production parameters, including product structure, competition, sales figures, and technology This unpredictability significantly reduces the ability to forecast changes within the industrial landscape Key indicators of such turbulent environments are the increasingly shorter product lifecycles from market entry to discontinuation and the growing diversity of product variants.

The automotive industry has seen a significant rise in niche vehicles over the past five decades, evolving from just three categories—limousine, coupé, and convertible/roadster in the 1960s—to fourteen distinct segments by 2006 This trend reflects a growing demand for lifestyle-oriented products, with major automobile manufacturers planning to introduce over 40 to 50 new models in the next decade.

The rapid advancement of technology, encompassing materials, manufacturing methods, information and communication technology, the internet, RFID, and virtual reality, is creating new opportunities for design engineers and factory planners.

The diverging lifecycles of technical factory elements, such as processes, buildings, and sites, contrast sharply with the increasingly shorter product lifecycle, primarily driven by the proliferation of product variants As depicted in Wirth's illustration, products are often segmented into base modules and variant-dependent components, where base modules endure through multiple product cycles while variant-dependent components introduce innovations like new functions or designs Additionally, the process lifecycle is influenced by technological advancements and efficiency improvements, typically extending longer than the product lifecycle.

A product lifecycle area lifecycle buildings lifecycle process lifecycle

Fig 1.4 Correlation between the product, process, building and area usage lifecycles (Wirth) © IFA 9901ASW_B

Coupé Sedan Tall Freight Car Sports Tourers

Sedan Station Wagon Hatchback Coupé

Fig 1.3 Market trend for niche vehicles [Pol06] © IFA 14.051SW_B

1.1 Introduction 5 and is applied to a number of product genera- tions, if for no other reason than their deprecia- tion value With the building lifecycle (C) the structure of the building, which can last 30–

The lifecycle of a building spans approximately 50 years, significantly longer than the technical building services, which typically last around 10 to 15 years This disparity highlights that both the building and its services undergo multiple cycles, often exceeding the duration of product and process cycles Additionally, the area usage lifecycle plays a crucial role in understanding the overall longevity and functionality of the building.

Competitive Factors of Superior

Current efforts to reduce complexity in businesses have been inadequate, primarily focusing on mitigating market turbulence rather than enhancing the entire value chain This approach risks diminishing the ability to respond effectively to market changes However, Germany's strong educational standards, stable social system, excellent infrastructure, and robust currency present significant opportunities for companies to manage complexity Turbulent markets can also be leveraged to gain additional market share through proactive strategies To succeed, businesses must not only react to external developments but also create market disruptions, such as significantly reducing delivery times, frequently launching new products for specific segments, or enhancing quality by extending warranties.

To achieve customer satisfaction, a strategy must extend beyond merely managing costs, quality, and time It is essential to cultivate a robust innovative drive that encourages ongoing questioning of products, services, processes, and behaviors This approach involves not only continuous optimization but also significant innovative advancements Consequently, fostering a company culture that prioritizes open communication and active employee participation is crucial, with an emphasis on results rather than just performance metrics.

Enterprises that thrive in turbulent environments exhibit a strong capacity for rapid learning and adaptation, characterized by their ability to establish common visions and goals that harness collective energy and knowledge These organizations prioritize ongoing qualification measures to enhance methods and social skills, fostering informal communication and self-organization within flat hierarchies Additionally, they possess a unique property known as changeability, which enables them to implement structural changes efficiently at all levels in response to internal or external stimuli This changeability requires a swift planning and execution process aligned with market demands, distinguishing it from similar concepts like responsiveness, reconfigurability, adaptability, flexibility, and agility.

Chap.5 We would suggest that changeability is the key concept that allows an enterprise to be successful in turbulent surroundings.

Before advancing to the new requirements and strategies for adaptable factories, it is essential to consider key factors such as customer satisfaction, learning speed, innovation levels, time, costs, quality, changeability, target size, and properties.

Superior enterprises thrive by balancing internal and external competitive factors They focus on the individualization of products and the integration of products and services, while employing both preventive and reactive strategic impulses Key strategies include eliminating weaknesses, enhancing energy and resource efficiency, adopting new technologies, and leveraging global value chains to adapt to a dynamic manufacturing environment.

Fig 1.8 External and internal change drivers for production enterprises © IFA G8776SW provides a summary of the change drivers Fur- ther information can be found in [Jov08,

AbRe11] and under Horizon 2020—The

Framework Program for Research and Innova- tion of the European Union [http://www. manufuture.de/COM-2011-Horizon2020.pdf].

The surrounding conditions that influence businesses encompass the global economy, environment, politics, society, and technology These factors act as change drivers, which can be categorized into external and internal influences that indirectly affect enterprises.

Globalization and technological advancements are driving the individualization of products, leading to shorter product lifecycles and an expanded market for services throughout their entire lifecycle As delivery times decrease, the demand for reliable delivery rises, all while consumption patterns fluctuate and market turbulence persists Additionally, businesses continue to grapple with ongoing pressures related to cost management and maintaining high quality standards.

Products and services increasingly are offered out of global networks, whether from in-house, joint or external enterprises.

Strong internal impulses for businesses often arise from strategic initiatives like entering new markets, expanding product lines, or restructuring due to management changes Conversely, reactive internal impulses are driven by the need to address weaknesses in technology or logistics, adapt work models for an aging workforce, or adjust production volumes in response to currency risks.

Finally, it is about taking up new challenges regarding energy and resource efficiency, but also about using the potential of new technologies.

Summary

Many manufacturing companies have gradually lost their competitiveness in a globalized market, evidenced by symptoms such as excessive inventory, prolonged throughput times, and convoluted organizational structures Instead of prioritizing customer needs, these businesses often focus on optimizing machinery utilization and lot sizes Since the 1990s, the emergence of younger industrial nations and the growing demand for diverse product variants and timely deliveries have compelled manufacturers to rethink their strategies This shift is reflected in the modularization of products, reduced manufacturing depth, revamped procurement logistics, and segmented production, all aimed at minimizing waste and ensuring absolute customer satisfaction.

In today's competitive landscape, factories must not only focus on traditional objectives such as time, cost, and quality but also adapt to market changes, foster innovation, and enhance their learning capabilities These key features are essential for ensuring long-term survival and success in the industry.

[AbRe11] Abele, E., Reinhart, G.: Zukunft der Produk- tion Herausforderungenb, Forschungsfelder, Chancen (Future of Produktion Challenges, Reserch Fields, Chances) Hanser Verlag, Munich (2011)

[Erl10] Erlach, K.: Wertstromdesign Der Weg zur schlanken Fabrik (Value stream design Path to the lean factory), 2nd edn Springer, Berlin (2012)

Seifert's work on interconnected product development emphasizes the importance of global engineering networking as a successful strategy for innovation This approach facilitates collaboration and integration across various disciplines, enhancing efficiency in product development Similarly, Hammer and Champy's manifesto on reengineering corporations advocates for transformative business practices that drive revolutionary change Together, these insights underline the necessity of adaptive strategies in today's competitive landscape.

The global technological and industrial revolution is driving competitive sustainable manufacturing, as highlighted by Jovane et al (2008) in their research published in CIRP Annals of Manufacturing Technology Additionally, Kinkel et al (2012) emphasize the importance of adaptability within the German high-tech industry, underscoring the need for innovation and flexibility to thrive in a rapidly changing market.

[Lut96] Lutz, B., et al (eds.): Produzieren im 21.

Jahrhundert: Herausforderungen f ü r die deut- sche Industrie Ergebnisse des Expertenkreises

Zukunftsstrategien (Manufacture in the 21st century: challenges for the German industry.

Results of the expert group strategies for the future), vol 1 Frankfurt/M (1996)

[Mit60] Mitrofanow, S.P.: Wissenschaftliche Grundla- gen der Gruppentechnologie (Scienti fi c base of group technology), 2nd edn VEB Verlag

[Ohn88] Ohno, T.: Toyota Production System Beyond

Large-Scale Production Productivity Inc.,

[Pol06] Polk, R.L.: Marktentwicklung Nischenfahrz- euge (Market development of niche vehicles).

[Rein00] Reinhart, G.: Im Denken und Handeln wandeln

(Change in thinking and action) In: Reinhart,

G., Hoffmann, H (ed.): Nur der Wandel bleibt.

Wege jenseits der Flexibilit ọ t (Only change last, paths beyond fl exibility), pp 19 – 40 Utz

[RoSh03] Rother, M., Shook, J.: Learning to See: Value

Stream Mapping to Add Value and Eliminate

MUDA The Lean Enterprise Institute, Cam- bridge (2003)

[ScWi04] Schenk, M., Wirth, S.: Fabrikplanung und

Fabrikbetrieb Methoden f ü r die wan- dlungsf ọ hige und vernetzte Fabrik (Factory planning and factory operation Methods for the changeable and cross linked factory).

[Sch10] Schenk, M., Wirth, S., M ü ller, E.: Factory

Planning Manual Situation-Driven Production Facility Planning Springer, Heidelberg (2010) [Spa03] Spath, D (ed.): Ganzheitlich produzieren

(Holistic production) Log_X Verlag, Stuttgart (2003)

[War93] Warnecke, H.-J.: Revolution der Unterneh- menskultur – Das Fraktale Unternehmen (Revolution of the corporate culture — the fractal enterprise), 2nd edn Springer, Heidel- berg (1993)

[West99] Westk ọ mper, E.: Wandlungsf ọ higkeit der in- dustriellen Produktion (Changeability of industrial production) TCW-Verlag, Munich (1999)

[Wien99] Wiendahl, H.-P., Hern á ndez, R.: Bausteine der

The adaptability in planning competitive factory structures is crucial for modern manufacturing The second German specialist conference on factory planning, held in Stuttgart on October 26-27, 1999, highlighted the importance of changeability in manufacturing processes Wiendahl et al (2007) further elaborated on this concept in their work on changeable manufacturing, focusing on classification, design, and operational strategies Emphasizing these components can enhance the efficiency and competitiveness of factories in today's dynamic market.

The concept of the modular factory emphasizes customer proximity in production through the segmentation of manufacturing processes This approach allows for greater flexibility and responsiveness to market demands, ultimately enhancing efficiency and customer satisfaction The idea is rooted in the principles of lean manufacturing, as outlined by Womack, Jones, and Roos, which advocate for streamlined operations and reduced waste in production systems By adopting modularity, companies can better align their production capabilities with customer needs, fostering a more agile and effective manufacturing environment.

Machine that Changed The World New York(1990)

This chapter outlines a strategically justified planning framework that serves as a guideline for the planning team It emphasizes the importance of determining a production strategy based on factors affecting the plant, as discussed in Chapter 1 Corporate planning plays a crucial role in identifying the products and business processes to be manufactured within the factory The focus is primarily on order fulfillment and its sub-processes, which influence the design of factory locations and areas Additionally, key planning components include decisions regarding the factory type from the customers’ perspective, its position within the supply chain, and the potential integration of the factory into a broader production network.

Production Strategies

A factory serves as a vital tool within a production enterprise, aimed at executing its business strategy rather than existing for its own sake Historically, until the 1970s, the focus was on job preservation, but contemporary discussions emphasize the strategic role of in-house production in market competition and the allocation of financial resources With advancements in global procurement, technology, and logistics, companies now have greater flexibility in configuring their production processes It is essential to align these capabilities with a comprehensive competitive strategy to ensure the long-term economic viability of the enterprise.

According to M.E Porter, a competitive strategy includes in particular:

• concentrating on selected market segments,

• differentiating the products and services in comparison to the competition as well as

• gaining a comprehensive cost leadership [Por98].

The competitive strengths and determinants that should be analyzed and evaluated in this respect are briefly summarized intofive so-called

The starting point is the number of competitors and the intensity of the rivalry among the existing

In analyzing industry dynamics, several key forces shape the competitive landscape Overcapacity, brand identity, and exit barriers significantly influence the presence of firms within a sector Additionally, the challenges posed by new entrants and their associated entry barriers are crucial to understand The bargaining power of buyers, along with their sensitivity to price changes, constitutes the third force, while the fourth force examines the threat of substitute products or services that could potentially replace existing offerings Lastly, the bargaining power of suppliers plays a vital role in determining the overall competitive environment.

An important approach within this context involves evaluating effectiveness (“doing the right thing”) and efficiency (“doing things right”)

H.-P Wiendahl et al., Handbook Factory Planning and Design,

DOI 10.1007/978-3-662-46391-8_2, © Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2015

13 with the aid of the ‘Balanced Scorecard’ The

The Balanced Scorecard facilitates comprehensive strategic planning and control for businesses or divisions by integrating multiple perspectives Following the framework proposed by Kaplan and Norton, organizations begin with an overarching vision and strategy, from which four distinct perspectives are established Strategic objectives are defined for each perspective, leading to the development of operational targets and actions Progress is then tracked through specific performance metrics to ensure compliance with these goals.

The financial perspective assesses the effectiveness of a chosen strategy by analyzing its impact on business performance, considering factors such as the threat of new entrants, the bargaining power of buyers, the threat posed by substitute products or services, the bargaining power of suppliers, and the competitive rivalry among existing firms in the industry.

Fig 2.1 Forces driving industry competition (per M.E Porter) © IFA D3436_Wd_B financial

“To succeed financially, how should we appear to our shareholders?” vision and strategy internal business processes

“To satisfy our shareholders and customers, what business processes must we excel at?” customers

“To achieve our vision, how should we appear to our customers?” learning and growth

“To achieve our vision, how will we sustain our ability to change and improve?”

The balanced scorecard, as conceptualized by Kaplan and Norton, serves as a strategic management tool that aligns objectives, variables, targets, and measures In the context of production, it focuses on key aspects such as the proportion of in-house production, necessary resources, and optimal location for operations.

From the customer's perspective, it is essential to evaluate whether the factory meets the market's service characteristics, such as timely delivery, reliability in delivery, and product quality.

Customer satisfaction and loyalty are crucial factors contributing to a company's success To enhance these objectives, companies may implement strategies such as establishing targeted sub-factories near customers or revamping their corporate identity from the ground up.

The internal business processes focus on optimizing structures and procedures that significantly enhance customer satisfaction, as recognized by the customers themselves For instance, in a manufacturing context, this may involve reducing internal throughput times, allowing for late decision-making on product variants, or establishing a product quality framework that alleviates the need for customers to inspect goods upon delivery.

The learning and growth perspective highlights the significance of continuous and progressive development in products and methods In terms of production, this involves consistently enhancing production technology, fostering teamwork, and establishing seamless logistics that connect in-house production directly to the customer.

One of the noteworthy aspects about the Bal- anced Scorecard is that in comparison to tradi- tional methods, such as the Return on Investment

The concept of ROI and the Shareholder Value approach emphasizes a balanced decision-making process that goes beyond purely financial and historical metrics It incorporates essential elements such as customer insights, competitive dynamics, and internal factors that are often challenging to quantify, like innovation and learning capabilities These aspects are becoming increasingly vital for business success in a volatile market Consequently, this approach provides a flexible framework for crafting tailored strategies for each enterprise, particularly concerning the evolving role of manufacturing in the future.

Factory Strategies

When planning a factory, it's crucial to understand the business strategy related to both market and production, as neglecting this can lead to an excessive focus on cost-related issues The key strategic elements of factory planning must adhere to three fundamental principles: they should be sustainable from economic, ecological, and societal perspectives, avoiding a short-term focus; they should foster innovation, not only in products but also in production and administrative processes; and they must embrace changeability, which is particularly vital for the factory itself.

Business areas, shaped by visions and models, form the strategic foundation of an enterprise, targeting specific external markets with defined competitors that align with the company's philosophy, values, and culture Each business area is characterized by its market offerings and segments, which include customer types, distribution channels, and geographic locations Strategically positioning a factory requires careful analysis of sales regions based on revenue and market share, as these factors influence both sales volume and the local competitive landscape This analysis serves as a crucial basis for decisions regarding factory location and production scale.

Market Offer

The products and services available in market segments are defined for every business sector and are summed up together under the term

2.1 Production Strategies 15 market offer[Gau99] This market offer requires processes that the enterprise’s potential should yield These are then generally divided into management, business and support processes.

Business processes related to the factory are essential for adding value and encompass production engineering, material flow, and information and communication processes These processes rely on key resources, including personnel, equipment, and capital.

The market offer yielded by the enterprise can be considered from the perspective of logistics as well as according to the type of market service.

Siemens has developed a practical classification system for logistics that categorizes businesses into four types based on when the final product is defined and where value is added This system effectively aids in understanding the logistics market.

The various business types encompass consumer-oriented products, industrial equipment systems, large-scale plant construction projects, and after-sale services, each presenting distinct requirements for factory operations and logistics.

Consumer products are ready-to-use goods designed for end users, including household appliances and entertainment electronics, typically produced independently of specific orders Key success factors in this sector include rapid delivery times and high service levels achieved through effective inventory management and a global distribution network In contrast, systems are tailored configurations of standardized hardware and software, where function-defining modules are manufactured in-house alongside purchased components The success in this area relies on the ability to swiftly configure components and ensure reliable delivery of complete, tested systems for immediate installation Plant-related businesses focus on engineering custom large-scale facilities like steel mills and power stations, where each product is unique, necessitating tightly coupled engineering and logistics cycles, with in-house components playing a minimal role.

• market segment processes resources innovative sustainable:

Fig 2.3 Strategic basis for planning and designing a factory © IFA

The success of G8891SW_B relies on effective project management, which involves meticulously controlling and coordinating various customized services and deliveries, primarily sourced externally Timely delivery of assembly-ready packages to the construction site is crucial, as this location is where the most significant value-adding processes occur.

The fourth type of business, services, focuses on after-sales support for products, systems, or plants, ensuring their ongoing functionality through regular inspections and maintenance These services, which include maintenance plans, repair kits, and spare parts, are developed independently from their logistics cycle Key success factors in this area are the ability to respond swiftly, provide timely information, maintain minimal spare parts inventory, and deploy technicians who achieve a high rate of first-visit job completions.

Markets can be served through two primary extremes: mass programs that achieve cost leadership via economies of scale by producing large quantities of standardized products, and economies of scope strategies that focus on maximizing utility by catering to specific customer groups with multiple products Additionally, there are strategies that fall between these extremes, utilizing individualized mass production through modular systems and flexible manufacturing methods, allowing customers to receive tailored products composed of various standardized parts that can be quickly and efficiently assembled to meet their unique needs.

The trend of enhancing products with services and emphasizing their utility rather than just the product itself is gaining traction, particularly in highly industrialized nations Research indicates that tailored products combined with value-added services present significant opportunities in the context of global competition.

Figure 2.5 illustrates the fundamental dimensions of a competitive market offering, emphasizing that it is centered around the customer's value-adding chain By focusing on a product that provides significant benefits to the customer, businesses can foster long-term loyalty This is achieved by incorporating services throughout various stages, including product definition, systems development, order handling, and aftersales service, thereby enhancing the overall value creation process.

• customized configuration of hard and software

• development and logistics cycle partly decoupled

• core components sourced in- house, system components supplied externally

• direct shipment of pre -tested complete systems, installation and ramp-up

• plant engineering and logistics - cycle are coupled

• some core components, high share of outside deliveries and services

• packages suitable for assembly delivered directly to construction site

• development and logistics cycle decoupled

• retention or restoration of function - ability

• development and logistics cycle decoupled

• executed locally with short reaction times in-house on-site

Fig 2.4 Logistical business types (Siemens). © IFA G8908SW_Wd_B

The market offer encompasses the entire lifecycle of a product, resulting in four distinct categories: products, systems/plants, services, and their usefulness These categories can now be analyzed through the lens of design and production, highlighting the comprehensive nature of market offerings.

Mechatronics, which integrates mechanical components, electronic parts, and software, is becoming increasingly prevalent in product development This integration encompasses a wide range of technologies, including sensor systems for monitoring operational states, as well as electronics for application control and associated software Consequently, in numerous engineering products, the production costs attributed to mechanics, electronics, and software are now comparable in scale.

To meet the evolving needs of customer products throughout their lifecycle, the development of 'intelligent components' equipped with sensor and control technologies is underway These modules and subsystems can communicate with other devices, significantly reducing the demand for higher-level control They also possess self-monitoring capabilities and allow for functionality testing during production, which streamlines the final assembly process Additionally, module and platform concepts facilitate a diverse range of product variants, particularly when software configuration is involved.

In the capital goods industry, there is a growing trend towards businesses seeking comprehensive systems and plants, often referred to as ‘plug and produce’ solutions, such as manufacturing and packing plants Customers expect an all-inclusive service package that encompasses engineering, delivery, commissioning, staff training, and ongoing optimization until desired yields are achieved Due to the increasing complexity of these systems, many users now rely on specialized service providers for planning, maintenance, and repair, tasks that were once managed in-house Service offerings are structured into three phases: pre-use, during use, and post-use The pre-use phase includes feasibility studies and demonstrations of potential investments, such as pilot series and training for design engineers on new technologies For instance, a machine manufacturer for sheet metal processing provides workshops that highlight the benefits of sheet metal construction over traditional methods, enhancing designers' understanding through practical examples This lifecycle-oriented approach fosters high customer value and long-term loyalty.

• mechatronics: integration of mechanics sensors, electronics and software

• "intelligent “ compo- nents, modules and subsystems

• variant control by in-line variant creation and platform concepts systems / plants

• fast configurable and reconfigurable systems

• modular and stan- dardized control- and monitor systems

•“plug & produce” service during use before use after use

• assembly, putting into service, ramp up

• internet supported maintenance, overhaul and repair

• logistically optimized spare part storage, delivery and production

• increased benefit by upgrading out of date components

• functional extension in the value creation chain of the customer

The dimensions of market offerings include designing and producing a prototype of a customized part, followed by an economic evaluation Additionally, traditional pre-use services encompass product training for users, as well as assembly, commissioning, and start-up of systems and plants to ensure they operate at the agreed capacity.

The operating phase of service is significantly influenced by advancements in information and communication technology, enabling suppliers to remotely monitor and diagnose intelligent product components and systems This capability facilitates regular maintenance and addresses malfunctions effectively Consequently, manufacturers can offer internet-based maintenance and repair services, allowing customers to access support remotely.

This could for example be special repair manu- als, linked with digital disassembly and re- assembly drawings.

Business Processes

Business offerings are delivered through processes, which consist of a series of activities designed to produce results valuable to customers, as noted by Gausemeier This perspective shifts away from traditional functional organization, which divides work into smaller units Instead, processes are interconnected through process chains, categorized as either main business processes or supplementary processes.

Figure 2.7 illustrates the established business processes in production enterprises, highlighting their alignment with the market offering lifecycle The 'market opening' process plays a crucial role in shaping product offerings, emphasizing key factors such as cost management, customer benefits, standardization, customer proximity, and supplementary services, which are essential for both current and future business strategies.

Fig 2.6 Future emphases for production enterprises

G8915SW_B defining the market offer in form of a specifica- tion based on the business sector strategy From that, a functional product, suitable for series, emerges in the ‘market development’ process.

During the 'order obtainment' phase, the product is offered and sold to customers, ensuring technical, logistical, and economic feasibility before contract signing The 'order fulfillment' phase encompasses all processes from order confirmation to shipment, including essential procurement procedures Once the customer starts using the product, the 'service' phase commences A critical aspect of these processes is that a single individual, such as a supervisor, manager, or team leader, holds full responsibility for the outcomes and resources involved.

The support processes ‘personnel’,‘finances and control’, ‘quality management’ (including planning, monitoring and testing), ‘information and communication’as well as‘general services’

Support services, including building maintenance and site security, enhance the primary operations of a business These services must effectively market themselves to the owners of the main processes at competitive prices, positioning themselves against external service providers.

Aspects of Factory Design

Order fulfillment is a critical business process for factories, encompassing essential sub-processes such as order input and product design tailored to specific order requirements.

Effective production processes encompass various sub-processes, including job preparation, sourcing of materials, manufacturing, assembly, testing, packaging, and shipping, along with necessary quality checks and job control These processes rely on factory resources categorized into technology, organization, and employees, which serve as the foundational pillars of the factory However, a compelling market offering is shaped not only by material and human resources but also by the enterprise's culture and sustainability practices, influenced by its overarching vision and local conditions.

This book focuses on essential elements of factory design, emphasizing their structure and dimensions, particularly in relation to changeability Key considerations include cost, feasibility, market opening, market development, order acquisition, order fulfillment, service personnel, information and communication, finances and control, quality, general services, main processes, and support processes.

Fig 2.7 Business processes © IFA G8902SW_B

Business processes play a crucial role in the planning process, with order processing significantly impacting factory layout more than other main or support processes While other processes primarily depend on resources like office space, personnel, and infrastructure, these elements are organized during the overall planning phase.

All of the enterprise’s processes and functions have to be oriented though on customer demands, market offers and a guiding vision that is developed in consideration of changeability.

Manufacturing Location and Factory

When developing a production concept, it is crucial for a business to determine the scope and strategic orientation for its product manufacturing This decision directly influences the geographic location of production facilities It is important to consider both external and internal perspectives in this decision-making process.

Selecting an optimal manufacturing location is crucial for businesses, as it involves a global perspective that considers market offerings and essential processes This choice impacts the provision of specific goods and services tailored to the economic and logistical needs of the targeted market segment Subsequently, the factory is designed with an internal focus, integrating key production factors such as personnel, resources, buildings, and materials, alongside necessary knowledge, qualifications, and capital Factors like corporate culture, technology, organizational structure, and sustainability also play significant roles in shaping the manufacturing environment.

Fig 2.8 Aspects of factory design © IFA

G8900SW_B external view internal view manufacturing location factory

Serves to supply a market segment with real assets under logistical and economic aspects

Represents a local concentration of production factors to realize the whole or a part of the value chain of real assets.

Fig 2.9 Comparison of manufacturing location and factory © IFA

The value chain encompasses essential processes that facilitate the delivery of goods to manufacturing locations Unlike the value-adding chain, the value chain also includes critical activities such as storage, transportation, and testing, which, while necessary due to the chosen manufacturing principle, do not contribute directly to value enhancement.

The factory is designed to manufacture a variety of products for different business sectors, focusing on specific segments of the value chain To ensure clear accountability for costs, quality, and delivery, the factory operates distinct sub-factories, often called 'mini-factories' or 'business units.' These sub-factories are organized both spatially and administratively, sharing only essential infrastructure such as energy supply, data processing, and social facilities.

Morphology of Factory Types

In developing a comprehensive morphology of factory types, we can identify four key attribute levels influenced by distinct perspectives on factory operations, with the production strategy serving as the primary determinant.

The first perspective examines the enterprise's role in the supply chain, spanning from raw material suppliers to end consumers Historically, some manufacturers, like early North American automobile companies, produced both raw materials and finished products However, increasing specialization has made this model impractical, leading to the emergence of suppliers for various stages of production, from raw materials to end products, catering to different types of customers, including manufacturers, intermediaries, and final consumers The second perspective focuses on customer perception of the factory, emphasizing its strategic positioning against competitors, which can be categorized into six distinct forms.

A high-tech factory is defined by its cutting-edge products that excel in functionality, performance, lifecycle costs, and availability in the global market Its manufacturing and assembly processes are strategically aligned with its business offerings, production strategies, factory location, and customer needs, ensuring an efficient supply chain and organizational structure.

How is the factory perceived by the customer?

Where in the supply chain is the factory placed?

What is the dominating organization principle?

To whom do the production facilities belong?

Fig 2.10 Perspectives for developing factory types ©

The manufacturing location and factory are designed to meet exceptional standards, employing self-developed technologies that ensure the highest process quality Both the interior and exterior of the facility showcase the company's commitment to advanced technology As innovators in the industry, the focus is on premium pricing, with less emphasis on costs, delivery times, and variant control.

The responsive factory prioritizes time efficiency, featuring streamlined logistics that emphasize throughput times Its competitive advantage stems from the quick availability of products rather than reliance on cutting-edge technology Customers and distributors frequently place orders directly into the production process, ensuring timely fulfillment.

The breathing factory specializes in the economical production of goods that experience seasonal sales fluctuations, such as household appliances and sporting equipment It operates with a low level of automation, allowing for flexible work hours and cross-trained employees This approach enables the swift integration of new products and the rapid adjustment of factory output to meet changing demands.

If the product spectrum is marked by a large number of variants, in the sense of a customized market supply, thevariant-flexible factoryshould suppliers raw materials suppliers

2nd tier suppliers 1st tier end product- supplier customers 1st tier customers 2nd tier end consumer buy make deliver

Fig 2.11 Components of a supply chain © IFA G9638SW_B high tech factory

• highest process quality low-cost factory

• consistent controlling variant flexible factory

• variant formed in final stage of production

• modular product and production structure responsive factory

• market orientation customer individual factory

• supplier relation based on partnership

• highly competent logistics breathing factory

(strategic feature: high volume range)

• ability to integrate new products

• economy at volatile production volume

From a customer's perspective, factories can be categorized based on their modular structures and advanced manufacturing technologies These characteristics enable the production of various product variants to be generated at the latest possible stage in the manufacturing process.

The customer-specific factory represents an advanced iteration of variant-flexible factories, embodying the concept of mass customization In this model, each order varies in technical specifications, quantity, and delivery date Customers have the ability to configure their products online, place direct orders with the factory, and even monitor the production process via the internet A key requirement for this system is the seamless management of all business processes, from the initial customer order specification to the final product delivery.

In the mature stage of product life cycles, intense price competition drives low-cost factories to focus on reducing self-costs through meticulous target cost management By concentrating on a limited range of products with high production volumes and minimizing waste, these factories can maintain profitability This approach necessitates rigorous monitoring of performance metrics to ensure efficiency and cost-effectiveness.

From the customer's perspective, the various types of factories do not exist in their pure forms, as real factories must consider multiple strategic characteristics with different levels of emphasis The competitive factors illustrated in Fig 1.7 highlight that customer-specific factories excel in fulfilling competitive criteria, closely followed by variant-flexible factories Additionally, the morphology of factory types, as shown in Fig 2.10, can be categorized based on the dominant organizational principle, distinguishing them as functional, segmented, networked, or virtual.

The functional factory is structured into specialized areas that utilize the same technology for various products, such as mechanical processing and electronic manufacturing This organization enhances resource utilization and flexibility while fostering knowledge sharing However, it can lead to prolonged throughput times and substantial inventory levels, causing operational stagnation Key characteristics of a responsive factory include changeability, learning speed, and innovativeness, which are crucial for meeting customer-specific demands Competitive factors such as speed, volume range, variety, and cost efficiency play a significant role in the factory's success, highlighting the need for adaptability in a rapidly evolving market.

Fig 2.13 Characterization of factory types from customer ’ s perspective © IFA G9586SW_B

To enhance flexibility and responsiveness in manufacturing, segmented factories are emerging as an effective solution These factories consist of agile, small production units that are strategically focused on specific products and markets, taking full accountability for their financial outcomes Depending on production volume and product variety, these units can be organized using the line principle, segment principle, or workshop principle, optimizing efficiency and adaptability.

As the variety of products and their variants continues to expand, it is crucial to simplify operations by significantly reducing in-house manufacturing and the number of suppliers to avoid potential collapse This leads to the development of a networked factory model, which relies on multiple tiers of suppliers for subsystems, modules, components, and parts, all coordinated by intermediary logistics service providers.

To rapidly capitalize on opportunities for complex products or systems, multiple factories can collaborate temporarily on a project, combining their processes and resources This cooperation can also occur among competitors, particularly for the use of costly equipment When the company that interacts directly with customers is not involved in the actual production, it is referred to as a virtual enterprise, which may focus solely on marketing and order processing.

In the fourth dimension of factory morphology, ownership of property is reflected in production means Many enterprises seek to mitigate risks by opting for renting or leasing rather than permanent ties to production plants This has led to increased interest in Build-Operate-Transfer (BOT) models, where either the plant manufacturer or an external service provider operates the production facility nearby, delivering systems and components for final assembly An example of this is illustrated in the BOT model used by an automobile manufacturer producing the compact Smart Car.

Summary

Effective factory planning begins with analyzing competitive factors within the industry, such as new entrants, substitute products, and the bargaining power of customers and suppliers A comprehensive business plan must include a clear vision and strategy that considers the perspectives of both customers and owners, alongside the business processes and opportunities for learning and growth The resulting strategy outlines the business sector, market offerings, and target market segments.

Sustainability is crucial in economic, environmental, and societal contexts, as it shapes the design of factory areas, including production facilities and employee interactions The organization's market position within the supply chain, ownership of production facilities, and relationships with various suppliers—such as parts, functional, and modular suppliers—play a significant role Additionally, adopting flexible and high-tech approaches allows for customer-specific end products, fostering cooperation through networked virtual models, leasing, and rental agreements.

Fig 2.15 Morphology of factory types © IFA G9585SW_B

2.7 Morphology of Factory Types 27 strategic orientation of the factory is still deter- mined by the desired perception of the customer

(function, price, high tech), the position of the products in the supply chain between the sup- pliers and customers (parts, modules, end prod- uct), the dominant principle of organization

The types of plants can be categorized based on their operational models, such as ownership, rental, or leasing, and their technological capabilities, including high-tech, flexible, and customer-specific designs These plants are often hybrid in nature, as they typically cater to multiple markets and diverse customer needs with various products.

[Bar98] Barth, H., Gross, W.: Fabrik mit

Modellcharakter — Neue Zielhierarchien bei der Fabrikplanung (Factory with Model

Character — New Target Hierarchies when

Industrielle Produktion und Kundenn ọ he —

The relationship between industrial production and customer service can appear contradictory, as explored in the work edited by Schuh and Wiendahl, which questions whether production has reached a dead end in terms of complexity and agility Additionally, Faònacht and Frýhwald discuss the importance of controlling logistics performance and costs, emphasizing the need for effective management strategies in logistics to enhance overall operational efficiency These insights highlight the challenges and intricacies faced by industries in balancing production demands with customer service expectations.

[Gau99] Gausemeier, J., Fink, A.: F ü hrung im

Wandel (Leadership in Change) Hanser Munich Vienna (1999)

[Kap96] Kaplan, R.S., Norton, D.P.: The Balanced

Scorecard: Translating Strategy into Action. Harvard Business School Press (1996) [Por98] Porter, M.E.: Competitive Strategy:

Techniques for Analyzing Industries and Competitors with a New Introduction The Free Press, New York (1998)

[Sche04] Schenk, M., Wirth, S.: Fabrikplanung und

Fabrikbetrieb Methoden f ü r die wandlungsf ọ hige und vernetzte Fabrik(Factory Planning and Management.Methods for the Changeable andNetworked Factory) Springer, Heidelberg(2004)

Introduction

The change drivers described in Chap.1 pose a variety of requirements for future productions, the fundamental aspects of which are outlined in

Our discussion begins with the customer’s requirementsfrom the turbulent markets As can be seen, we have once again reduced these to three key concepts, summarized as follows: (1)

Functionally superior products and services with

(2) long-term benefit for the customer have to be

The market provides readily available products, systems, and plants, as outlined in Section 2.3, along with additional services offered before, during, and after the utilization phase.

Production requirements can be analyzed from four perspectives, categorized into two levels: inner/outer and rational/emotional The rational outer perspective focuses on how customers perceive supplier behavior, emphasizing responsiveness and flexibility in quantity and variants This understanding leads to inner requirements that align production processes with established natural limits.

(largely participative-designed) self-organization and a cooperative network with external value- adding partners.

The rational perspective is enhanced by an emotional dimension, which is influenced by a distinct brand identity and product image externally, while internally, it reflects the transparency of processes and the aesthetic appeal of the factory This value perspective encompasses sustainable development concepts and a commitment to corporate culture, shaping product design and facility processes throughout their lifecycles Drawing from extensive research and our findings, we will explore these aspects in detail to formulate initial ideas for innovative visions, models, and types of resilient future factories.

Responsiveness

In today's competitive manufacturing landscape, market-oriented responsiveness is essential for success Factories must meet customer demands by delivering the right products in the correct quantities, on time, and with high quality To achieve this, it is crucial to have a clear understanding of customer requirements at the time of order confirmation For more complex products, such as production systems, establishing interim deadlines can help ensure that customer expectations are met effectively.

H.-P Wiendahl et al., Handbook Factory Planning and Design,

DOI 10.1007/978-3-662-46391-8_3, © Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2015

29 agreed upon by which the remaining specifica- tions have to be set.

Market-oriented responsiveness emphasizes the principle of production on demand, where manufacturing begins only after an order is received, and materials are procured specifically for that order To implement this approach, the combined procurement and internal delivery times must be shorter than the desired delivery time, which can be challenging In situations where this is not feasible, a customer decoupling point can be established in the operational logistics chain This point allows for orders to be processed based on sales forecasts until they are allocated to specific customers, streamlining the manufacturing and delivery process.

Depending on the relationship between the demanded delivery times and internal throughput times for the four sections of the logistic chain, there are four order or supply strategies (see

Make-to-stock production involves delivering products directly from the finished goods warehouse to customers This method relies on a production plan for procurement, manufacturing, assembly, and storage However, as the number of product variants increases, challenges arise due to excessive capital tied up in inventory, reduced predictability of individual variants, and a subsequent decline in service levels.

The goal is to pre-manufacture and temporarily store standardized parts, components, or sub-systems based on a platform concept, allowing for quick assembly to meet specific customer orders This approach enables the rapid delivery of various mechanical, traffic, electrical engineered products, and electronics, often within 24 to 72 hours.

Pre-manufacturing all components to meet diverse customer demands can be technically challenging or economically unfeasible, particularly when products need to be tailored to specific requirements or when stock production is too costly In such cases, a make-to-order production approach may be adopted, where only essential materials and key components are pre-stocked based on sales forecasts The final product then combines standard components with custom-manufactured parts to fulfill individual customer orders.

The fourth case is a custom-specific one-of production It requires a complete new product customer requirements

• attractive rational view emotional view inner view outer view

• product-related value view production requirements

• committed to the corporate culture

Fig 3.1 Development of production requirements. © IFA G8903SW_B construction in which components are only pro- cured after the product has been designed and the parts dimensioned.

From a logistics standpoint, customer decoupling points serve as interim storage for customer-neutral components, enabling the subsequent segments of the supply chain to be supplied as needed, typically following the supermarket principle When a designated quantity is withdrawn, an automatic replenishment order is triggered to maintain stock levels.

Dynamic interim buffers, often designed as mobile shelves with fixed storage capacities, play a crucial role in balancing queuing times between workstations that result from varying processing times and lot sizes Throughout their lifecycle, products may be manufactured based on different order strategies that consider the desired balance between delivery and throughput times, production volume per time unit, and the number of product variants Additionally, businesses typically offer multiple products in the market.

Managing these constant changes poses the key challenge in planning and controlling a factory.

Quantity and Variant Flexibility

In a turbulent market, businesses face significant challenges due to strong demand fluctuations and a rising number of product variants and components While modular construction has previously helped manage variant issues, the increasing quantity fluctuations present a dilemma for companies They can no longer afford to stock all product variants, and automated production systems are reaching their limits in addressing these complexities.

Customer demands are expected to fluctuate significantly over time, a phenomenon known as quantity variance This variance represents the maximum quantity sold within a specific period, such as a year, and is influenced by various factors including supplier relationships, manufacturing strategies, and customer-specific requirements Understanding these fluctuations is essential for businesses to optimize their production and delivery processes.

Fig 3.2 Order strategies with different customer decoupling points (Eid95) © IFA G0268SW_Wd_B

Consumer goods like washing machines, which have long lifespans and seasonal demand fluctuations, often experience a significant quantity variance of 1:6 throughout the year This highlights the importance of responsiveness in managing inventory and meeting consumer needs effectively.

A rigid production concept features highly automated individual processes and interconnected workstations, resulting in long setup times and a limited workforce typically working in two or three shifts This system is constrained by two key limits on output quantity.

The economic upper limit of production is generally lower than the technical upper limit, which is determined by factors such as the maximum number of shifts and cycle time Typically, this economic limit is around 80%.

When demand exceeds the economic or technical upper limits, it often necessitates preemptive overproduction, leading to the accumulation of excess inventory in interim storage.

(Situation 1 in Fig.3.3), or results in a temporary increase in delivery time (Situation 3 in Fig.3.3).

Automated systems are characterized by high fixed costs, such as depreciation and maintenance, and low variable costs, including personnel and energy When production falls below the economic lower limit, losses occur A flexible volume production concept seeks to address market fluctuations by extending both the economic upper and lower limits, allowing for profitable production even at lower sales volumes through adjustable automation Additionally, it facilitates rapid adjustments to the technical upper limit via modular workstations.

This method faces significant skepticism in practice because it prioritizes cost-effective analyses It operates under a strict production concept that emphasizes volume, while also considering flexible production timelines, technical and economic upper limits, economic lower limits, and customer needs.

= realized flexibility volume time realized flexibility output customer need economic upper limit technical upper limit economic lower limit

1 necessary overproduction 2 uneconomic production 3 forced underproduction technical upper limit

In quantity/variant flexible productions, the production quantity is subject to significant fluctuations, and the lifecycle of the production plant does not exceed the product lifecycle, necessitating a focus on lifecycle costs These costs encompass all expenses incurred during the various phases of the system's life, including planning, construction, production, procurement, commissioning, start-up, operation, and decommissioning It is essential to distinguish between planned operating costs and unplanned costs that arise from production standstills.

(e.g., due to technical or organizational disrup- tions), rejects or the need to rework/reconstruct items.

Based on the example of a robot welding line for car bodies it can be seen that of the total

(100 %) costs during the lifecycle of a body shop, only 25 % occur in the phases leading up to the start of operations, whereas 44 % arise from planned costs and 31 % from unplanned costs

The final cost block significantly exceeds the initial investment costs, but the operating company anticipates a potential reduction of approximately 30% in future plants through enhanced planning and procurement strategies By focusing product development on production efficiency and reorganizing production processes, the company aims to decrease unplanned subsequent costs by 85% Implementing a flexible plant concept that allows for rapid changes in product, quantity, and production technology will facilitate quicker plant restarts, ultimately leading to cost savings Further recommendations can be found in [ElM09].

Approaches to enhancing production flexibility vary significantly between manufacturing and assembly Since the 1950s, the evolution of manufacturing technology has been driven by the integration of workstations with automated changes in workpieces and tools, leading to flexible manufacturing systems However, the rise in part variants, smaller lot sizes, and shorter delivery times has revealed limitations in these automated technologies Traditional organizational solutions like lean production and total quality management have also proven insufficient Ultimately, the combination of innovative manufacturing technologies with flexible work organization and comprehensive measurement and control systems has shown promise The objective of adaptive manufacturing systems is not to diminish automation, but to continuously redesign the system's physical structure, addressing both planned and unplanned costs effectively.

7.3% unplanned follow up costs (4.7%) planned running costs (42.7%) one-time effort (22%)

-12% planning alternative I costs reduction potential 30.4% cost share

Fig 3.4 Potential for reducing lifecycle costs

Control system, sensor technology and human/ machine interfaces with the goal of greater vari- ant and processflexibility.

Intelligent universal modules, which feature integrated sensors, actuators, and controls, are being advocated as the ideal solution for mobile manufacturing units Their significant autonomy from specific processing tasks makes them sustainable and adaptable, positioning them as a reliable investment for the future.

The intuitive operation of machines, utilizing standardized human/machine interfaces, enables quick learning and the development of specific user skills Furthermore, integrating multiple manufacturing processes into a single machine allows for complete part production in one setup, enhancing precision by reducing the need for multiple clampings and significantly improving both time efficiency and flexibility.

Assembly differs from manufacturing as it involves fitting together numerous parts through various joining processes A significant portion of assembly costs stems from the supply, feeding, positioning, and transportation of parts between stations While joining processes are often automated for quality assurance, manual handling of parts remains common In high-volume production, particularly in consumer goods, electronics, and the automotive industry, automated joining and testing stations are typically integrated with conveyor belts to efficiently identify, position, and transport the components using workpiece carriers.

Automated assembly plants face significant challenges regarding quantity and variant flexibility, as operating with less than 90% utilization in two shifts can render them uneconomical This issue is further exacerbated by the rapid product life cycles in the electronics sector, where items like mobile phones may have a lifespan of less than a year.

Focusing on Limits

Focusing on limits can significantly enhance factory development, particularly in terms of responsiveness In mathematical terms, 'limit' denotes the value that a numerical sequence approaches Within the context of environmental and industrial health and safety standards, limits define the maximum allowable values for various measurands, such as sound levels or the concentration of contaminants in air, soil, or water, which must not be surpassed.

Limit optimized processes in factory areas focus on minimizing costs while maintaining stable production conditions This concept was explored in a joint research project that examined manufacturing technology, machining technology, and logistics Key factory processes involved include procurement, part manufacturing, assembly, transportation, and storage Essential input factors for these processes are materials, energy, information, space, employees, and capital, with discrete-part manufacturing and assembly, alongside logical organizational procedures for order processing, serving as fundamental components.

A key distinction involves the limit level, illustrated in Figure 3.6, which outlines three levels along with their prerequisites The individual processes are assessed based on the objectives indicated on the right side of the diagram, providing an objective benchmark for determining the limit.

The primary focus of any process should be on achieving economic efficiency by minimizing costs Time serves as a universal goal and evaluation metric, influencing various factors like inventory levels and space requirements Additionally, maintaining high quality is crucial, as the reliability of the process's output is directly linked to it.

In addition to these three traditional targets, controlling the variety of processes, parts and products is gaining significance Finally, the term

‘sustainability’ is meant to emphasize the pro- duction processes’conservation of resources and environmental protection.

The first level of optimization focuses on enhancing existing systems and processes to reach operationally feasible limits, which can be assessed through internal and industry benchmarking, as well as continuous improvement and waste reduction techniques The second level, while technically achievable, represents ideal conditions that can only be realized in laboratory settings, making practical implementation economically unviable, yet it serves as a basis for setting attainable future goals Lastly, the third level emphasizes theoretical process models and identifies 'natural physical limitations,' necessitating long-term planning and visionary thinking.

The analysis of coolant fluid usage in metal grinding reveals that the maximum operationally achievable value is 10 liters per minute for each millimeter of grinding wheel width This finding underscores the importance of optimizing coolant application to enhance grinding efficiency.

Research indicates that achieving minimum lubrication and cooling of 0.0001 l/min per mm of grinding wheel width is feasible in laboratory settings From a theoretical standpoint, it appears possible to grind steel without the use of any fluid.

Figure 3.7 illustrates the individual natural limits for various process elements, including machining, purchasing, assembly, transport, and storage These limits are assessed based on key targets such as costs, time, quality, variety, and sustainability.

In production, various limiting approaches play a crucial role in optimizing processes These approaches involve understanding prerequisite limiting value levels, targeting ideal conditions, and applying models and theories It's essential to differentiate between natural (physical) limiting values and currently operational practical limiting values, which reflect the best practices and technical constraints in place By addressing these factors, organizations can enhance efficiency and achieve optimal production outcomes.

Fig 3.6 Limit levels and production targets © IFA

In an ideal purchasing scenario, costs are minimized with timely delivery of articles in the correct quantities, flawless setup, sufficient product variants to meet demand, and no disposal requirements for packaging In machining, optimal conditions include complete processing of a workpiece using multiple technologies in a single setup, elimination of non-value-adding throughput times, error-free setup, controlled variation with durable, programmable tools like lasers, and processes that do not require coolant or lubricant These principles apply similarly across other processes.

A simplified view often overlooks that alterations in process parameters typically affect multiple targets To effectively determine limits, it is advisable to adopt a dual approach that considers both historical data and future projections.

To effectively conduct an analysis, it is essential to establish the scope and assess the current situation Clear targets should be defined based on the specific object of observation, whether it be an entire factory or a particular process Focusing on a single target at the outset helps to minimize complexity and enhances the clarity of communication Additionally, the goal-setting process involves recognizing existing deficits and identifying influences that cannot be altered initially.

Identifying the key process parameters that significantly impact target outcomes is essential From a management standpoint, cost drivers play a crucial role; for logistics, this includes system inventory, while in machining, cutting speed is a vital factor It is important to establish concrete and logically sound values for these significant parameters For instance, setting a throughput time of zero for workpiece manufacturing is illogical; instead, a more practical approach would be to define the time limit as the total of the process times, ensuring that workpieces do not experience delays.

The operating limit of a traffic lane, measured in vehicles per hour, can be calculated by considering various factors such as vehicle length, emergency brake constant, and specific situational parameters This involves quantifying limiting values, determining potential impacts, and prioritizing significant parameters while identifying obstacles Ultimately, the goal is to define targets, assess the effort required for elimination of these obstacles, and determine the optimum conditions for traffic flow.

Fig 3.8 Limiting value cycle © IFA G8890SW_B

Focusing on limits related to reaction time and vehicle speed reveals that each vehicle class has an optimal speed limit, as illustrated in Figure 3.9 [Gud05] Exceeding or falling below this speed results in a decreased capacity limit It's important to note that these specific operating limits are designed to manage traffic capacity and do not necessarily indicate the cost minimum for transportation volume.

Self-organization and Participation

In recent decades, the organization of work has increasingly emphasized task differentiation based on specialization This clear distinction between manual and mental labor has resulted in the emergence of specialized roles, each with unique job profiles tailored to specific activities.

The traditional approach to manufacturing, which relied heavily on specialized roles such as lathe operators and production engineers, has been challenged due to three key developments First, increased automation has reduced the number of standardizable tasks, leaving behind complex activities that resist planning and control Second, societal shifts have rendered rigid hierarchies and strict management styles obsolete, as they no longer align with modern values that favor flexibility and collaboration Finally, the unpredictable nature of current production environments demands not only technical expertise but also methodological skills for problem-solving, along with social abilities for effective teamwork and conflict resolution.

Research and operational practices widely support the idea that a new organizational model, emphasizing self-control, engagement, initiative, and effective communication, can enhance the ability to navigate complex and turbulent environments This approach, often termed self-organization, is intrinsically connected to the concept of participation.

Self-organization involves employees taking responsibility for specific processes that directly relate to outcomes To enhance engagement and productivity, it is essential to provide employees with greater autonomy in both their daily tasks and in the design and modification of workstations and processes This dual approach of horizontal and vertical participation encourages involvement in challenging tasks, fostering innovation and improvements in productivity and quality The extent of employee involvement is influenced by the level of decentralization and the lifecycle phase of the production system.

If we break the production system down into the different phases of planning, start-up

During the ramp-up to target output and throughout steady continuous operation, employees can significantly influence the design of workstations and processes, even with a low degree of decentralization.

In decentralized and strongly networked enterprises, employee involvement in planning and decision-making can enhance the impact of skilled workers, especially when they participate from the outset in building and testing facilities While their role may be limited to informing and surveying during the initial planning phase, ongoing participation becomes feasible during system restructuring due to product and technology changes This shift towards self-organization fundamentally transforms employee relationships within the company, moving away from rigid targets and controls to more flexible, result-oriented management approaches, such as management by objectives, which redefine employee responsibilities and roles.

The traditional emphasis on job functions led to a highly regulated work environment, where employees' responsibilities diminished as they moved closer to the product, with compensation based on output and attendance However, as organizations shift towards a results-oriented approach, new team-based roles are emerging, transforming individuals into collaborative group members and fostering a culture of decentralization and adaptability.

Fig 3.13 Changes in the roles of employees © IFA G8894SW_B production life cycle phase decentralization degree high middle low planning putting into operation ramp up operation participation- potential

Fig 3.12 Potential of employee participation © IFA

Self-organization and participation within groups involve designating a process or segment leader to coordinate various teams, thereby decentralizing responsibility This approach allows for the creation of individual profiles that highlight each member's abilities, experiences, and responsibilities The potential for additional self-organization roles is still being explored, with plausible positions including order managers who oversee specific order categories, innovators who focus on developing new products and processes, configurators who customize products, and moderators who facilitate change processes.

Wirth is referred to as competence cell [Wir00].

A competence cell is the smallest, adaptable unit within a factory that adds value through a collaborative team of skilled individuals These teams operate as independent enterprises within a network of expertise, utilizing their resources and skills to enhance productivity and efficiency.

The successful implementation of new roles within an enterprise hinges on its willingness and ability to adapt to change As the demand for productivity and flexibility in production facilities grows, employee participation becomes essential However, this shift may encounter resistance due to fears of losing income, power, and prestige, leading to both open and hidden opposition The promise of greater autonomy contrasts with uncertainties surrounding job security and work relationships Additionally, decentralized organizational structures challenge traditional career paths, raising concerns about the future of skilled labor and operations engineering.

In a professional home setting, individuals often serve as the sole specialists for particular methods or techniques within their teams This isolation can lead to a rapid obsolescence of their knowledge, especially if team compositions are frequently altered, which hampers the potential for collective learning and increases the risk of losing valuable expertise.

‘organizational home’; the sense of belonging to a specific group is lost and social contacts languish.

In order to develop and obtain the indisput- able advantages of self-organization within the

In the realm of dynamic versus stable production environments, overcoming challenges necessitates courage, determination, and adherence to key principles It is essential to maintain transparency in goals and procedures, establish clear agreements regarding staff employment post-restructuring, and ensure employee involvement in both operational and strategic decision-making Additionally, effective communication should flow both top-down and bottom-up to foster a collaborative atmosphere.

A transparent communication of results is essential in fostering a 'bottom-up' approach, which relies on a well-established culture of trust among all participants This culture typically develops gradually and must be validated over time Implementing a participatory model is crucial for a flexible factory environment; however, the time and effort required for this process are often underestimated Additionally, it tends to involve more conflicts than simply developing new manufacturing concepts or procurement logistics Therefore, it is highly advisable to involve employees early in the factory planning process to ensure successful integration and collaboration.

Communication

Participation should extend beyond planning to include ongoing factory operations, as routine tasks are increasingly automated Employees are now more focused on specialized tasks and continuous improvement efforts, which often involve open-ended results and contextual dependencies Successfully navigating the uncertainties of input and output demands high levels of coordination and communication, with interpersonal communication being the most effective The shared perceptual space among participants enhances understanding, as additional information and individual expertise are integrated, minimizing misunderstandings and facilitating more precise decision-making.

This creates a series of organizational requirements for production The starting point is a communication concept that defines all of the basic communication forms within the factory.

Effective factory communication can be enhanced through two main approaches: first, by organizing company structures to promote flat hierarchies and integrating indirect work content into communication flows, and second, by planning factory layouts to minimize distances between communication partners Shorter distances not only facilitate a comfortable work environment but also accelerate communication processes Additionally, establishing dedicated communication spaces significantly influences interaction frequency, as research indicates that spatial proximity is closely linked to the frequency of communication among team members.

Figure3.14depicts the probability of communi- cation between two people as a function of the spatial distance [All07].

The layout of a factory significantly enhances communication, while its architecture can further reinforce this foundation through structural design Integrating indirect areas within the production facility, often using a gallery concept, is considered best practice Additionally, strategically placing information stands, meeting points, and conference rooms within the factory fosters collaboration and efficiency Further details on these aspects will be explored in Chapters 9 and 10.

Networking and Cooperation

In addition to technical and logistical factors, the organization and future roles of employees are essential for the success of a flexible factory Since the early 1990s, the production organization has increasingly shifted towards decentralization in response to growing diversity and rapid change.

Based on the strongly hierarchical form of the company organization, lean production helped to develop small, increasingly independent profit and cost centers, supported by group work and distance

Fig 3.14 Probability of communication as function of the distance between workplaces (Allen) © IFA 14.781_B

Effective communication and team building were essential in simplifying workflow management By focusing on resource adaptation to minimize overhead costs, business processes underwent a radical reorganization along the value-adding chain This led to the establishment of largely autonomous mini-factories within the main factory, each tailored to specific product and market combinations As a result, both products and processes were frequently redesigned to enhance modularity.

The evolution of independent business divisions has led to increased collaboration among enterprises, both temporarily and long-term These partnerships now extend beyond traditional production to include alliances in purchasing, supplying, and development As a result, stable network arrangements and adaptable production networks are emerging, where suppliers and customers become value-adding partners actively involved in the development of products and processes.

Traditional production planning and control (PPC) must evolve to embrace decentralized solutions, driven by Internet technologies that utilize decentralized processing, data transport, and storage The "Internet of Things" concept explores the integration of real-world objects into the digital realm through microcomputers and RFID tags, enabling them to navigate via agent technology In Germany, this vision is encapsulated in the Industry 4.0 initiative, part of a broader high-tech strategy Key elements include decentralization, self-control, lean production, the formation of small units for profit or cost centers, teamwork, and the development of production networks, alongside product and process design, segmentation, business process reengineering, and resource adaptation.

Fig 3.15 Phases in decentralizing production (Windt) © IFA D5007ASW_Wd_B

Changeable production networks are defined by intentionally maintained redundancies, allowing multiple partners to provide the same output To prevent capacity bottlenecks and minimize significant capital investments, resources can be shared among network partners Additionally, these partnerships often involve dividing functions, enabling individual partners to focus on their core competencies or to streamline processes, such as managing purchasing effectively.

Production networks can be interconnected for various reasons, and according to Pfohl, they can be classified into four distinct types.

Strategic networks are typically centered around an enterprise, often an end product manufacturer or commercial entity that maintains close relationships with customers These networks have been notably developed by automobile companies, which establish contractual connections with their suppliers However, true partnerships are lacking due to significant imbalances in advantages and dependencies Additionally, regional networks often integrate specialized small and mid-sized enterprises to enhance collaboration and efficiency.

Firms that establish case-by-case relationships while competing against each other gain competitive advantages through local partnerships, which create the appearance of a unified enterprise In cooperative networks, partners utilize a shared information system to leverage each other's manufacturing and logistics capabilities, often executing similar processes without direct competition, as their product offerings differ Additionally, virtual enterprises engage in temporary, project-based collaborations driven by a mutual understanding of business opportunities, presenting themselves as a single entity to customers while maintaining their independence This model is particularly effective for products with short lifecycles, such as fashion, toys, software, and electronics.

Integrating a factory into a production network significantly enhances its logistics capabilities, facilitating collaboration among key players such as producers, suppliers, and logistics service providers This strategic network fosters efficient distribution and coordination, enabling the factory to operate effectively within a regional and operative network By leveraging these relationships, the factory can optimize its role as a focal enterprise, improving overall supply chain performance and market responsiveness.

Fig 3.16 Types of networks (acc Pfohl) IFA D5087SW_Wd_B

Networking and cooperation are essential for adapting design processes, often requiring quicker changes than merely altering a product or process Unlike formal organizations, networks are loosely coupled communication structures that foster independent social interactions between enterprises and markets This flexibility and openness enable participants to shape their operational identity while aligning their expectations and intentions As a result, uncertainties, risks, and information deficits become more manageable compared to traditional formal organizations.

The nature of networks is influenced by how much autonomy participants relinquish, and this dynamic can be observed through typical stages of cooperation within the industry.

The emergence of system suppliers, driven by the tradition of suppliers purchasing finished and semi-finished products, has led to close contractual obligations due to product modularization As subcontracting and decentralization increased, suppliers were categorized into regular and alternative types A significant development is the collaborative planning and resource utilization among a network of equal partners This growing transparency and intensive cooperation are causing the distinctions between enterprise alliances to become less defined.

Organizations often encounter unexpected challenges due to varying cultures and established procedures within collaborative networks These situations pose unique difficulties for businesses, as formalizing partnerships or regulating them through contracts is often limited To overcome these challenges, companies must focus on gradually building trust, which fosters connections without formal obligations This trust is cultivated through the investment of time, personnel, and personal interactions, highlighting the importance of stable, long-term cooperative relationships.

A reliable, long-term partner may not always deliver the most innovative or effective solutions in a project-based, short-term collaboration environment The key challenge lies in finding a balance between maintaining dependable relationships and seeking innovative solutions from new partners, who introduce additional risks.

In the discussed product networks, reciprocity of interests plays a crucial role in coordination, while discursive negotiation processes facilitate this coordination based on mutual interests Conflicts are addressed through negotiations that consider each partner's individual influence, ensuring that the network is effectively regulated with a focus on earnings, which are subsequently shared according to established agreements This system encompasses classic suppliers, modularization, regular and alternative suppliers, outsourcing, decentralization, and resource sharing, ultimately leading to blurred enterprise borders and the emergence of virtual partnerships.

Fig 3.17 Stages of co-operations (Windt) © IFA G3676ASW_Wd_B

In the organizational layout of the factory, the aspects briefly outlined here play a key role in shaping procurement as well as in dimensioning, planning and controlling capacities.

Demographic Development

An important factor in designing production is also aging populations In Germany, the structure of the population is regularly calculated by the

According to the Federal Office of Statistics, projections from 2006 indicate a significant decline in population over the next four decades, accompanied by a notable shift in age demographics Specifically, the workforce age group of 20 to 60 years is expected to decrease from a peak of 46.3 million to 35.4 million individuals This trend suggests an increase in the average age of employed individuals For instance, Volkswagen has recognized this shift in its workforce, particularly among those involved in the production of the Golf model.

In 1998, the average age of the workforce was 38.9 years, rising to 42.2 years by 2008, and projected to reach 47.1 years by 2018 without intervention The Zukunftsreport on demographic changes highlights the implications of this aging trend on innovation capacity Many companies are concerned about potential declines in employee productivity due to aging, prompting the need for strategies that address the physical and skill-related challenges of an older workforce Three models have emerged to guide this approach: the deficit model, which anticipates inevitable decline and advocates for early retirement; the skill model, which acknowledges physical limitations while valuing experience and problem-solving abilities; and the difference model, which distinguishes between chronological and biological age, emphasizing individual talents, education, and work history.

2000 2010 2020 2030 2040 2050 age 20 to 60 years age 60 years and older 19.4

Fig 3.18 Age evolution in Germany © IFA 14.783_B

A workgroup has proposed age-oriented work design measures, as illustrated in Fig 3.19 To effectively preserve employees' abilities and skills, these measures should be implemented well before they reach the age of 50.

Ergonomic optimization focuses on preventing bad physical postures, while developing skills is aimed at continually upgrading qualifications and providing an environment conducive to learning

Implementing job rotation and ergonomic workplaces tailored for older workers is essential for age-oriented management, promoting a holistic approach to careers This strategy addresses stress and demands throughout an individual’s career, making it particularly relevant for factory planners facing demographic shifts By adapting workplaces and work content to meet the needs of an aging workforce, organizations can proactively promote health through initiatives such as sports programs, back training workshops, and nutrition seminars, encouraging a focus on health and aging.

More details will be explored in Sect.7.8.

Corporate Culture

Organizational View

Effective management of complex and dynamic environments requires both internally focused self-organization and participation, as well as externally focused networking and collaboration The success of an enterprise in transitioning from a hierarchical, bureaucratic structure to a more open and innovative approach is influenced more by its corporate culture than by its organizational structure or management systems.

Corporate culture encompasses the shared values, goals, perceptions, and behaviors that guide employees within an organization It influences how employees view their responsibilities, interact with colleagues, and perceive management and the company itself Schein identifies three levels at which corporate culture manifests, highlighting its complexity and impact on workplace dynamics.

Corporate culture is expressed through artifacts such as behaviors, clothing, architecture, and rituals, which can only be fully understood when considering the deeper values and norms that unconsciously shape organizational actions At the core of this culture are fundamental assumptions about the business environment and the relationships within the enterprise Examples of how corporate culture manifests in various forms include ergonomic optimization, career path design, health support, competence development, and age-oriented employment strategies, all of which contribute to effective production planning.

• preservation of the physical efficiency

• preservation and development of competence

Measures for age-oriented work design © IFA

Corporate culture is significantly influenced by the founders' personalities, establishing a cohesive identity within the organization and in the public eye Its evolution relies on historical context and the leadership demonstrated by management.

Corporate culture is interconnected with national and industry-specific cultures, encompassing various sub-cultures It is crucial for business policies and strategies to align with the values and norms inherent in the corporate culture.

• reality, the time and space

• human relations conscious and visible, but need to interpret higher step of the unconscious taken for granted, invisible, subconscious

Corporate culture can be analyzed through various levels, emphasizing key aspects such as communication, cooperation, and personal relationships Effective communication involves transparent methods and the sharing of relevant information, fostering a fact-oriented environment In contrast, dealing with criticism can reveal a culture of informal fault-finding, where issues are viewed as opportunities for growth rather than as personal attacks Cooperation is essential, promoting teamwork over individualism, while personal relationships should be built on respect and support Promotion methods should be clear and merit-based, avoiding hierarchical biases Customer evaluation plays a crucial role, as feedback should be embraced to enhance service quality Lastly, an organization's information policy must encourage open dialogue, reducing the prevalence of gossip and negativity, thus cultivating a proud and cohesive company identity.

Fig 3.21 Expressions of corporate culture © IFA

Corporate culture thus represents a type of

Traditional corporate cultures often struggle to adapt to internal and external demands, leading to restrictive perceptions that can hinder timely recognition and response to necessary changes This mindset is exemplified by the attitude of, "we've been successful for a century, why should we question our approach now?"

Corporate culture is highly variable, influenced by the duration of collaboration among team members and their initial homogeneity, making each culture unique Despite this uniqueness, efforts to cultivate a cohesive corporate culture remain essential.

finding a structural typology can be found in the extensive publications on this topic Bleicher formulates these in a number of dimensions

[Blei96]: These concern (a) the openness (exter- nal/internal, change resistant/change friendly),

(b) diversity (cutting edge/basic, unified/diversi-

fied), (c) influence of management on the culture

(instrumental/development oriented, cost/benefit oriented) as well as (d) the impact of the workers on the culture (member/actor, collective/ individual).

Bleicher distinguishes between two corporate cultures: opportunistic and obligatory The opportunistic culture features a rigid, tradition-based management style that prioritizes task fulfillment through quantification and a cost-driven approach, often sidelining employee needs In contrast, the obligatory culture is adaptive and responsive to environmental changes, embracing diversity within its subsystems and prioritizing benefits over costs.

Against the background of changeability, corporate culture becomes extremely important.

Corporate culture is durable yet adaptable, particularly during critical circumstances It is practical for culturally-aware management to intentionally encourage essential changes within the corporate culture, while understanding that not every aspect of the process can be meticulously planned.

To objectively assess the emotional topic of corporate culture, it is essential to compare the current and desired states, focusing on customer orientation, strategy, innovation, and costs Gausemeier's portfolio categorizes cultural components into stable, old, and new, highlighting that while stable components are crucial for future success, new components require development, and old components may lose relevance Management, often with external consultants, is responsible for nurturing new components and phasing out outdated ones The effectiveness of change initiatives is enhanced when the strategy aligns with the organization's culture and the participants' values For meaningful change to occur, organizations must reflect on their readiness to embrace and sustain change, exploring cultural questions to establish a shared understanding of values, which must be actively supported by incentive and sanction systems.

Architectural View

Aligning a factory's appearance with its corporate culture through an architectural master plan is crucial for creating a positive first impression on visitors This initial perception influences their attitudes as they explore the factory, offices, and production areas For factory planners, it is essential to consider these subtle aspects of design to effectively differentiate the enterprise from its competitors.

Later, in Sect 11.5, we will discuss it further with respect to impressions and aesthetics.

The design of a factory building cannot be derived from the production requirements alone, rather it grows from a creative process in the context of the site, climate, society and people.

Beyond the pure functional suitability, a practical building structure provides a positive force for motivation and communication [Rei05].

Unfortunately, the inhospitableness of indus- trial and commercial areas shapes often the appearance of our cities and landscapes Confu- sion between the economic goals ‘cheap’ and

‘cost-effective’justifies anonymity, banality and ugliness The ‘appearance’ of many enterprises across the country seemingly has been patched together from Do-it-Yourself-stores and mistakes

Architectural critic C Hackelsberger aptly describes these areas as a "commercial steppe," highlighting their uninviting nature People tend to leave as soon as their work hours are over, indicating a lack of attachment The buildings and the empty spaces in between are passively accepted as part of the social landscape.

Industrialists jeopardize their future prospects by making shortsighted and strategically unwise decisions in construction, often necessitating the relocation of their enterprises with each production shift This leads to ecologically damaged and abandoned areas that permanently mar the urban and natural landscape.

Small budgets and tight construction schedules hinder the effective development of construction projects, emphasizing the need for cooperative planning Industrial construction stands out as a unique architectural field, unbound by traditional trends, and embraces innovative technologies, materials, and construction methods This sector presents exciting opportunities for exploring new concepts, with a strategic focus on customer and market needs, employee engagement, performance results, and cost management, while fostering a stable culture that integrates both new and existing components.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 product focus enterprise focus technology focus innovation focus not relevant culture components significance of the characteristics for future strategy

Fig 3.22 Corporate culture portfolio (after Gausemeier) © IFA G8916SW_B

A key question from an architectural per- spective as well as the assessment of change- ability is regarding the relationship between the form and function of a building Following

Architectural theory has evolved through contrasting approaches to form, beginning with Louis Sullivan's late 19th-century principle of "form follows function," which emphasized functional necessity in building design This idea was a response to the eclecticism of the time, particularly during the Bauhaus movement However, as modern architecture progressed, the aesthetic monotony of box-like structures led many architects to advocate for a shift towards "function follows form" in the latter half of the 20th century, promoting greater diversity and allowing design to dictate the underlying programs and processes based on predefined geometries.

Current strategies for constructing adaptable factories are ineffective as they focus on only one aspect of the intricate relationship between the environment, humans, functions, and form Projects often raise questions about which functions and forms will endure over time Relying on temporary production trends or fleeting aesthetic styles does not provide a solid foundation for sustainable design Instead, it is essential to develop comprehensive solutions that consider both the functional processes and the spatial forms equally.

To address complex questions effectively, it is essential to identify a consciously positive set of traits that offer multiple, preferably complementary, solutions This approach aligns with the principles advocated by American engineer Buckminster Fuller.

Fuller [Kra99], the result of this approach can be characterized by the concept of “performance”.

The “form follows performance” strategy

[Rei05] derived from this is aimed at a compre- hensive answer tofinding a form in response to a holistically composed problem.

The formal impression of a building is shaped by its spatial solutions to performance challenges, emphasizing the importance of new construction technologies, optimized energy consumption, and ecological considerations Ensuring flexibility across all architectural levels is crucial, as is designing spaces that foster communication among personnel Ultimately, the aim is to enhance corporate culture and establish a strong identity through factory design, leading to efficient production environments with well-proportioned spaces, innovative construction, and comfortable workplaces.

Sustainability

The Term and Concept

In 1972, the book "Limits of Growth" highlighted the impending depletion of Earth's natural resources, sparking an ongoing debate Thirty years later, many of its predictions have largely come to fruition.

The findings of the authors have sparked global initiatives aimed at reducing energy consumption, safeguarding the environment, and promoting responsible resource use This critical issue was highlighted in the 1987 UN report titled "Our Common Future," which introduced the widely accepted definition of sustainability.

Humanity possesses the capacity to achieve sustainable development, ensuring that current needs are met while preserving resources and opportunities for future generations.

The report lead to the UN Conference “On

Environment and Development” in Rio de

Janeiro in 1992 and the program for action referred to as “Agenda 21” Then in 1997, the

World Climate Summit held in Kyoto was aimed at setting binding targets for greenhouse gas emissions in industrialized countries Finally in

2002, the World Summit on Sustainable Devel- opment (WSSD) was held in Johannesburg.

However, in the eyes of many observers, it failed to create significant concrete governmental poli- cies regarding sustainability targets (http://www. worldsummit2002.org/).

Non-Government Organizations (NGOs) play a crucial role in raising awareness about the critical effects of dwindling resources across various sectors Prominent entities like the World Commission on Environment and Development are at the forefront of this initiative.

(WCED), World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) and the Global Footprint Network (GFN) In

Germany, there is the German Environmental

Agency (DBU) (http://www.dbu.de/), the German

Advisory Council on the Environment (SRU) established in 1971 (www.umweltrat.de) and since 1992, the German Advisory Council on

Global Change (WBGU) (www.wbgu.de).

These initiatives have led to the establishment of management regulations aimed at the sustainable utilization of both renewable and non-renewable natural resources, as well as guidelines for the release of substances and energy.

Measurable targets have been established to assess the material intensity of the economy and enhance resource productivity Key metrics include the MIPS factor, which measures material input per unit of service, and TMR (Total Material Requirement), providing essential insights for sustainable resource management.

TMC (Total Material Consumption) (OECD

Glossary of Statistical Terms: http://stats.oecd. org/glossary) A large number of basic environ- mental protection principles are already legally binding in many countries.

For meaningful global change, it is essential that governments and corporations commit to the sustainable management of the earth’s natural resources Economic enterprises, particularly those prioritizing profits, must integrate ethical considerations into their management practices The United Nations Global Compact (UNGC) outlines ten principles that provide a concrete framework for this approach, emphasizing the importance of human rights and humane working conditions in the first six principles Principles seven through nine focus on environmental protection, while the final principle calls for the prevention of corruption.

The ecological footprint is a crucial metric that reflects the impact of human activities on the environment It quantifies the amount of land and water required to produce the resources we consume, such as food and timber, as well as the space needed for infrastructure and the absorption of CO2 emissions This measurement is then compared to the planet's biocapacity, which represents nature's capacity to fulfill this demand.

A global assessment of debtors and creditors reveals that many industrial nations, along with certain countries in the Near East and Africa, are living beyond their ecological means, as illustrated in Fig 3.24 Their ecological footprint significantly exceeds their biocapacity, highlighting a critical imbalance Furthermore, the consumption of natural resources has doubled over the past 40 years, indicating a troubling trend For more than two decades, humanity has been consuming 25-33% more resources annually than the Earth can sustainably regenerate.

Figure 3.25 illustrates the relationship between nations using a coordinate system, where the horizontal axis represents the United Nations Human Development Index (HDI) and the vertical axis denotes the ecological footprint The HDI is a composite index that includes life expectancy at birth, mean years of schooling, expected years of schooling, and Gross National Income (GNI) per capita, with high values around 0.67 and very high values reaching 0.79 In contrast, the ecological footprint, measured in hectares per person, has significantly decreased from a world average of 4.5 hectares per person in 1961 to 1.8 hectares per person by 2008, largely due to population growth.

The Human Development Index (HDI) categorizes countries into four thresholds: low, medium, high, and very high Analysis reveals that while no nation with a very high HDI meets sustainability criteria, only a handful of countries with a high HDI do so, as they exceed the global average of available hectares per person This division highlights two distinct groups: one, mainly comprising European nations, the USA, and select Asian countries, which consume excessive resources, and the other group, which tends to have lower resource consumption.

Principle 1: Business should support and respect the protection of internationally proclaimed human rights; and

Principle 2: make sure that they are not complicit in human rights abuses.

Principle 3: Business should uphold the freedom of association and the effective recognition of the right to collective bargaining;

Principle 4: the elimination of all forced and compulsory labour;

Principle 5: the effective abolition of child labour; and

Principle 6: the elimination of discrimination in respect of employment and occupation.

Principle 7: Business should support a precautionary approach to environmental challenges;

Principle 8: undertake initiatives to promote greater environmental responsibility; and

Principle 9: encourage the development and diffusion of environmental friendly technologies.

Principle 10: Business should work against corruption in all its forms, including extortion and bribery

Fig 3.23 UN global compact ’ s ten principles

Fig 3.24 The Ecological wealth of nations http://www.footprintnetwork.org

African, Asian and Latin American countries, lives below a desirable standard of living and consumes comparably little resources.

In 2011, the global population was estimated at 7 billion, and projections indicate it could rise to 9.5 billion by 2050 This growth poses significant challenges for living standards, particularly in transitional economies, if current production methods and consumer behaviors remain unchanged.

China, Brazil, and India), is to be maintained or reached, every responsible measure of con- sumption will be exceeded [WWF10] The Liv- ing Planet Report 2014 states that “The

The Ecological Footprint indicates that humanity's annual demands on nature require the resources of 1.5 Earths, highlighting the urgent need for sustainable practices To enhance living standards and safeguard natural resources and ecosystems for future generations, it is essential to adopt sustainability as a guiding principle across economic, ecological, and social dimensions.

The global surge in energy consumption parallels a significant decline in per capita biocapacity According to statistics from British Petroleum (BP), Figure 3.26 illustrates the primary energy consumption levels recorded in the year 2000.

2010 for 6 regions of the world and the top ten countries Of these, the first four countries are responsible for almost exactly 50 % of the world energy consumption [BP11].

Over the past decade, the Asia Pacific region has experienced a remarkable 42% increase in consumption, making it the largest consumer globally with 38% of the total in 2010 Notably, China accounted for 20% of worldwide consumption, surpassing the United States, which contributed 19%.

It is worth noting the rate of increase in con- sumption for China (57 %), India (45 %), Brazil

(27 %) and South Korea (26 %) These countries obviously have changed from so-called ‘devel- oping countries’to‘transition countries’.

Ecological Footprint (global hectares per person)

Consequences for Factory Planning

Sustainability encompasses economic, ecological, and social dimensions Economically, prioritizing short-term profits over environmental health can lead to market decline Ecologically, it is crucial to avoid consuming resources faster than they can be replenished Socially, it is essential to uphold humanitarian principles by ensuring fair treatment and safe working conditions for all workers Ultimately, sustainable development aims to enable all individuals to lead fulfilling lives while preserving the planet.

Production management and factory planners play a crucial role in shaping productivity, working conditions, and energy consumption Key design areas such as manufacturing methods, material flow, work organization, and facility layout significantly impact sustainability Given the ongoing energy challenges, enhancing energy efficiency has emerged as a critical focus in manufacturing practices.

In Germany's processing industry, energy costs account for only 2.4% of the gross production value, indicating that energy consumption may not be a significant economic factor.

In production plants such as machine building, electrical engineering, and the automobile industry, energy costs constitute an average of 5.2% of the gross value generated by the company, excluding material and purchased item costs Specifically, energy costs account for 2.0% in machine building, 2.0% in electrical equipment, and 1.3% in the automobile sector Targeting energy savings of 15–20% could significantly alter the overall cost structure of these industries.

When examining the entire value-adding chain or production network prior to manufacturing, the potential for savings significantly increases, potentially accounting for nearly 50% of raw material costs.

Because all production energy consumption also pollutes the air by emitting greenhouse increase [%]

Total 5.966,9 7.741,8 22,9 63,6 64,5 consumption [mill tonnes oil equivalent] share [%]

Note: consumption of primary energy comprises commercially traded fuels, including modern renewables used to generate electricity.

Figures from BP Statistical Review of World Energy June 2011

Fig 3.26 Consumption of primary energy ( fi gures by

BP) gases, its influence on the climate is also a critical subject An indicator of this is the so-called carbon footprint In the words of the European

The Carbon Footprint (CF), also referred to as the Carbon Profile, represents the total emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2) and other greenhouse gases (GHGs) such as methane and nitrous oxide associated with a product throughout its entire supply chain This assessment often includes emissions from the product's use, as well as its end-of-life recovery and disposal Key contributors to these emissions include electricity generation in power plants, heating through fossil fuels, transportation activities, and various industrial and agricultural processes.

A low carbon footprint is now a key indicator of quality in well-designed and resource-efficient construction projects Consequently, it is essential to prioritize these factors when planning new production facilities or reorganizing existing ones.

In order to do so, the following management rules apply: Over the long term

• the rate of use of renewable natural goods must be greater than their regeneration rate.

• the use of non-renewable natural goods must be greater than the substitution of their functions.

• the release of materials and energy must be greater than the adaptability of the environment.

To implement these rules effectively, a generic model illustrating the energy flow within a factory is essential Figure 3.28 defines the factory system by highlighting the interactions between production facilities and the factory building, as referenced in [Her10] This model serves as a foundation for understanding the material, information, and value flow, which will be explored in greater detail in Section 15.4.2.

The starting point is the production equipment that, on the one hand, requires primary energy as well as compressed air, vapor and cold water.

A significant amount of energy generated in production processes is lost to the environment, despite some being redirected into energy recovery systems Additionally, certain operations necessitate specific environmental conditions, such as controlled temperature, humidity, and cleanliness, which must be provided by building services Furthermore, the building must also accommodate the local climate to ensure optimal functionality and efficiency.

finally, the building must have an atmosphere that supports the health of the factory workers.

In the sense of energy efficiency a few design principles can be derived:

The production processes and machinery serve as the foundation for operational efficiency, focusing on minimizing idle time and avoiding load peaks In terms of cost distribution, personal costs account for 20.5%, while material and raw material costs make up 42.9% Additionally, purchased items represent 11.1% of total expenses, which also include other costs such as marketing and legal fees.

2.4% taxes, depriciation rent, interest 10.8% energy costs

Fig 3.27 Shares of gross production value in

Buildings and their services must achieve energy neutrality, qualifying them as 'zero energy' or 'zero net energy' structures The space's quality and conditioning are subsequently dictated by the specific needs of the processes and workplaces within.

• The necessary minimum required energy for the building and its building services should if possible be covered 100 % from energy losses from processes and from regenerative energy earnings.

Currently, comprehensive certification sys- tems in the sense of Green Building Standards for buildings and plants are being developed.

This will be discussed in considerable detail in

Despite significant efforts to enhance energy efficiency, reducing ongoing energy costs in both new and renovated production facilities often involves substantial investments that necessitate lengthy amortization periods Companies typically aim for shorter amortization timelines, making the financial aspect a critical consideration in energy efficiency initiatives.

Due to limited financial resources and a timeframe of just two years, companies often avoid necessary investments in sustainable practices Instead, they opt for low-cost measures that offer minimal long-term impact and do not address the rising energy costs.

Recycling Economy

In our exploration of energy conservation, we emphasize the importance of creating a closed energy cycle, which includes optimizing both raw materials and production methods Additionally, it is crucial to design products that minimize environmental resource consumption during their use Furthermore, maximizing the reuse and recycling of components and materials within these products is essential for sustainable practices.

The term‘recycling economy’was coined for this approach The various basic stations in the recycling economy are depicted in Fig 3.29 [Sel97].

The recycling economy involves multiple cycles, beginning with the consumption of goods by end customers after their development, production, and distribution These goods are then utilized by further users, including production machines and technical building services (TBS), which generate waste heat, exhaust air, and waste energy, all while adhering to defined production conditions.

(e.g temperature, moisture, purity) gas, oil electricity return local climate intput output cooling heating water electricity

(e.g compressed air, steam, cooling water)

Fig 3.28 Energy fl ow model of a factory

Even when a product has reached the end of its useful life, many of its components may still be functional By disassembling, reworking, and reassembling these parts, we can create new, usable products When components can no longer be reused, they are broken down to recover valuable raw materials, such as copper and other metals, which can be repurposed, or to safely dispose of hazardous materials like chemicals.

Adopting a material stream management strategy is essential for creating new goods while minimizing environmental impact This approach focuses on optimizing logistics to achieve a balance between ecological sustainability and economic efficiency.

The Recycling and Waste Management Act that was passed in Germany in 1994 and went into effect in 1996 comprehensively addresses this approach [KrW96] Its essential points include:

• waste prevention is to be prioritized before recycling, and recycling before disposal

• resources should be recycled within the plant

• producers and distributors are responsible for products during their entire lifecycle

• products should be designed so that compo- nents and pure raw materials can be recovered for reuse and dangerous materials can be separated and safely disposed of.

To enhance product durability and extend their lifespan, companies are encouraged to adopt strategies that intensify usage Compliance with laws regarding product returns and environmental protection necessitates careful consideration during factory design This involves re-evaluating internal processes to incorporate an effective recycling system, with a particular focus on managing manufacturing waste such as metal chips and associated materials like emulsions, lubricants, and chemical solutions.

When implementing equipment in a factory, it is essential to consider its lifecycle, as mandated by the German Recycling Act Proper maintenance, repair, and the ability to exchange components are crucial for extending equipment longevity Additionally, the design must facilitate maintenance, repair, and retrofitting Furthermore, the factory's structural framework, building shell, media supply, ventilation, air conditioning, and lighting should all be optimized for their respective lifecycles.

Effective factory planning significantly influences the design of production processes, encompassing product development, production, distribution, utilization, and waste management This includes the treatment and elimination of unusable products, as well as the reassembly, cleaning, examining, and reworking of functioning products and components A focus on pure materials ensures that consumed products and components are efficiently processed, maximizing the potential for usable and functioning outputs.

Fig 3.29 Stations of the recycling economy © IFA G8892SW_B

Implementing an internal recycling system within the plant is essential for conserving resources like raw materials and energy while protecting the natural environment Additionally, products should be designed to minimize resource consumption, avoid environmental harm, and maximize the potential for reuse or recycling of their components and materials.

The growing influx of used goods returning to producers highlights the need for disassembly plants to provide valuable services While the future of a disassembly and product recycling industry remains uncertain, initial experiences suggest that merging new production with industrial refurbishing within a single facility is impractical Consequently, it is expected that maintenance, repair, and customer-specific refurbishing will evolve as essential services, warranting consideration in the planning of new factories and the renovation of existing ones Future production demands will be shaped by specific properties and guiding principles.

Summary

The future design of factories must prioritize adaptability to market fluctuations, emphasizing high responsiveness and flexibility in production volumes and variants To tackle these challenges, enterprises should focus on setting boundaries, involving and empowering employees, and enhancing personal communication and networking within and beyond the organization Additionally, addressing demographic changes through age-oriented workplace designs is essential, ensuring alignment with corporate culture while promoting resource and energy efficiency Recognizing the need for change is crucial, particularly when faced with issues like insufficient delivery capabilities, declining market share, and unsatisfactory returns on capital Internal factors driving change often stem from shifts in ownership, strategy, or fundamental alterations in products and processes Key design principles for future factories include surpassing traditional delivery times, mastering volume fluctuations and product variants, overcoming established limits, implementing self-organized workflows, integrating core competencies dynamically, fostering a culture of shared values, and ensuring sustainability throughout the entire lifecycle of products and processes.

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Introduction

The evolution of industrial production has led to continuous changes in factories, driven by the demand for a more interconnected economy and advancements in technology The concept of breaking work into small, standardized tasks was initially proposed by Taylor, highlighting the shift towards efficiency in manufacturing processes.

In 1911, Ford implemented a revolutionary approach that, alongside the assembly line, enabled the mass production of consumer goods by semi-skilled workers This fundamental principle was utilized until the 1950s to meet the high demands of the post-war era.

In the 1960s, the focus on customer-oriented production led to the emergence of product variants, group work, and manufacturing cells The introduction of numerical control for machine tools and robots paved the way for machining centers and flexible manufacturing systems, enabling automatic production of certain parts in random sequences, even during night shifts without supervision The competitive pressures of the 1980s, particularly from Japan, prompted the adoption of Lean Production to minimize waste In Germany, fractal and modular factories further stimulated innovation The globalization of the 1990s and increasing market uncertainty highlighted the need for flexible and adaptable factories Today, discussions center around digitally networked factories that facilitate the self-controlled movement of customized products, while also addressing the need for workplaces designed for an aging workforce and improved resource management in factory operations.

In this chapter, we will provide a brief overview of the roughly outlined stages marking the evo- lution of the factory.

F.W Taylor

Frederic Winslow Taylor, known as the 'father of scientific management,' was a pioneering American figure who critically analyzed the design of manufacturing processes His insights are encapsulated in his influential book, "The Principles of Scientific Management." Taylor emphasized that the primary duty of management is to promote the prosperity of both the organization and its workforce, articulating four key principles to achieve this goal.

• developing a truly scientific approach to management,

• scientifically training and developing employ- ees, and

• trusting and close collaboration between managers and employees.

Through his experience in various enterprises, Taylor became convinced that an enormous waste was caused by applying rules of thumb and

H.-P Wiendahl et al., Handbook Factory Planning and Design,

DOI 10.1007/978-3-662-46391-8_4, © Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2015

The implementation of conventional work methods often occurs without critical analysis Through detailed time and motion studies, work processes were deconstructed into essential steps, leading to the creation of standardized procedures This approach emphasizes the importance of separating preparatory planning from the execution of tasks.

Taylor identified the following aspects as vital to this new approach:

• time studies using appropriate methods and equipment,

• ‘function supervisors’ responsible for educat- ing employees and planning work,

• standardizing all tools, processes and movements,

• developing a planning room or department,

• using slide-rulers and other time-saving tools,

• having work instructions for employees,

• defining targets linked to a large bonus when successfully met,

• using classification systems for products and operating equipment,

• having production control systems, and

Taylor’s thoughts influenced concepts about organizing work especially in large batch and mass production up until after World War II.

Taylorism faced early criticism as its limitations became evident with the rise of automation, a surge in product variants, heightened quality demands, and a changing dynamic in management-worker roles Despite these challenges, the core principles of Taylor's approach remain relevant Gaugler encapsulates these principles in six key points, which we will summarize briefly.

• a market economy with permanent pressure to decrease piece costs is conditional,

• aligning the business interests of the employ- ers and capital investors with those of the employees,

• systematically developing best practices instead of rules of thumb,

• decisive roles for middle and lower management,

• intensive collaboration between management and workforce, and

• emphasizing extrinsic motivations (promoted externally) without ignoring intrinsic (personal reasoned) motivations.

Taylor's methods represent the first comprehensive system for scientifically managing a business Alongside Taylor, Frank Bunker Gilbreth and his wife Lillian conducted time and motion studies, while Henry Lawrence Gantt, known for creating the Gantt chart, systematically analyzed production processes to enhance and implement improvements in factory operations.

Henry Ford (1863–1947) effectively implemented Taylor's principles in his factories by emphasizing standardization, typing, and the interchangeability of parts His approach also included the division of labor and precision work, which collectively revolutionized mass production As a result, Ford's innovations made automobiles accessible to a wide segment of the population.

In Germany, Taylor's principles were advanced by scientists like Adolf Wallichs in Aachen and Georg Schlesinger in Berlin The country embraced American production techniques through rationalization, focusing on time and motion studies REFA, Germany's foremost organization in work design and industrial organization, provides a continually updated methodology for the effective planning and management of office and production tasks.

Group Work

Following World War II, the global economy experienced rapid growth, leading to the emergence of a seller's market characterized by standardized products These products were manufactured in large quantities, utilizing the principles established by Taylor and Ford.

As product differentiation increased and new markets emerged, lot sizes diminished, leading to a rise in diverse orders that complicated factory operations This complexity resulted in higher work-in-process (WIP) levels, extended throughput times, and reduced schedule reliability, illustrating the challenges faced by an uncontrollable workshop environment.

The Throughput Diagram illustrates that significant fluctuations in input lead to corresponding variations in output, resulting in high and unstable Work In Progress (WIP) levels These fluctuations directly impact lead times, causing a leftward skew in frequency distributions, characterized by a few quick orders, a broad range of normal orders, and some extremely slow orders Additionally, in a job shop production setting, the proportion of value-adding processing time is typically low, further complicating lead time management.

Research indicates that with a production target utilization of 96–98%, waiting times can constitute 70–80% of the total throughput time, leading to inadequate schedule reliability Consequently, while some orders may be completed too early, the majority are often delivered late, particularly when a tolerance zone of ±2 workdays for permissible lateness is applied.

30 % of the orders are on-time.

To address the emerging challenges, various strategic, organizational, and engineering approaches were developed Strategically, it was advised to establish business units dedicated to monitoring specific targets for each market Consequently, autonomous factories emerged within the plant, each concentrating on a distinct product family.

Personnel and organizational methodology focused on employees The idea here was that the progressive diversity of products and their

WIP frequency lead time frequency too early too late permissible deviation lead time processing time setup time transportation time distribution time waiting time

Fig 4.1 Characteristic properties of an uncontrollable production a Fluctuating trend of work-in-process b Wide lead time distribution c High share of waiting time d Poor due date performance © IFA G9125SW_B

4.3 Group Work 65 variants could be better controlled by returning planning and control tasks from the offices back to the shopfloor, reducing hierarchies and rules and fostering communication between personnel.

At the same time the employees’ growing need for autonomy and self-realization could also be addressed.

The forms of work which developed from there can be summarized under the concept of group work A group takes on an overall task

The process involves manufacturing a set of similar workpieces or assembling a unit, either fully or partially It autonomously allocates necessary tasks among group members, focusing solely on the control of the final outcomes.

This article illustrates the three distinct forms of group work using the example of an assembly task, starting with the traditional method of job sharing, where tasks are strictly separated.

Job rotation allows qualified employees engaged in assembly to take on various tasks, enhancing their skills and breaking the monotony of repetitive work While it excludes responsibilities like machine setup, quality checks, repairs, packing, and transportation, it still contributes to a more dynamic and engaging work environment.

Job enlargement involves merging various tasks of equal qualification into a broader role, allowing group members to separate their activities from the production cycle While non-value-adding tasks may still occur at different stations, this approach aims to enhance workers' connection to their product, ultimately boosting job satisfaction.

Job enrichment enhances productivity by implementing part-autonomous work groups that take on both direct and indirect tasks, including quality checks, material ordering, and maintenance While these groups handle assembly and setup, higher-level planning and control responsibilities, such as personnel management and scheduling, remain with a foreman or supervisor This approach promotes job sharing, job rotation, and job enlargement, ultimately leading to a more engaged and efficient workforce.

Fig 4.2 Forms of work structures (Bullinger) © IFA G2949ASW_Wd_B

Transferring indirectly productive tasks to a team fosters the creation of autonomous workgroups These groups independently manage their responsibilities and are accountable for delivering products that meet the required quality and quantity by the specified deadline Typically, the spokesperson serves as the main contact person, representing the team both internally and externally while being an active participant in the group's activities.

Partially and fully autonomous workgroups best support employees' self-realization, yet they impose significant demands on both professional and personal levels Key challenges include the regulation of work hours, the wage system, and the necessity for continuous education and skill enhancement.

Manufacturing Cells

The strategic and organizational methods presented are enhanced by engineering solutions derived from research, addressing the increasing diversity of components within enterprises.

Roòberg's research and Mitrovanow’s technological approach laid the foundation for studies in Germany, revealing that even in seemingly heterogeneous parts, groups of similar components can be identified These groups account for only 20-30% of the production costs for the products, yet they represent nearly 70% of all parts involved.

[Arn75] In order to find these ‘part families’, diverse classification systems were implemented

—in Europe, the Opitz coding system for single mechanical engineering parts was the most widespread of these [Opi66].

For part families like shafts, gears, and levers, utilizing variant designs and standardized work plans can enhance efficiency These components typically follow a similar workflow and are processed through the same machines Consequently, the minimal changeovers required at various workstations help reduce setup times, leading to improved productivity.

Despite its intentions, this method has not gained traction, as it remains rooted in workshop production principles, leading to significant organizational costs and extensive planning and control efforts for managing these part families.

To achieve shorter throughput times and reduced work-in-progress (WIP) levels, it became essential to optimize workstation utilization In the 1970s, the concept of manufacturing cells emerged, integrating all necessary equipment and personnel to produce similar products both spatially and organizationally This approach acknowledged that not all machines would be fully utilized, allowing for greater independence in operations through group work, which encompassed material supply, finite scheduling, and order sequencing.

Figure 4.3 illustrates the fundamental design of a manufacturing cell, where raw materials are retrieved from bins positioned at the cell's entrance Unlike traditional workshop production methods, which process an entire lot before moving it, this system employs a "one-piece-flow" approach Here, as soon as a portion of the lot is completed, it is promptly transferred to the next workstation, facilitated either by the operator's manual handling or via a conveyor belt.

Manufacturing cells are designed to minimize work-in-progress (WIP) levels and reduce throughput times by strategically arranging machines based on workflow, which eliminates waiting times for parts between operations This efficient layout allows for overlapping production lots, resulting in significant reductions in both WIP and processing time For instance, a manufacturing cell can decrease total throughput time from 20 minutes to just 8 minutes, with real-world applications demonstrating reductions from several weeks to as little as one day.

The significant variations in processing times for different operations hinder the optimal utilization of resources within a manufacturing cell, resulting in inefficiencies.

Group work in manufacturing can lead to unjustifiable idle capacity costs, particularly as the variety of part variants increases within a production cell This rise in setup times poses challenges, suggesting that traditional workshop production methods are likely to remain relevant in the future.

M3 M2 worker workpiece in process workpiece waits M1 to M4 processing machines exit entrance

Fig 4.3 Principle of a manufacturing cell © IFA G9121SW_B time [min] time for processing = 1 min/piece

4 min one-piece-flow manufacturing with transportation lot size 1

[min] time for processing = 1 min/piece lot-wise manufacturing with transportation lot size 5

Fig 4.4 Lot-wise and one-piece- fl ow production (after Suzaki) © IFA G8979SW_B

Flexible Manufacturing Systems

The evolution of manufacturing cells raises important considerations regarding the level of automation and the connectivity of these cells The introduction of numerical control for machine tools in the 1960s revolutionized manufacturing by enabling the automatic execution of complete operations for various parts in succession, paving the way for innovative approaches to producing part families.

Establishing machining centers is a crucial step in modern manufacturing, enabling workpieces to be processed from multiple sides in a single setup This approach incorporates various technologies, including milling, drilling, and thread-cutting, while automated tool changes are essential for optimizing efficiency and precision in the machining process.

Linking multiple processing centers with essential workstations for washing and testing workpieces creates a flexible manufacturing system This concept is illustrated in Figure 6.30 in Chapter 6.

Centralized stores for workpieces and tools, equipped with dedicated transport systems, complement processing and support stations Each station features local buffers for efficient handling of workpieces and tools A hierarchical control system, managed by a master computer, oversees the components The transport system, typically utilizing workpiece pallets, often includes rail-guided transport wagons with conveyor devices, as well as automated guided vehicles for enhanced operational efficiency.

(AGV) and programmable handling devices, such as industrial robots, are however also employed.

Flexible manufacturing systems enable the automated production of a defined group of similar parts, functioning as automated manufacturing cells Initially popular in the 1980s, their economic viability declined due to increasing part diversity from market demands, high storage and connection costs, and labor-intensive programming However, advancements in simpler connections, such as the use of robots and standardized buffer devices, have significantly reduced these costs As a result, flexible manufacturing systems have regained importance, particularly in the production of pilot lots and spare parts within the automobile industry and its suppliers.

Manufacturing Segments

Manufacturing cells and flexible manufacturing systems have evolved beyond their initial focus on specific product parts due to market demands and decentralization This shift has led to the integration of various value-adding processes, such as assembly, packaging, and shipping, into cohesive organizational units These units, known as manufacturing segments, allow for a concentrated approach to individual products, enabling the pursuit of tailored competitive strategies Each manufacturing segment targets specific market-product combinations, employing distinct strategies such as prioritizing quality or minimizing throughput times This product-centric orientation enhances efficiency by reducing coordination and control costs while decreasing interdependencies between segments, ultimately resulting in greater production depth.

Integrating various steps of the logistics chain into the manufacturing segment allows for the spatial combination of manufacturing and assembly, effectively eliminating the traditional separation between these two areas This integration addresses technical challenges arising from the close proximity of incompatible technologies, such as emissions-intensive manufacturing processes alongside precision assembly operations.

4.5 Flexible Manufacturing Systems 69 and clean assembly processes) need to be resolved within the scope of factory planning with suitable measures for workplaces and areas

Transferring indirect functions to employees in manufacturing cells positively impacts overall results Additionally, implementing an incentive system can drive continuous process improvements aimed at minimizing waste.

The allocation of costs and outcomes varies based on the customer type; when a segment's product is utilized internally within the organization, it operates as a cost or service center Conversely, if the segment provides a final product at market prices, it functions as a profit center.

Wildemann mentions a number of principles for designing such segments These include

• providing smaller and possibly duplicate capacities,

• spatial concentration of equipment with a variable layout,

• processing parts and groups completely,

• workers testing parts or components by themselves,

• temporally decoupling the manual work from the operating times of the machines and

In the 1990s, the introduction of manufacturing cells and segments marked a pivotal advancement in production organization, leading to notable enhancements in key market objectives such as quality and cost efficiency.

A further development in the segmentation approach led to‘indirect segmentation’, in which business processes for indirect functions are also handled with responsibility for the results [Wild00].

Integrating distribution, marketing, and product development into defined direct and indirect segments creates 'product units' or 'business units' that cater to specific market segments throughout the product life cycle To mitigate the risk of losing expertise within these units, support centers are established for areas such as CAD technology, specialized manufacturing methods, and procurement procedures This approach emphasizes market and target orientation over product orientation, ensuring responsibility for costs and results while facilitating the transfer of indirect functions By defining distinct product-market-production combinations, companies can enhance strategic success factors and minimize coordination efforts through vertical integration and the interlinking of various in-house value creation steps.

• maintenance transportation material supply control setup quality control

Fig 4.5 Features of manufacturing segments

Lean Production and the Toyota Production

The concept of lean production can be traced back to a five-year, worldwide study by the

Massachusetts Institute of Technology of the

A study conducted across approximately 100 automobile factories in Japan, North America, and Europe revealed significant disparities in performance, layout, workforce, and automation The research indicated that Japanese plants consistently outperformed their American and European counterparts in all categories However, notable variations were also observed within each group of factories, highlighting the complexity of manufacturing efficiency across different regions.

Significant disparities were observed in product development performance, impacting both the costs and time necessary for creating a new model Additionally, variations were noted in supplier contributions, the duration until normal productivity was reached, and the quality of the output once production commenced.

A study conducted in the USA in 1990 and published in German in 1991 sparked significant interest in Germany, igniting a long-lasting debate regarding the competitiveness of its automobile industry and production capabilities It soon became evident that addressing the existing deficits required more than isolated strategies like overhead value cost analyses or shorter setup times; a comprehensive approach focused on achieving perfection was essential This involved a commitment to continually reducing prices, eliminating defects, minimizing inventories, and enhancing product diversity Consequently, both design and production processes, including those of suppliers, needed to be consistently evaluated in alignment with customer demands.

In response to significant challenges, the German industry has made substantial improvements in both products and processes, yet this has led to a notable rise in unemployment and criticism of the lean production concept For the first time since World War II, employment levels in Germany did not increase alongside production, highlighting the need for new products and markets, as well as innovative services and business mergers Lean production is not merely a theoretical framework but rather an analysis derived from successful companies, primarily based on the principles of the Toyota Motor Company, which emphasizes employee satisfaction, customer satisfaction, defect management, and efficiency in processing and delivery times.

Fig 4.6 Impact of segmentation (Wildemann). © IFA G9126SW_B

4.7 Lean Production and the Toyota Production System 71 continually developed Toyota Production System

The Toyota Production System (TPS) focuses on achieving optimal product quality while minimizing costs and reducing delivery times This approach aims to enhance production efficiency and overall performance.

• productivity by eliminating every type of waste,

• quality through reliable processes which facilitate high quality products,

• flexibility through responsive workplaces and employees, and

• humanity by including the knowledge of workers as much as possible.

The core of the concept is an organizational and human centered production model based on motivation, creativity and abilities of employees.

To enhance customer relations, production goals focus on reducing hierarchical structures, streamlining decision-making processes, delegating tasks to execution teams, and fostering collaboration with suppliers during the product development phase.

Based on these,five inter-related elements of

Toyota Production System were developed; a summary of these is found in Fig.4.8according to Oeltjensbruns’depiction [Oelt00].

The fundamental principle of the Toyota Production System (TPS) is to minimize waste, focusing on maximizing value while utilizing the least amount of resources, materials, parts, space, and labor hours.

To prevent waste and rework, it is essential to maintain a strict customer-supplier relationship by ensuring that only 100% faultless parts and components are transferred between workstations, including those from external suppliers Additionally, overproduction can occur when processing optimal lot sizes, which aims to minimize setup times and enhance efficiency.

To prevent machine standstills and minimize material waste, it is essential to fill orders efficiently This approach helps avoid unnecessary inventories in both warehouses and production By implementing the pull principle alongside overlapped manufacturing based on the one-piece-flow principle, organizations can effectively streamline their operations.

Unnecessary waiting times for materials, personnel, and machinery are intricately linked to inventory management These delays can stem from various sources, including post-operation wait times, queuing, setup periods at workstations, and waiting for parts in batches To effectively minimize these wastes, it is crucial to focus on key performance indicators such as productivity measured in hours per car and quality assessed by assembly defects per ten cars.

Japanese plants in North America

American plants in North America all European plants layout area (sqm/car/year) size of the repair area (% of assembly area) stock level (days for 8 chosen parts) workers

In analyzing workforce dynamics, it is essential to consider the percentage of workers engaged in job rotation, ranging from none to frequent participation Additionally, the number of suggestions per employee reflects the level of engagement and innovation within teams Understanding the distribution of wage groups and the hours dedicated to educating new production workers is crucial for optimizing training processes Furthermore, monitoring employee absence rates provides insight into workforce stability The extent of automation in operations, particularly in welding, painting, and assembly, significantly influences productivity and efficiency in the manufacturing sector.

Fig 4.7 Characteristics of high volume automobile manufacturers 1989 (Womack et al.) © IFA G9128SW_B

• manufacturing segments with workstations arranged in the shape of an‘U’,

• extremely short setup times for the machinery, and

• limiting the WIP in a system by defining the number of permissible parts before or in a system.

Unnecessary transportation and handling of parts often arise from multiple interim storages and commissioning during the journey from the supplier to the assembly site An effective delivery and supply concept eliminates these inefficiencies by implementing an integrated supply chain, ensuring that parts arrive directly from the supplier's last workstation to the consumer in the required amounts, without packaging, and using suitable reusable workpiece carriers However, when this ideal scenario is not achieved, cross-plant logistics must ensure demand-driven delivery, while the internal transport system is tasked with timely supplying consumption points Ultimately, the responsibility for handling parts within the segment falls to the workers.

The second key principle of the Toyota Production System focuses on establishing a flexible production system that swiftly adapts to fluctuations in product quantities, variants sold, and the methods and processes used.

• distributing the work content as equally as possible based on a balanced sequence of product variants with large and small work contents (i.e., leveling),

• fast reactions to faults with the goal of per- manently eliminating them and

• broadly qualified workers who, depending on demand, control one or more work operations. The group work described previously is a prerequisite for this.

Total quality control is a key component of the Toyota Production System (TPS), aiming to eliminate defects and ensure customers receive products that are entirely free of faults Achieving this goal necessitates ongoing monitoring of all business processes, including marketing, product development, sales, order processing, and servicing By establishing stable and capable processes, TPS enhances overall product quality and customer satisfaction.

The Toyota Production System (TPS) emphasizes flexible and fast production through a versatile workforce, ensuring steady operations while minimizing waste It focuses on reducing scrap, re-machining, and overproduction, as well as optimizing stock levels Additionally, TPS aims to eliminate non-value-adding movements, such as unnecessary transportation and handling, and to decrease waiting times in the production process.

Just-in-Time

The fourth basic element of TPS—commonly known as just-in-time (JIT) as coined by Taiichi

Ohno—aims to supply all of the factors needed for production exactly as needed [Ohn88] This supports the logistic objectives‘low inventories,

‘short throughput times’and ‘high punctuality’.

JIT considers the entire value-adding chain from the suppliers to the enterprise’s production up to the delivery to the customer.

The JIT elements illustrated in Fig 4.8 focus on achieving a steady flow of orders in production Initially, production leveling targets the irregularities in incoming orders to create a smoother work process Meanwhile, the pull principle highlights the importance of warehouse efficiency The ultimate goal is to establish a continuous flow of production with a consistent cycle time throughout all value-adding stages.

Just-in-Time (JIT) procurement involves delivering purchased components directly to the point of use, ideally eliminating the need for an incoming goods store When parts are supplied in the specific order they will be assembled, particularly in automotive model variants, this is referred to as Just-in-Sequence (JIS) procurement JIT and JIS are particularly effective for parts with high to medium consumption values and predictable usage patterns, making them ideal for managing inventory efficiently.

To maintain an efficient stock of 2–4 hours at the consumption point, it is crucial to align suppliers and consumers, ensuring high delivery reliability and controlled processes Quantity fluctuations should be kept within 20 to 30% For other supply concepts, such as 'C part management,' organizations may outsource the management of C parts to external service providers or receive grouped deliveries from suppliers The goal is to minimize the number of suppliers by bundling articles or forming development partnerships with component and system suppliers Two essential conditions for Just-In-Time (JIT) delivery are a supplier with highly reliable processes and dependable delivery Achieving this involves implementing a supplier qualification phase and conducting regular audits.

ficient supply volume, the second condition is met by settling suppliers in ‘supplier parks’ located close to the consumer We will take a

4.7 Lean Production and the Toyota Production System 75 look at some of the other delivery concepts that are constantly being developed later when we discuss designing procurement logistics (see

Just-In-Time (JIT) production utilizes the pull principle, contrasting with the push principle where orders are sequentially pushed from workstations based on a routing plan In the pull approach, orders are drawn from production starting at the last workstation, following the supermarket principle This method enhances efficiency by responding directly to demand rather than relying on a predetermined schedule.

The pull principle in production begins with the consumer, who withdraws a stored final product based on a specific customer order, ensuring immediate delivery of the required quantity When stock levels drop below a predetermined threshold, a Kanban card—containing crucial information such as the item’s identification number, production area, consumption area, and required quantity—is generated to initiate the final assembly of the product variant within an agreed timeframe The assembly process utilizes a buffer of pre-assembled components, which are replenished through additional Kanbans, creating a continuous feedback loop that extends back to the cutting and mechanical shops This system also integrates external suppliers for materials like sheet metal and hydraulic parts, utilizing Kanbans communicated via fax or electronic protocols Ultimately, this approach fosters a streamlined flow of production, contingent upon specific operational conditions.

• each section of the production has to deliver

• the number of variants has to be limited,

• the capacityflexibility has to be sufficient for managing fluctuations in quantities, and

• delivery time of each Kanban has to be strictly adhered to.

When optimal conditions are present, production control can be both simple and decentralized, allowing for effective inventory management However, if these conditions are not satisfied, alternative methods like Constant Work-in-Process (CON-WIP) and Load Oriented Order Release (LOOR) become necessary CON-WIP stands out by eliminating variant-specific storage buffers, instead initiating production runs directly from the preceding stage at the start of the production chain This approach aligns with WIP-controlled pull production, adhering to the flow principle Conversely, in scenarios where orders vary significantly and are processed using the workshop principle, a Load Oriented system is employed.

Order Release can be effectively implemented through the use of LOOR, which integrates work-in-progress (WIP) control with throughput time management This approach ensures that orders are released only when it is confirmed that the predefined WIP levels at each workstation will remain within limits, preventing workshop overload and fluctuations in WIP Furthermore, alongside reliable production processes, just-in-time manufacturing necessitates consistent transportation, storage, and supply chain operations from the arrival of goods to shipping and distribution.

Effective factory planning requires efficient positioning of workpieces on load carriers Implementing mobile interim stores, preferably with flow racks, facilitates the transfer of load carriers from transportation vehicles to interim storage or consumption areas Additionally, a dependable transport system with frequent deliveries is essential for optimal operations.

The Toyota Production System does not specifically address the distribution of produced goods; however, its flow principle emphasizes minimizing stock levels and shortening shipping times Distribution logistics play a crucial role in delivering products to the market and end users, often utilizing interim storage facilities for bundling and shipping items to locations close to customers Key technical functions in this process include handling, storage, order picking, and transportation As distribution primarily affects factory planning concerning the output point, further detail on this topic is not necessary.

As global goods streams become increasingly interconnected, the focus shifts from individual enterprises to entire logistic chains and networks, encompassing both upstream suppliers and downstream customers This interconnected system is known as a ‘supply chain’ or ‘value-adding chain.’ The Supply Chain Operations Reference Model (SCOR Model 10.0) outlines essential tasks within this chain, including sourcing, production, delivery, and returns Supply Chain Management (SCM) plays a crucial role in designing, planning, and controlling the flow of materials, information, and value within these networks, with the goal of enhancing customer satisfaction through competitive pricing, quality, and reliable delivery, while also minimizing costs and adapting swiftly to market changes Consequently, competition now occurs between entire value-adding chains rather than isolated businesses, a trend particularly evident in the automotive industry.

The final key component of the Toyota Production System is "autonomation," a term that describes an automated system's ability to halt operations when issues arise, such as machine malfunctions or quality defects This capability is typically facilitated by internal sensors within the production equipment or a 'rip cord' along the assembly line When a malfunction occurs, it is signaled by a lamp at the affected station and an electronic indicator board, prompting immediate attention from quality control and maintenance specialists.

Lean Production, rooted in the Toyota Production System, provides essential principles for effectively designing procurement and production processes Since the 1990s, numerous enterprises have adopted lean production methodologies, implementing them as structured production systems.

Spath extended this approach to what he refers to as ‘holistic production system’ (HPS):

Holistic production systems are comprehensive frameworks that outline systematic rules and guidelines for the manufacturing of goods These systems serve as operational instructions, emphasizing the importance of organizational, personnel, and economic factors in the production process.

Lean Production principles extend beyond the automobile industry, benefiting various sectors involved in mechanical, electrical, and electronic products While the automobile industry initially pioneered this approach, mid-sized enterprises are increasingly adopting Lean Production practices to enhance efficiency and productivity.

Current literature on lean and holistic production systems often overlooks their impact on factory planning and adaptable manufacturing environments However, there is significant potential in applying these foundational concepts to factory systems In the upcoming chapters, we will systematically explore and develop the concept of a changeable factory.

Fractal Enterprises

Warnecke's fractal factory concept [War92] aims to integrate significant advancements in production organization since the 1970s into a comprehensive framework, which he later expanded to encompass the entire enterprise.

Fractal geometry, a modern branch of mathematics, defines a fractal as a self-similar geometric shape that enables the construction of intricate structures from simple rules In the context of business, a fractal enterprise is characterized as an open system composed of independently functioning units, or fractals, that operate autonomously yet share a common orientation.

Dynamic organizational structures are essential for adapting to external stimuli, allowing organizations to modify their structure and behavior effectively Their objectives and performance can be clearly defined, highlighting their importance as responsive entities.

The concept emphasizes four fundamental organizational principles:

• self-organization through self-responsibility and functional integration,

• self-optimization through a continually devel- oping enterprise,

• orientation on objectives through a holistic, market-oriented system of business objectives, and

• dynamic restructuring measured against the enterprise’s individual fractals’rate of obtain- ing objectives.

Fractal enterprises surpass traditional segmented and modular factories by emphasizing self-organization aligned with shared objectives, akin to an internal market economy This structure allows for self-initiated changes within the fractal and in its interactions with other fractals, fostering adaptability from the ground up Moreover, employees are empowered to drive improvements and respond swiftly to market fluctuations, making fractal organizations more agile than bureaucratic entities reliant on centralized planning.

To foster a dynamic enterprise, it is essential to extend traditional views of processes, material flow, and finances to include soft factors like informal social relationships, strategic aspects, and corporate culture There is no one-size-fits-all project plan for achieving a fractal enterprise; instead, the readiness for transformation and adaptability within corporate culture are crucial This holistic approach to production highlights the fractal as a continuous value-adding unit that collaborates within a network of internal and shared potentials.

Agility Oriented Competition

Agile Manufacturing, a business concept developed in the USA through comprehensive industrial research, emphasizes heightened responsiveness to customer demands This approach prioritizes the development of new products and services over traditional manufacturing processes, aiming to minimize the time from initial idea to first sales revenue, thereby shortening the concept-to-cashflow timeline.

In order to open up new groups of customers, enterprises position themselves within a “com- petitive space”comprised of four dimensions:

To navigate the constant and unpredictable changes in today's competitive landscape, enterprises are advised to adopt a comprehensive design strategy This approach is structured into six levels, enabling organizations to effectively address the challenges they face.

Figure4.11summarizes these along with corre- sponding methods.

Based on the articulated or anticipated cus- tomer wishes marketing is responsible for defining combinations of products and services that provide the maximum benefit for customers.

The production team is tasked with delivering products in the required lot sizes and on time, ensuring that the design process aligns with these objectives while fostering strong supplier and customer relationships Throughout the product lifecycle, from use to disposal, a holistic approach is essential for effective servicing This organizational strategy involves leveraging advanced technology and specialized knowledge within a collaborative network of internal and external partners, including competitors Management should transition from a centralized command system to a leadership style that embodies the corporate culture, emphasizing agility and support By focusing on individualized combinations of products and services, enterprises can maximize customer benefits and respond to specific requests in varying lot sizes Embracing holistic methods to integrate supply relations, production processes, and customer interactions enables organizations to harness new productive possibilities, regardless of geographical constraints Ultimately, cultivating an experienced and innovative workforce is crucial for distinguishing successful enterprises, fostering added value for customers, and enhancing competitiveness through cooperation and effective change management.

Fig 4.11 Characteristics of agile enterprises in a four-dimensional competition (per Goldman et al.) © IFA 10.030SW_B

Agility-oriented competition thrives on trust and empowers employees through motivation rather than patronization A skilled, innovative, and experienced workforce is deemed essential for success, necessitating ongoing development and promotion.

Agility-oriented competition emphasizes the significance of fostering strong customer relationships and leveraging employee knowledge, skills, and creativity Instead of offering specific guidelines for process or factory design, it encourages businesses to view transformation as a chance to capitalize on new opportunities For factory planners, this approach entails creating adaptable plants that can swiftly adjust processes, product focus, and operational sequences.

Mass Customization

To stand out from competitors, many businesses feel compelled to consistently create new product variants that cater to their customers' unique preferences This need for differentiation aligns with the concept of agility-oriented competition, emphasizing the importance of adapting at the enterprise level to meet evolving consumer demands.

The increasing demands on design, production, and logistics are resulting in higher efforts and costs that cannot be sustained by current pricing strategies To address this challenge, mass customization has emerged as a potential solution, often described as a way to escape the complexity or variant trap.

The goal of this approach,first formulated by

Davis introduced the application of large-scale production techniques to the creation of customized products and services Nearly a decade later, Pine, from IBM’s business consulting division, expanded on Davis' ideas through a series of articles, culminating in the publication of his influential book "Mass Customization" in 1993, which is regarded as a foundational text on the topic.

Pin93 shifts away from Porter's competition model, which categorizes product strategies into cost leadership or differentiation based on superior functionality, quality, and delivery time.

Mass customization aims to challenge traditional large-scale manufacturers by targeting niche markets and progressively expanding them Achieving this requires highly flexible production methods, collaborative networks of small producers, and the use of information technology to connect customers, suppliers, and producers in the product development process Additionally, companies need to adopt flat organizational structures that empower largely autonomous teams.

In Germany, it was primarily Piller who pro- moted‘customized production’[Pil10]; based on numerous examples he describes mass custom- ization as a logical development of the 1980s

In the 1960s, mass production focused on balancing market demand for lower prices with efficient production, but by the 1970s, quality became a key market requirement, prompting firms to adopt comprehensive quality concepts The 1980s saw an increase in product diversity, highlighting the need for greater production flexibility, which was initially addressed through computer integrated manufacturing (CIM) However, CIM did not achieve its expected success due to organizations' inadequate adaptation True flexibility can only be realized by reorganizing all business processes and segmenting production to be customer or product-oriented As customization of products and services grew, it became essential to integrate not only customers but also suppliers into the production process.

Mass customization refers to the production of goods and services tailored to meet the diverse needs of a large market This approach ensures that products are available at prices aligned with what consumers are willing to pay for similar standardized mass products.

Mass customization plays a crucial role in enhancing customer loyalty by allowing for personalized products This approach can be executed through two distinct concepts, each differing in the timing of product individualization.

Soft customization allows customers to adjust products themselves either in-store or during the service process, while hard customization involves individualization at the factory through manufacturing operations, module assembly, or standardized processes tailored for single pieces Figure 4.13 illustrates examples of both methods, highlighting their unique advantages A comprehensive survey of 200 manufacturing plants across eight countries implementing mass customization is detailed in [Sal09].

For factory planning, mass customization according to the principle of hard customization means further developing the enterprises organi- zation into product and market specific segments.

In this collaborative environment, personnel from product design, production, and logistics work closely on specific orders, fostering extensive information exchange and personal communication throughout the value chain This approach demands meticulous production planning and control, requiring suppliers to be agile in delivering small quantities swiftly Additionally, highly skilled logistics are crucial for the prompt delivery of finished products to end users.

The next evolution step is towards personal- ized products and open-innovation; a broad overview of which is given in [Pil10].

Production Stages Concept

Customized production encourages the ongoing development of diverse product variants, primarily focusing on consumer goods like shoes, clothing, and furniture This market-driven approach emphasizes individual variety, quality, price efficiency, and flexibility, aligning with performance requirements and market demands while enhancing customer integration.

1970: quality movement today: mass customization

Fig 4.12 Stages of developing the production for mass customization (Piller) © IFA 10.023SW_B

Mass customization in capital goods involves creating tailored products by merging customer-neutral components (made-to-stock) with custom-made parts (made-to-order), which are produced only after an order is received This strategy effectively minimizes the number of variants during the initial manufacturing phases, streamlining the production process and enhancing efficiency.

Early-stage production variants can lead to significant outer variance perceived by customers, resulting in high inventories of semi-finished goods and extended throughput times, while also necessitating considerable control efforts.

By challenging the conventional divide between manufacturing and assembly, we can shift certain manufacturing processes to the assembly stage This approach minimizes internal variance and simplifies overall production complexity Consequently, a neutral product foundation for customers can be established using a minimal number of standardized components.

The production process has evolved from a division between manufacturing and assembly to a two-stage system: a variant-neutral pre-production stage and a variant-determining end-production stage, known as the 'production stages concept.' This innovative approach was developed and tested in collaboration with industrial partners In this new framework, traditional discrete part manufacturing is replaced by pre-production processes that create both variant-neutral parts and components The final customized product is completed in the end-production stage, which is separated by a buffer, allowing for the manufacturing of any remaining variant-neutral parts and the assembly and testing of components.

final product In the idealized end-production stage thefinishing processes which determine the variants are conducted immediately before the variant part is integrated [Wie04].

Based on experiences on the shop floor, the following basic conditions for implementing production stages have been determined:

The product should incorporate distinct technical variant features that are clearly defined Soft customization allows for individualization without altering manufacturing processes, while hard customization involves a variety that necessitates changes within manufacturing activities Additionally, self-individualization enables the design and production of standardized products that include built-in flexibility, allowing customers to make adjustments themselves.

Bosch: self-designable instrument panel in the car

Lutron specializes in the programming of light controls, offering a tailored approach for individual final and pre-production stages While the initial material processing and final value-adding steps, such as assembly and refining, can be customized, all other processes remain standardized for efficiency.

Mattel: adaptable Barbie doll Dolzer: custom-tailored men's suits individual finishing in trade/sales delivery of a uniform raw product, which is completed in the store according to customerís wishes

Paris Miki: individual eye glasses design

Smart: customization of interior and design of the small car at the dealer modular design construction of custom-designed products from standardized compatible components

Dell: modular computers Krone: adaptable commercial vehicles and trailers service individualization completion of standard products with individual secondary services

ChemStation: stock management for cleaning stores

Zoots: profile administration at a chemical cleaning production of unica on a massive scale individualization across the entire value chain via standardized processes

My Twinn: dolls based on models NBIC: bicycles with individual frames scope of customer individu- alized value creating steps

Fig 4.13 Concepts of mass customization (Piller) © IFA 14.784_B

To ensure the successful integration of variant features, it is essential that these modifications are technically feasible within the manufacturing process This involves incorporating the necessary manufacturing techniques into the final assembly sequence effectively.

• The product should be a final product or at least have a modular character in order to ensure a strong customer orientation.

To optimize the end-production stage, it is essential to utilize existing assembly, manufacturing, and testing resources efficiently This approach should enable the economic handling of a wide range of quantities while minimizing the need for distinct setups for each product variant.

• The part supply is controlled by consumption in the pre-production stage and by demand in the end production stage.

(b) number of variants manufacturing steps outer variance

(a) number of variants manufacturing steps measures: avoid variance in manufacturing few standardized assemblies shift of the variant formation to the final assembly outer variance reduction of inner variance

Reducing complexity in production can be achieved by creating product variants later in the manufacturing process This approach contrasts early variant formation, where product structures are established upfront In the final production stage, integrating variant-generating processes allows for a more streamlined assembly, while the preliminary stage focuses on variant-neutral assembly processes By adopting this strategy, traditional production structures can better manage complexity and enhance efficiency.

Fig 4.15 Structure and elements of the production stages concept © IFA 14.785_B

• Employees working in the assembly have to become skilled assembly workers, leaving behind highly repetitive activities for product oriented skills.

The concept was validated through various case studies, as documented in [Wie04], demonstrating the necessity for systematic adaptation of product design to distinctly separate variant-neutral and variant-specific features Notably, Schuh [Schu05] offers essential methods to achieve this separation effectively.

To enhance production efficiency and maintain quality, it is essential to utilize modular resources that enable local processing of pre-finished, variant-neutral components These resources must seamlessly integrate into assembly processes, accommodating specific cycle times and environmental conditions Additionally, procurement and supply logistics, along with stringent quality control, must address the evolving challenges of modern manufacturing While the production stage concept is technologically advanced, it presents a significant opportunity for competitive advantage in the global market.

In a further collaborative project, this concept was also extended to a globally distributed pro- duction With the Global Variant Production

The GVP system categorizes the product into distinct production stages, including procurement, in-house manufacturing driven by expertise, and market-close product completion This division plays a crucial role in defining the specific operational scope of a factory within a production network, which will be thoroughly examined in Section 14.6.

For the factory planning, the production stage concept means special requirements regarding flexible and re-configurable production systems on the section level.

Research Approaches

The most important research program for devel- oping future production systems is the interna- tional framework “Intelligent Manufacturing

The Integrated Market System (IMS), launched by Japan, brings together participants from Australia, Canada, the European Union, the European Free Trade Association, Japan, and the USA to explore five key areas of collaboration.

• lifecycles of future products and production facilities including general models, communi- cation networks, sustainability, recycling and new feasibility studies

• processes in view of sustainability, techno- logical innovation as well as flexible and autonomous production modules

• strategic, planning and development tools for supporting the re-organization and develop- ment of strategies

• people, organization and social aspects for improving the reputation of the production, developing workforces, operating autonomous relocated factories, improved knowledge management and suitable performance indicators

The evolution of virtual, interconnected enterprises has transformed information and logistics in supply chains, enhancing design collaborations and concurrent engineering processes while effectively distributing costs, responsibilities, and outcomes among networked production participants Following a decade of development, the first IMS project was completed and subsequently relaunched in collaboration with Japan, the Republic of Korea, Switzerland, the USA, and the European Union Today, it serves as a vital framework for industrial and research facilities seeking global partnerships to tackle 21st-century production and organizational challenges, focusing on five key areas.

• Sustainable Manufacturing, Products and Services

• Innovation, Competence Development and Education.

The IMS 2020 initiative, established in 2011, focuses on sustainable manufacturing and energy-efficient technologies, encapsulated in three core principles These guiding statements aim to enhance manufacturing processes while promoting sustainability and innovation in key technologies.

1 Rapid and adaptive user-centered manufac- turing, which leads to customized and ‘eter- nal’life cycle solutions

Highly flexible and self-organizing value chains facilitate various production system arrangements and infrastructures These value chains significantly shorten the time required to engage with end users and deliver effective solutions.

3 Sustainable manufacturing possible due to cultural change of individuals and corpora- tions supported by the enforcement of rules and a regulatory framework co-designed between governments, industries and societies.

One of the results from the first completed

IMS project, the Holonic Manufacturing System

(HMS), contains important stimuli for change- able factories; we would thus like to briefly introduce it here.

The key idea behind Holonic Manufacturing is the‘holon’—a term coined by Arthur Koestler in 1967 in his book“The Ghost in the Machine”

In his concept of 'holon', Koestler defines an autonomous structure within social or biological systems that is composed of smaller units while simultaneously being part of a larger whole The term merges the Greek word 'holos', meaning whole, with the suffix 'on', suggesting a dual nature of independence and interdependence.

‘part’ Accordingly, a holon is both a whole and a part of a larger whole.

In the IMS program, the concept of a holon was adapted for the production environment, defining it as an autonomous and collaborative structural unit within a production system This unit is responsible for converting, transporting, storing, and validating both information and physical objects.

A holon, akin to a fractal, comprises interconnected sub-units that function cohesively as a whole It operates autonomously while also collaborating with other holons within a structured system known as a 'holarchy.' This dual nature of independence and cooperation is essential to its organization.

In a holonic production system, the integration of activities from order entry to design, manufacturing, and marketing is essential for creating an agile production enterprise This framework, known as holarchy, establishes collaboration rules and defines the autonomy limits of individual holons, which can be either physical objects like machinery or facilities, or represent information such as blueprints or work plans While people are included as part of holons when practical, their roles are not emphasized as significantly as in approaches focused on agility-oriented competition.

The HMS consortium was established in order to implement this still very conceptual idea.

The consortium focuses on developing reconfigurable machines capable of swiftly and autonomously adapting to variations in product type or quantity These machines are designed to respond effectively to disruptions, functioning within a cooperative holarchy framework to enhance operational efficiency.

Fig 4.16 Holonic system with cooperating autonomous holons © IFA

The project encompasses the development of automated restart systems and emergency mode operations, alongside innovative control strategies and intelligent clamping concepts For further insights, a concise literature survey by Babiceanu and Chen [Rad06] is available, along with a conceptual framework overview provided by van Brussel et al [Bru99] Additionally, Deen's book offers valuable information on the subject.

Agent-Based Manufacturing explores various sub-factors and distinguishes holons from fractals and bionic systems Additionally, the second phase of the HMS project has been outlined and will be pursued further.

Generally, a holonic manufacturing system aims at being highly responsive to changes in the market and surroundings As such it should adapt dynamically, continually controlling its plans and strategies.

The Bionic or Biological Manufacturing project, backed by Japanese research funding, represents a significant advancement in manufacturing techniques This innovative approach, championed by Okino and Ueda, draws parallels between the life cycles of living organisms and the production of industrial goods.

An organism develops its organs from cells using genetic information encoded in its DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid), ultimately forming a viable entity It regulates its functions based on both inherited genetic data and experiences gained from interacting with its environment.

Bionic Manufacturing seeks to integrate biological principles into industrial production by utilizing knowledge from the creation, growth, and decay of living organisms This approach involves developing a Bionic Manufacturing System (BMS) composed of autonomous units that mimic organic cells, enabling them to communicate utilization information, such as operating hours, malfunctions, and repairs Currently, vital data regarding a product's lifecycle—from raw materials to intermediate products and eventual disposal—is stored externally, rather than within the product itself By leveraging blueprints, parts lists, and employee expertise, Bionic Manufacturing aims to enhance the production, use, repair, and disposal processes of artificial products, ultimately creating a more efficient and sustainable manufacturing paradigm.

The lifecycles of living organisms and man-made products illustrate a hierarchical structure, where cells coordinate through enzymes similar to production planning in systems Just as organisms are organized into cells, organs, and entities, a Business Management System (BMS) begins with autonomous units that form groups, culminating in a comprehensive production system.

Similar to the holonic approach a core element is defined with the name ‘modelon’in a Bionic

Manufacturing System [Oki89] A modelon con- sists of a hierarchy of child modelons, operators

Summary

All of the discussed production concepts can be summarized with the following characteristics:

1 Modular units with ‘local intelligence’ with integrated sensors, actuators and information processing/storage, for machining, assem- bling, storing and transportation.

2 Production systems that adjust quickly to changes in products, their variants and quan- tities because they are reconfigurable, scal- able, mobile and have standardized interfaces. sustainable management changeable structures

European social standards synergetic network formation

European environmental standards adaptive and high efficiency

European quality standards technical intelligence innovation culture learning enterprise methodologies for competitive and sustainable development

Fig 4.18 European production system — Manufuture (Westk ọ mper) â IFA 14.787_B

New Added Value Products and Services

Emerging Manufacturing Sciences and Technologies

Medium Term Medium Long Term Long Term

Fig 4.19 EU manufuture strategic research agenda

3 These units can be easily configured into a process chain with which high quality parts, components and products can be produced in very small quantities.

4 Production units are able to be easily net- worked into cooperative productions.

5 Planning, control and monitoring the techni- cal and logistic variables for the product and processes of the production modules is decentralized Moreover, self-monitoring/ controlling is supported.

6 Employee responsibilities are shifted from

Effectively implementing pre-planned production processes involves designing and overseeing tasks with clearly defined responsibilities This ensures that results align with the customer's specified requirements regarding quantity, quality, and delivery timelines.

7 Sustainable development is taken into con- sideration in relation to economics, the envi- ronment and social standards.

There is a growing necessity for adaptable factories that can respond to emerging challenges across various levels, depending on the factors prompting the change To fully understand this concept, it is essential to distinguish it from related terms such as change-over ability, flexibility, re-configurability, transformability, and agility The following chapter will explore these distinctions in detail.

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The article compares the concepts of bionic, fractal, and holonic manufacturing systems, highlighting their unique approaches to complexity in manufacturing Ueda (1995) emphasizes a biological perspective on manufacturing system complexity, while Warnecke (1992) discusses the transformative impact of the fractal factory on corporate culture This comparative analysis provides valuable insights into how these innovative manufacturing paradigms can enhance operational efficiency and adaptability in modern industries.

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The article discusses innovative approaches to business practices, highlighting examples of new thinking and actions within companies, as explored in "Departure to the Fractal Company" published by Springer in Berlin in 1995 Additionally, it references the strategic research agenda for Germany, detailing the outcomes of the MANUFUTURE D road-mapping process, as presented by E Westkämper in 2007 These insights emphasize the importance of strategic innovation in enhancing manufacturing and industry competitiveness in Germany.

[Wie95] Wiendahl, H.-P.: Load Oriented Manufactur- ing Control Springer, Berlin (1995) [Wie04] Wiendahl, H.-P., Gerst, D., Keunecke, L.

Mastering variants in assembly is crucial for achieving flexible production stages, as highlighted in the 2004 publication by Springer The concept of the modular factory, discussed in Wildemann's 1998 work, emphasizes customer-oriented production through manufacturing segmentation Furthermore, innovative production strategies based on modular structures are explored in a 2001 chapter by Wildemann, contributing to effective logistics management These insights underscore the importance of adaptability and customer focus in modern manufacturing practices.

In "The Machine That Changed the World," Womack, Jones, and Roos present insights from a comprehensive five-year, five-million-dollar study conducted by the Massachusetts Institute of Technology on the future of the automobile industry This groundbreaking work explores the evolution of manufacturing processes and the impact of lean production methods, highlighting how these innovations have transformed automotive production and efficiency The authors emphasize the importance of adapting to changing market demands and improving operational practices to remain competitive in the automotive sector.

Introduction

Since the 1990s, globalization has accelerated the implementation of changes in the goods and service market, impacting both market offerings and business processes This overall ability to adapt to changes is referred to as changeability, which encompasses various related terms such as flexibility, reconfigurability, adaptability, agility, transformability, and dynamism In this article, we will systematically explore these fundamental terms relevant to production and factory planning.

Flexibility

Flexibility of production is the most frequently discussed concept in this context Extensive meta-analyses (e.g., [Ton98] which is based on

Flexibility in production can be classified into two main types: static and dynamic Static flexibility refers to the ability to consistently operate within a defined range of products, processes, and quantities while maintaining quality, cost efficiency, and delivery timelines In contrast, dynamic flexibility allows for rapid changes in the production system's capacity, structure, and processes without incurring significant costs Flexibility can be analyzed both horizontally, encompassing the entire value chain from supplier to customer, and vertically, focusing on various production layers from individual workstations to entire production networks Additionally, the time aspect of flexibility is crucial, categorizing it into short-term, medium-term, and long-term flexibility, also known as operative, tactical, and strategic flexibility, respectively Finally, the focus of production flexibility includes the volume and mix of products, as well as the specific items they comprise, considering their base materials, manufacturing methods, and work sequences.

Measuring flexibility and its associated costs presents significant challenges, as there are currently no widely accepted methods or approaches to accurately assess them Understanding these critical aspects is essential for effective decision-making.

Toni and Tonchia are ‘direct’, ‘indirect’ and

Synthetic aggregated indicators evaluate the flexibility of a system through two main approaches: direct and indirect analysis Direct indicators assess how the system's flexibility responds to various situations and options, while indirect indicators focus on the nature of that flexibility—whether technological or organizational—and the associated costs or efforts The ultimate goal of using synthetic indicators is to compare the internal flexibility of the system with the desired external flexibility objectives.

H.-P Wiendahl et al., Handbook Factory Planning and Design,

DOI 10.1007/978-3-662-46391-8_5, © Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2015

Flexibility is not easily quantifiable; instead, it reflects an individual or organization's capacity to respond effectively to environmental disruptions in a timely manner and with adequate effort, all while ensuring their own safety.

Flexibility is recognized as a strategic response to dynamic environments, highlighting its evolving importance A comprehensive meta-analysis by Rakesh Narain and R.C Yadav, encompassing 70 published studies, reveals a significant gap in guidelines for assessing the necessary level of flexibility within organizations.

The authors identify three distinct types of flexibility: necessary, sufficient, and competitive, each associated with specific problem classes and solution approaches.

To effectively address unpredictable operational challenges such as product changes, machine malfunctions, staffing issues, supplier problems, and demand fluctuations, businesses must adopt necessary flexibility in their processes This flexibility is crucial for managing technological, logistical, and personnel resources involved in order processing Medium-term tactical flexibility, or "sufficient flexibility," ensures that organizations can meet current demands regarding product quality, delivery times, reliability, and production costs Achieving this requires adaptable machinery, flexible handling and supply of parts, and appropriately trained employees Additionally, long-term strategic flexibility focuses on managing product changes and responding to supplier and market dynamics, emphasizing the importance of machinery adaptability and overall production efficiency.

• factory information and control system

Fig 5.1 Characterization of types of production fl exibility (per Rakesh Narain a.o.) © IFA 9897SW_B handling devices as well as on the layout and control system level.

The article emphasizes that, in line with the nature of the publications, it refrains from offering specific recommendations regarding the three types of flexibility Additionally, it does not address the connections to logistics, infrastructure, or equipment, nor does it take into account the production site and its development.

Nevertheless, this classification provides a valu- able basis for systematically addressing how to designflexibility.

In German publications, Kaluza, among oth- ers, intensively examined the concept of flexi- bility based on his own extensive work as well as an evaluation of numerous publications [Kal05].

He defines a broad notion of flexibility which should include the fundamental operational aspects:

Flexibility refers to a system's capacity to implement both proactive and reactive adjustments in its configuration, enabling it to adapt to changing environmental conditions effectively.

With regards to the notion of production flexibility, which is of particular interest for us here, Kaluza distinguishes between a ‘real’and

Real flexibility refers to the capability of personnel, technology, and materials to adapt, with a primary focus on the first two factors This flexibility can be classified into qualitative, quantitative, or structural categories The system of flexibility types and the corresponding instruments or measures are illustrated in Figure 5.2.

Qualitative flexibility refers to the ability of personnel and technological resources to perform a variety of tasks, while quantitative flexibility focuses on the range of performance indicators such as quantity, time, and intensity Structural flexibility encompasses both personnel and products; for personnel, it relies on effectively removing boundaries between planning, execution, and control tasks through expanded work areas In contrast, on the production side, structural flexibility is influenced by layout and control types, characterized by routing freedom, redundancy in production facilities, and storage capacity.

Kaluza introduces the concept of dispositive flexibility, which complements real flexibility, also known as potential flexibility He categorizes flexibility into two main types: qualitative and quantitative flexibility Additionally, he identifies various dimensions of flexibility, including structural, personnel, technological, and work structure-related flexibility, highlighting the importance of these measures in effective policy formulation and implementation.

• change of personnel deployment times

• quantitative, temporal and intensity-like adaption

Fig 5.2 Scope and types of real fl exibilities (per Kaluza) © IFA 10.000SW_B

Flexibility in production planning and control is essential for effective manufacturing To enhance production planning flexibility, it is crucial to implement supportive measures that focus on product structuring and efficient planning systems Meanwhile, improving production control methods and fostering better communication can significantly bolster the flexibility of production control.

Kaluza effectively addresses essential aspects necessary for planning a flexible factory, including work organization, production facilities, and the logistical planning and control of order processing.

Since the 1960s, research on part family manufacturing and group technology has highlighted the need for flexible production systems to address the challenges of job shop manufacturing, such as excessive work-in-progress (WIP) and prolonged throughput times This evolution has led to the development of manufacturing cells, flexible production systems, and lean production methodologies, all aimed at enhancing efficiency and reducing waste in manufacturing processes.

4.4–4.7) All of these have to be flexible on the one hand and on the other hand allow machines to be utilized economically.

Reconfigurability

Since the 1990s, the concept of reconfigurability has gained traction in manufacturing technology, emphasizing the need for more flexible machine tools and production facilities This approach involves breaking down manufacturing equipment into functional components, allowing for quick reconfiguration, such as adding a movement axis or spindle Once mechanically coupled, these components are recognized by a higher-level control system and become productive with the initiation of a control program The USA was the first to implement this technology, led by Koren, while Germany has developed solutions for reconfigurable machine tools and systems through the publicly funded METEOR project in collaboration with the machine tool industry Although reconfigurable assembly systems are now considered state of the art, reconfigurable manufacturing systems remain largely in the research and development stage, as detailed in recent studies on flexible and reconfigurable production systems.

Changeability and Change Enablers

Since the late 1990s, factory planning has increasingly focused on the concept of changeability, emphasizing the need for various types of flexibility This includes careful and foresighted planning, over-dimensioning, and adaptability in structural design Key aspects of flexibility encompass layout planning, capacity flexibility, and the mobility of operating facilities Additionally, the efficiency of supply and disposal systems, along with the flexibility of transportation and storage systems, are crucial for enhancing overall factory performance.

Fig 5.5 Approaches to fl exibility in factory planning © IFA 10.125_B a Approach according to Kettner, b approach according to Aggteleky

Already in 1997, Reinhart referred to change- ability as a new dimension offlexibility [Rein97].

The concept of changeability, as defined by Reinhart, encompasses both flexibility and responsiveness Flexibility refers to the ability to adapt within established parameters, while responsiveness signifies the capacity to act beyond anticipated limits.

Changeability refers to the ability to swiftly adapt to changes in organization and technology without requiring significant investment This potential allows for flexibility beyond established parameters, enabling efficient responses to evolving circumstances.

Figure5.6provides a visual depiction of this

When change drivers remain within a defined threshold, the system's inherent flexibility allows for adjustments to occur seamlessly without the need for extensive modifications However, if the demands of a change driver surpass this established flexibility corridor, a fundamental change to the system becomes necessary.

A designated solution space is established for modifying the system, accommodating a wide range of resource configurations However, this space has limitations, particularly concerning the size and precision of the products involved.

If a change driver arises necessitating a modifi- cation, (e.g a considerable increase in the num- ber of pieces), a structural change, which can however be built-back, is required.

Westkọmper [West99] plays a crucial role in enhancing the adaptability of production enterprises He categorizes the changeability of company structures based on key elements such as real estate, mobile property, information processing, and personnel, while also considering different time horizons—short, mid, and long term—as illustrated in Fig 5.7.

Westkọmper emphasizes the importance of technological innovation in enabling continuous re-planning and reconfiguration of production processes He suggests specific strategies to achieve this goal, highlighting the distinction between flexibility and changeability in production systems.

“A system is referred to as flexible when it is reversibly adaptable to changed circumstances within the frame of a generally anticipated span of features and expressions.” Moreover:

A changeable system is characterized by its inherent variability in processes, structures, and behaviors, allowing it to adapt and intervene effectively These systems possess scalable capabilities within defined corridors of flexibility, such as flexibility corridor f1, f2, and f3, and are designed for preplanned transformations The fundamental attributes of time and transformability enable these systems to dismantle options as needed, optimizing dimensions such as volume, variants, costs, and process quality.

Fig 5.6 Comparison of fl exibility and changeability (Z ọ h, Reinhart) â IFA 14.788_B

5.4 Changeability and Change Enablers 97 anticipation These activities can work towards changing the system as well as the environment.”

Management, personnel, technology, and organization are fundamental elements for creating adaptability within a company Building on this foundation, Westkomper offers a detailed overview of the Stuttgart approach to fostering a changeable organization in [West09].

Wirth introduces the concept of flexible temporary factories, which are designed to cater to specific markets with particular products for a limited duration This approach is influenced by the understanding that the lifecycles of products, processes, factory structures, and land use are increasingly diverging from one another.

The article highlights the evolving focus in city and town planning, emphasizing the significance of building types—such as universal, low-cost, and modular mobile structures—and the impact of factory grounds Wirth identifies a shift in factory planning roles, moving beyond traditional core planning of resources, personnel, and spaces to encompass the entire lifecycle of temporary factories This includes considerations for preparation, ramp-up, dismantling, relocation, and the integration of external networks and logistics.

Schenk and Wirth propose an innovative factory model that leverages a network of competencies organized in a hierarchical structure, contrasting with traditional hierarchical systems This model is composed of small, adaptable units known as 'competence cells,' which are essential for value creation and can evolve in response to changing conditions.

The Institute of Production Systems and Logistics (IFA) has been actively researching changeable factories, contributing valuable insights through talks, papers, and the construction of actual factories The changeability system developed by Hernández and Wiendahl at IFA is rooted in system theory and serves as the foundational framework for understanding factory adaptability in this book.

Emphasizing the importance of early consideration of architectural requirements, this article outlines recommendations for integrating process and spatial perspectives during the initial phases of factory planning These insights have been further developed by Nyhuis and Reichardt, focusing on the management of real estate, movable property, and information processing personnel.

• number, location, size of sites

• machines, plants type, number layout features

• operating facilities tools fixtures test equipment programs

• logistics store, material flow and transportation

• motivation changeability short term middle term long term today's condition changeable condition b u s in e s s p ro c e s s e s / b u s in e s s o rg a n iz a ti o n

Fig 5.7 Changeability of company structures

10.053_B an approach referred to as ‘synergetic factory planning’[Nyh04,Rei07].

The IFA approach to changeability starts by defining a factory as a system which, in this context, possesses the basic properties mentioned in Fig.5.8[Ulr95].

The concept of wholeness and parts highlights that a factory's quality stems from the interaction of its components rather than merely their individual qualities The degree of interlinkage reflects the complexity of relationships among these elements, which are interconnected through intricate control loops and feedback mechanisms A factory's openness to its environment is crucial for its survival, as it must adapt to various states quickly This complexity arises from the number of elements and their potential interactions with their surroundings The dynamic behavior of the factory system is influenced by changes in its components during operational processes Control of the system is primarily managed by employees, although some regulation occurs automatically Additionally, a factory's ability to develop is linked to its capacity to learn and adapt to external stimuli Ultimately, purpose and task orientation drive the factory to meet the expectations and demands of its environment, including market and political factors.

Aspects of Designing Changeability

Individual enterprises must define and design the flexibility, reconfigurability, and transformability required by all stakeholders A practical approach is to first establish a generic term for various types of adjustability, which can then be specified for different classes and orders of a factory's objects Based on extensive international discussions, the term 'changeability' has been chosen to encompass these concepts.

To achieve the desired level of changeability in factory planning, it is essential to identify additional design aspects beyond those typically considered in traditional factory setups, as illustrated in Fig 5.13.

External and internal change drivers, such as demand volatility and market variety, significantly impact businesses A common catalyst for change is the introduction of a new business strategy due to shifts in ownership or management In response, companies may need to redesign their market offerings or enhance production performance, utilizing specific change enablers These enablers for market performance include the development of modular products or services, implementing platform concepts, and employing programming to create variants For production, essential factors include mobility, scalability, compatibility, and modularity, which can be achieved through locally unrestricted movement of objects, standardized operable units like 'plug & produce modules,' and networkable systems for materials, information, media, and energy, such as standard software interfaces.

‘breathable’ technologically, spatially and personnel wise i.e., expandable and reducible (e.g flexible working time model ) dimensioned and designed for different requirements in regard to product or technology e.g variant flexibility universality

To enhance the adaptability of manufacturing processes and production facilities, it's essential to design them with changeability in mind Key change enablers include modularity, scalability, and mobility, which collectively support efficient adjustments in organizational structures.

Thedegreeto which the changeability should be increased is dependent on the strategy selec- ted, which—as already mentioned—ranges from

The necessary transition from 'immediately required' to 'temporarily sufficient' and ultimately to a 'strategic orientation' must be carefully assessed This assessment should focus on the desired degree of change, considering factors such as the extent of the changes, the acceptable duration for these changes, and the allowable costs, including any additional expenses for adaptable technological building services.

The enhanced adaptability is ineffective unless it can be promptly activated in response to change impulses Therefore, it is essential to establish a strategy for leveraging this adaptability, which includes developing an actionable plan, providing necessary training for personnel, and ensuring the availability of technical resources for implementation This strategy can be modeled similarly to a framework for rapid setup processes.

It is essential to economically assess both planned and existing flexibility, supported by key performance indicators to validate the evaluation effectively.

Morphology of Changeability

A morphology matrix can be created to analyze the changeability of a production enterprise by considering the variety of influential factors and their characteristics This matrix allows for the combination of different factors, resulting in numerous potential forms of changeability To effectively implement these combinations, it is beneficial to categorize them into distinct types Before categorizing, we will first provide a brief overview of the factors involved and their manifestations.

• competitive assessment and key performance figures of changeability change enabler of processes

• implementation internal external change enabler of products

Fig 5.13 Factors that impact the changeability of market and production performance © IFA 14.790_B

Change drivers are shaped not only by market uncertainty and the diverse range of products that present risks but also by the opportunities arising from new manufacturing methods Key technologies such as laser technology, information and communication technology, as well as micro-, nano-, and RFID technology play a crucial role in this evolution.

New forms of co-operations already supported by the internet are also used in development, supplier, production and logistic networks.

The second influential factor, the change focus, comprises three objects and is depicted in

To meet market demands, companies must offer a product mix of functionally superior items that provide significant customer benefits Additionally, they need to adapt delivery volumes in response to demand fluctuations while minimizing delivery times, enhancing reliability, and reducing production costs Production performance, which refers to the ability to fulfill orders, can be improved by focusing on six key enabling elements: manufacturing technology, production logistics, organizational structure, employee involvement, and the physical facilities Understanding how these elements interact with market offerings is essential for effective factory planning.

The two primary aspects of changeability focus on enhancing market offerings and improving production performance, but they are interconnected; new products necessitate advancements in production capabilities, while innovative production technologies can enable new product designs A third aspect of changeability pertains to business processes, which include core functions like market entry, product development, order management, fulfillment, and service, as well as supportive functions such as human resources, IT, accounting, and quality management Given the increasing importance of services as a distinct operational area, it is crucial to emphasize their adaptability Typically, the main focus of change is on market offerings, but a thorough analysis of business processes reveals various influencing factors, including change drivers, potential restrictions, and the economic implications of change, which collectively shape a company's ability to adapt and thrive in a competitive landscape.

The morphology of manufacturing companies' changeability is influenced by their production processes Additionally, a significant decline in technical, logistical, and economic performance may necessitate fundamental changes in operations.

Once the focus of the change is established, it's essential to determine the extent of changeability to incorporate into the market offering or production performance, as well as the required change potential This decision is influenced by the selected strategy concerning the desired level of change potential, which can be categorized into three types: 'necessary,' 'sufficient,' and 'excessive.'

‘competitive’which can also be characterized as operative, tactic and strategic.

Operational change potential addresses typical market fluctuations and disruptions that occur even in stable environments These changes are often managed through established routines without necessitating structural alterations to products or production systems For instance, companies can create product variants or modular systems that can be customized to meet individual customer needs.

From the production side this might mean the change-over of a machine or assembly station including changing the control program, tool and

fixture in order to obtain the necessary change potential.

The tactical change potential focuses on the reliable capacity to provide a specific range of products over the medium term, ensuring consistent quality, cost-effectiveness, and timely delivery in logistics.

Delivery reliability is enhanced through the implementation of manufacturing methods that eliminate the need for setups This approach enables quick adjustments in manufacturing, assembly, and logistics structures by incorporating manufacturing segments, decreasing manufacturing depth, and utilizing just-in-time component supply.

The strategic change potential focuses on the rapid introduction of new product variants and processes, enabling the firm to achieve competitive advantages in pricing and delivery times that impress both customers and competitors This approach emphasizes proactively generating market turbulence rather than merely responding to it.

An enterprise operates within certain constraints, making it essential to accurately define its parameters to reveal the real or perceived limitations on its adaptability It is crucial to distinguish between the technical and logistical perspectives of the market, as well as the manufacturing viewpoint, when analyzing the drivers of change and the offerings available in the market.

• core processes • support processes change objects

Fig 5.15 Change drivers and focuses from the market and production view © IFA 9902SW_B

The morphology of changeability encompasses two main types of degrees of freedom: hardware and organizational-cultural Hardware degrees of freedom refer to the various materials, manufacturing processes, assembly techniques, and logistics involved in planning, controlling, and testing operations In contrast, organizational-cultural degrees of freedom are more intangible, influencing the ease of implementing structural and procedural changes within an organization These softer aspects are crucial for minimizing employee resistance and fostering the necessary qualifications, learning abilities, and readiness for change.

The corporate management culture plays a crucial role in determining the adaptability of an organization Additionally, the economic degrees of freedom significantly influence the ability to implement desirable changes This includes requirements for economic efficiency, such as a specified group-wide payback period, as well as financial constraints like a predetermined investment amount for production upgrades or the construction of new facilities.

The final key factor influencing changeability, as illustrated in Fig 5.14, is determining the scope of change This involves clarifying the range of changeability desired for both the product and production processes On the product side, changeability can vary from individual items, including their materials, shapes, sizes, and precision, to the overall product mix Conversely, on the production side, it can encompass everything from specific workstations to the broader production network location.

The frequency of changes in production is closely linked to the rate of order change-overs, product modifications, and the introduction of new products In extreme cases, setup changes can occur multiple times a day, while capacity adjustments may happen weekly, structural changes monthly, and site changes every few years The duration of these changes varies; operational changes should ideally take only minutes, whereas tactical structural changes may require weeks to months, and strategic alterations to products or production processes should be feasible within a year This adaptability is essential for managing conversion costs while maintaining premium pricing Additionally, enterprises must seek new operational areas in the global market, ensuring their product portfolio aligns with a comprehensive sales and product network.

Classes of Changeability for Production

Changeability in industrial settings cannot be defined by a single aspect for an entire production enterprise; rather, it encompasses various classes corresponding to different production levels and market offerings Each level of production performance can be characterized through six terms aligned with the traditional factory hierarchy and its products, which correspond to distinct types of changeability The lowest level is the individual workstation, typically comprising one machine and an operator, where specific manufacturing methods, such as turning operations or surface treatments, are employed on workpieces.

A 'part element' refers to components like drill-holes, gearing, or surface areas Multiple parts are assembled into sub-components at an assembly station To modify this process, change-over ability is essential, which is achieved in automated stations by adjusting the control program.

The next level of manufacturing involves a cell that can perform a series of operations to produce a ready-to-use workpiece and its variants Typically, these cells are numerically controlled and feature automatic tool changes Additionally, assembly cells require a degree of automation and must be capable of changing over to accommodate new parts or components, emphasizing the need for flexibility in the manufacturing process.

A manufacturing or assembly system typically comprises multiple stations or cells, which can be configured in various layouts such as circular, linear, or networked These systems are designed to produce a range of similar parts or components and may include interim buffers Given that not all variants of these parts are identified during installation, the system must allow for structural modifications, enabling the addition or removal of components and spatial rearrangement as needed.

Thus in addition to beingflexible, they also have to be reconfigurable If these systems in addition own the change enablers defined in Fig.5.12they aretransformable.

Integrating various manufacturing and assembly systems forms a cohesive section that includes logistics components like storage, transportation, and handling systems These sections are designed to produce fully tested components that function as complete products To accommodate product changes, the sections must be flexible and reconfigurable, and if they possess change enablers, they can be transformed effectively.

The factory level integrates various production sections, each delivering a specific market offering To achieve this, it requires not only manufacturing, assembly, and logistics capabilities but also essential infrastructure for material, energy, media, information supply, and waste disposal The adaptability of subsystems, along with planning, control, and infrastructural systems, is crucial for accommodating new tasks When all sections have access to change enablers, the factory is deemed transformable; otherwise, it remains flexible This adaptability allows for a diverse product portfolio, encompassing different classes such as product groups, product instances, and part groups, enhancing agility and transformability across the factory system, cells, stations, and processes.

1 2 3 4 5 6 individual product group part element flexibility reconfigurability change over ability

Fig 5.16 Corresponding levels of production, changeability and products. © IFA 14.791_B

5.7 Classes of Changeability for Production Performance 107 changeability, depending on the extent to which change enablers are available.

A factory is a crucial component of a production network, which includes multiple factories in various locations and is closely connected to suppliers of components and sub-products Strategic changes, such as entering new markets, adjusting the product portfolio, or merging with acquired firms, drive these networks This dynamic environment demands agility and is primarily the responsibility of management.

The types of changeability thus described are defined as follows:

Change-over ability refers to the capacity of a machine or workstation to swiftly perform specified operations on a familiar workpiece or part family whenever needed, while minimizing costs This process can be executed either manually or automatically, highlighting its reactive nature.

Flexibility in manufacturing systems is the capacity to swiftly adapt to various workpiece types or components by efficiently adding or removing functional elements This adaptability involves both manual adjustments and automated processes, ensuring minimal costs related to hardware and software changes.

Reconfigurability is the strategic capability of a production or logistics section to adaptively adjust to a new, yet similar, family of components This involves modifying manufacturing methods, material flows, and logistics functions over the mid-term, requiring a moderate effort in terms of hardware and software The adjustment process is primarily manual and necessitates pre-planning, along with a ramp-up and optimization phase to ensure efficiency.

Transformability is the strategic capability of a factory, section, or system to adaptively modify itself to accommodate a similar product family or adjust production capacity This process involves significant structural changes in production and logistics, building infrastructure, equipment, and organizational procedures, including personnel adjustments Although the planning phase for these transformations may be lengthy, the implementation can often be executed swiftly.

The implementation of sub-projects involves rigorous project management, incorporating both a ramp-up phase and an optimization phase To achieve transformability, the underlying levels must feature flexible and reconfigurable systems that allow for seamless changeovers.

Agility is the strategic capability of an organization to proactively explore new markets and enhance its market offerings and production efficiency, often across multiple locations This requires significant expertise in management, finance, and organizational skills.

To differentiate production enterprises based on their adaptability, it is essential to consider both their changeability and networking ability A strategic portfolio illustrates these characteristics, categorized as low, medium, high, and very high Changeability encompasses aspects like change-over ability, reconfigurability, flexibility, transformability, and agility In contrast, networking ability reflects the extent of collaboration with suppliers, development partners, production partners, and customers Traditional relationships indicate low networking ability, aimed at addressing peak capacity demands A medium level of networking involves smaller groups of articles or components being shared with suppliers engaged in technical development, while high-level networking signifies that collaborating partners are responsible for the development and delivery of basic components or subsystems.

The production enterprise also has a number of sites, and the work related to products or their components is divided among these.

In highly networked environments, local production enterprises serve as integrators for tailored market offerings by managing payments and services organized by geography or customer segments These collaborations involve development partners for subsystems, production partners for components, and logistics partners for parts supply, goods distribution, and interim storage solutions.

Evaluating Changeability

To effectively implement the concept of changeability in practice, it is essential to first systematize factory objects This involves categorizing them into segments based on their networking ability, ranging from very high to low By organizing these elements into flexible, agile, autonomous, and changeable organizations, businesses can enhance their adaptability and responsiveness to change.

Fig 5.17 Characterization of production enterprises from the perspective of changeability and networking ability © IFA

The organization of objects impacted by changeability in production performance can be categorized based on the factory's level of detail and the specific type of changeability involved This classification allows for a clearer understanding of how different factors influence production processes.

Research and practical experience in various factory projects indicate that the detailed level classification depicted in Fig 5.18 is unnecessary when compared to the simpler classification shown in Fig 5.16.

The network level is thus replaced with ‘site’

The focus is solely on external relationships, with a summary of the cell, system, and section levels categorized as 'section/sub-section.' Changeability encompasses various aspects, including technology, organization, and the spatial arrangement of factory objects.

The initial matrix allows for the assignment of 26 factory objects to the first order, which are subsequently analyzed and divided, leading to a total of 116 factory objects at the second order For detailed descriptions of these objects, please refer to Appendix A1.

Further informations can be found e.g in [Step09]

Furthermore, it needs to be kept in mind that the significance of each factory item is different on each of the factory levels This is clarified in

In Fig 5.19, the arrangement of columns and rows has been altered compared to Fig 5.18, ensuring that objects are assigned to a specific level to avoid multiple considerations within the planning frame The adaptability of production processes is assessed using the control loop illustrated in Fig 5.20, which was created as part of a research project and successfully tested by the involved industrial enterprises [Nyh10].

The process begins with an operational factory facing a change driver that necessitates modifications to achieve the desired output Initially, it is presumed that the current changeover and reconfiguration capabilities are inadequate When both existing flexibility and transformability fall short, adjustments to changeability are required, which may involve shifting or expanding the flexibility corridor The subsequent steps, as outlined by Nyh13, are carried out by a team of internal and/or external experts to effectively implement these changes.

• workplace design technology organization space factory section sub-section workstation site factory fields factory levels

Fig 5.18 Systemization of factory objects © IFA 13.440_B

• The process begins with delineating thefield to be investigated e.g., a factory, a division or a product group.

Change drivers in business can be categorized into seven key groups: legislators, customers, market dynamics, suppliers, competitors, and the allocation of tasks at the factory level Each group influences various factors such as property site development, outdoor area layouts, building forms, and structural design Additionally, considerations include workplace design, hierarchical structures, production concepts, logistics frameworks, labor organization, and quality assurance Furthermore, the organization of factory fields, levels, and spaces, along with technology integration, is crucial for optimizing production facilities, building services, information technology, storage, transportation, and overall operational efficiency.

The allocation of factory objects to various factory levels is crucial for optimizing production efficiency It involves assessing the significance of factors such as existing flexibility, changeability, and transformability potential By considering these elements, manufacturers can effectively evaluate target outputs and actual outputs, ensuring that they utilize available resources and adapt to change drivers This strategic approach enhances the overall adaptability and productivity of the factory.

Fig 5.20 Control loop of changeability © IFA

To effectively evaluate changeability within a factory, it is essential to conduct a precise analysis of key components, including the network, technology, and employees A comprehensive list of change drivers and their definitions is available in Appendix A2 Subsequent steps involve utilizing these identified change drivers, where an expert panel assesses the factory elements impacted, providing an initial estimate of the necessary degree of change for each element.

Figure 5.21 depicts this principle strongly simplified, based on the example of the change drivers‘increasing the production volume’and

The factory areas impacted by each driver can be analyzed from four distinct perspectives: the process view outlines the production workflow through traditional business process analysis, while the spatial view illustrates the layout and spatial relationships within the facilities Additionally, the organizational view details the company's hierarchical structure, employee responsibilities (planning, control, and operations), and the communication channels among staff Lastly, the logistics view encompasses all logistics tasks related to procurement, production, and distribution, alongside the foundational model supporting these activities.

To assess the current changeability corridor, it is essential to evaluate it from four perspectives in relation to the identified drivers This evaluation determines if the existing changeability is adequate or requires adjustments A detailed questionnaire facilitates a nuanced understanding of this issue For instance, in the example illustrated in Fig 5.22, the focus is on the development of a welding transformer aimed at minimizing previous variety, specifically examining the assembly system and its components.

The cluster driver for organizational change in technology involves various dimensions, including the impact on costs, process quality, and time management By optimizing these factors, enterprises can enhance production volume and improve marketing and sales effectiveness.

Fig 5.21 Excerpt from a change driver catalogue

13.448E_B adaption is for the tools, whereas new solu- tions have to be developed for the tool han- dling and manipulator.

The final step involves determining the necessity of implementing adaptation measures and identifying the specific actions required This process is illustrated in Fig 5.23.

Criterion 1 evaluates if a current solution exists for adapting the element to the driver, informed by the adaptation questionnaire from the previous step Criterion 2 assesses potential solutions based on the available activation period, while Criterion 3 analyzes the costs relative to the existing budget.

Vision of the Changeable Factory

Our discussion has led us to envision a flexible factory model rooted in sustainable production practices This vision is illustrated in Figs 2.9 and 5.26, which highlight two perspectives: an external view that sees production as a strategic tool and an internal view that focuses on the factory as a physical facilitator of this process.

Unlike traditional factories that resist change and focus on internal optimization, future production must align with market strategies and the products that stem from them This shift necessitates teams that operate with clearly communicated goals to achieve effective results.

1 not sufficiently flexible to deal with a driver

To effectively adapt elements to the driver, three existing possibilities can be explored: the first involves assessing the changeability of monetary resources in relation to the available budget and time constraints The second solution emphasizes utilizing available time to enhance adaptability, while the third solution focuses on aligning budgetary considerations with the necessary efforts Each solution is evaluated based on specific criteria to ensure optimal alignment with the overall objectives.

According to Klemke, the criteria for utilizing and adapting changeability involve independently planning and operating business processes while considering the technical and operational limits of the shop floor, as well as physical and logistical constraints.

To effectively establish a factory, it is essential to ensure that resources and organizational structures are adaptable and mobile throughout all levels, from the factory site and buildings to manufacturing and assembly systems, and down to individual workstations.

This requires ‘usage-neutral’ buildings which survive generations of products and processes yet echo a design that mirrors the enterprise’s self- image and its market offerings.

To ensure effective collaboration with suppliers, development partners, and customers, it is essential to establish a strong external networking capability focused on logistics, organizational aspects, and communication technology Sustainability is a key consideration in this process.

•close to the market variant production

•ability to integrate new products

•flexible working times human centering market aligned product orientation request oriented production structures future robust technology adaptive buildings request oriented logistics strategies

Fig 5.24 Components and features of changeability from the factory planners view successful change process of change

• congruence between required change and targeted change

• speed demanded by the market minimal effort for change change competence

• readiness of employees for change and adaptation

• configuration and reconfiguration potential change control

• quality of the planned change changeability

Fig 5.25 Factors for successful change © IFA 10.150_Wd_B

5.9 Vision of the Changeable Factory 115 term economic success, which however, takes into consideration the employee’s social con- cerns and acts environmentally responsibly.

As a result, a vision for factories arises, which

—organized according to value-adding units for different market requirements—can be converted quickly and economically.

A modern theater exemplifies the concept of rapid transformation, where stage technology enables seamless scene changes without noise and in minimal time Similarly, in a factory setting, this adaptability is achieved through production modules that can be reconfigured quickly, often within minutes or hours Their mobility and local control capabilities facilitate effective communication with higher-level management systems, enhancing overall efficiency.

Due to the necessity of managing variants the traditional separation between pre-manufacturing and assembly has to be called into questioned.

Variants are thus formed in so-called‘production end stages’during the latest possible step of the

The final assembly process integrates variant-defining manufacturing operations to create a seamless flow of materials, minimizing stops during value-adding stages This approach leads to lower inventories, shorter throughput times, and enhanced responsiveness, encapsulated in the principle: "produce in one day what the customer ordered by the end of the day before—no more, no less." Furthermore, the adaptable factory concept includes pre-tested, mobile factory modules that can be relocated within or between sites Ultimately, a zero-emission factory serves as the benchmark for fostering a healthy and attractive work environment.

Before delving into the synergetic factory planning process in Chapter 15, it's essential to identify the key elements necessary for establishing an effective factory The upcoming chapters will outline these elements according to the levels illustrated in Fig 5.18, which include workstation, subsection/section, factory, and site Each level will be examined from both functional and spatial design viewpoints to ensure a comprehensive understanding of factory planning.

Summary

This chapter defines changeability as an overarching concept that encompasses five distinct classes of adaptability relevant to various levels within a factory These classes include change-over ability at the workstation, factory vision, and the production's mission, highlighting the importance of flexibility in manufacturing processes.

• variant formation in final stages of production

• pre-tested mobile production modules

• appearance reflects the brand’s claims

• attractive and healthy working environment

• orientation to market and strategy

• orientation at best practice and limiting values

• adequate changeability at all factory levels

• neutral, cooperation fostering buildings with aesthetic quality

• sustainability from economic, ecological and social view

The vision of a changeable factory emphasizes flexibility at various levels, including cell, system, section, and factory, as well as agility at the network level To facilitate this adaptability, essential changeability enablers such as universality, mobility, scalability, modularity, and compatibility must be implemented Achieving the desired level of changeability requires a careful balance between what is desirable and what is financially feasible These considerations provide valuable insights for designing different factory aspects, encompassing product design, technology, building, logistics, and organizational structure.

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[Her03] Hern á ndez Morales, R.: Systematik der Wan- dlungsf ọ higkeit in der Fabrikplanung (Sys- tematics of changeability in factory planning).

Kaluza (1989) explores the significance of product change as a critical task in company policy, emphasizing the need for integrated solutions that bridge both business and engineering perspectives The study highlights how effective management of product transitions can enhance organizational performance and competitiveness.

The flexibility of industrial companies is a crucial topic discussed in the economic discourse at Gerhard-Mercator University Duisburg This discussion paper explores the various dimensions of flexibility within the industrial sector, emphasizing its significance for adapting to market changes and enhancing operational efficiency.

In their 2005 work, "Flexibility as a Success Factor," Kaluza and Blecker explore the current state and emerging trends in flexibility within dynamic enterprises The book, published by Erich Schmidt Verlag in Berlin, emphasizes the importance of adaptability as a strategic advantage for companies facing constant change.

[Ket84] Kettner, H., Schmidt, J., Greim, H.-R.: Leit- faden der systematischen Fabrikplanung (Guideline of Systematic Factory Planning). Hanser, Munich Vienna (1984)

[Kle13] Klemke, T.: Planung der systemischen Wan- dlungsf ọ higkeit von Fabri-ken (Planning of systemic changeability of factories) Ph.D. Thesis, Leibniz Universit ọ t Hannover Publ. PZH Verlag, Garbsen (2013)

[Kor01] Koren, Y.: Recon fi gurable manufacturing sys- tems In: Proceedings of the CIRP 1st Inter- national Conference on Agile, Recon fi gurable Manufacturing 20/21 May 2001 University of Ann Arbor Michigan, USA

[Lot06] Lotter, B., Wiendahl, H.-P (eds.): Montage in der industriellen Produktion - Ein Handbuch f ü r die Praxis (Assembly in industrial produc- tion — A Practical Guide), 2nd edn Springer, Berlin (2012)

[Mut89] Muther, R., Hales, L.: Planning of Industrial

Facilities R Muther and L Hales Manage- ment Ind Res Publ, Kansas City (1979) [Nyh04] Nyhuis, P., Elscher, A., Kolakowski, M.:

Prozessmodell der Synergetischen Fabrikpla- nung - Ganzheitliche Integration von Prozess- und Raumsicht (Process model of the syner- getic factory planning Holistic process and spatial view) wt Werkstattstechnik online 94

(2004) Issue 4, pp 95 – 99 [Nyh08] Nyhuis, P., Reinhart, G., Abele, E (eds.):

The book "Changeable Production Systems: Today, Shaping Tomorrow's Industry" by Verlag Produktionstechnisches Zentrum GmbH (2008) explores the concept of changeability in industrial production Authors Nyhuis, Klemke, and Wagner present a systemic approach to understanding and implementing adaptable production systems, emphasizing the importance of flexibility in meeting the dynamic demands of the market This work serves as a crucial resource for industries aiming to innovate and enhance their production processes for future challenges.

Nyhuis, P (Hrsg.) Wandlungsf ọ hige Produk- tionssysteme Schriftreihe der Hochschulgruppe f ü r die Arbeits- und Betriebsorganisation

(Changeable Production Systems Series of the scienti fi c group for the working and operational organization e.V (HAB)), pp 3 – 21 GITO-

[Nyh13] Nyhuis, P., Deuse, J., Rehwald, J.: Wan- dlungsf ọ hige Produktion Heute f ỹ r morgen gestalten (Changeable Production Today designed for tomorrow) PZH Verlag, Garbsen

[Rak00] Narain, R., Yadav, R.C., Sarkis, J., Cordeiro, J.

J.: The strategic implications of fl exibility in manufacturing systems Int J Agil Manag.

[Rei07] Reichardt, J., Pfeifer, I.: Phasenmodell der

Forschung und Praxisbeispiele (Phase model of the synergetic factory planning State of research and practical examples) wt Werkst- attstechnik online 97 (4), pp 218 – 225 (1997)

[Rein97] Reinhart, G.: Innovative Prozesse und Systeme

– Der Weg zu Flexibilit ọ t und Wan- dlungsf ọ higkeit (Innovative processes and systems — the way to fl exibility and adaptabil- ity) In: Milberg, J., Reinhart, G (eds.): Mit

Schwung zum Aufschwung (With verve on recovery) M ü nchener Koll ‘ 97 Landsberg/

[Rein00] Reinhart, G.: Im Denken und Handeln wandeln

(Change in thinking and acting) In: Reinhart,

G (Hrsg.) Proceedings of M ü nchener Kollo- quium 2000 Munich Vienna (2000)

Flexibilit ọ t und Wandlungsf ọ higkeit - das richtige Ma ò fi nden (Flexibility and adapt- ability —fi nding the right balance) In: Hoff- mann, H., Reinhart, R., Z ọ h, M.F (eds.)

Produktion (Innovations for production) Pro- ceedings of Production Congress 9, pp 45 – 55

[Sche04] Schenk, M., et al.: Factory Planning Manual.

Situation-Driven Production Facility Planning.

Facilities Design and Material Handling, 4th edn Prentice Hall, New Jersey (2009)

[Tom10] Tompkins, J.A., et al.: Facilities Planning, 4th edn Wiley, Hoboken (2012)

[Ton98] De Toni, A., Tonchia, S.: Manufacturing fl exibility: a literature review Int J Prod Res.

[Ulr95] Ulrich, H., Probst G.J.B.: Anleitung zum ganzheitlichen Denken und Handeln: Ein

Brevier f ỹ r F ỹ hrungskr ọ fte (Instructions for holistic thinking and action: A Breviary for executives), 3rd edn Haupt, Bern Stuttgart (1995)

[WEM12] ElMaraghy, W., et al: Complexity in Engi- neering Design and Manufacturing, vol 2, issue 61, pp 793 – 814 International Academy for Production Engineering, CIRP Annals — Manufacturing Technology (2012)

[West99] Westk ọ mper, E.: Die Wandlungsf ọ higkeit von

Unternehmen (Changeablity of enterprises) wt Werkstattstechnik 89 (4), 131 – 139 (1999) [West00] Westk ọ mper, E., Zahn, E., Balve, P., Tilebein,

M.: Ans ọ tze zur Wandlungsf ọ higkeit von Produktionsunternehmen (Approaches to the changeability of manufacturing enterprises) wt Werkstattstechnik 90 (1 ẵ ), 22 – 26 (2000) [West09] Westk ọ mper, Engelbert; Zahn, Erich (Hrsg.):

Wandlungsf ọ hige Produktionsunternehmen. Das Stuttgarter Unternehmensmodell (Change- able Manufacturing Companies The Stuttgart Enterprise Model) Springer, Berlin (2009) [Wie81] Wiendahl, H.-P., Mende, R.: Produkt- und

Produktions fl exibilit ọ t – Wettbewerbsfaktoren f ü r die Zukunft (Product and production fl ex- ibility - competitive factors for the future) wt Zeitschr f industrielle Fertigung 71 , 295 – 296 (1981)

[Wie00] Wiendahl, H.-P., Hernandez, R.: Wan- dlungsf ọ higkeit – neues Zielfeld in der Fab- rikplanung (Changeablity — a new target fi eld in factory planning) Industrie-Management 16

Kooperative Fabrikplanung – Wandlungsf ọ hi- gkeit durch zielorientierte Integration von Pro- ze ò - und Bauplanung (Cooperative factory planning — changeability through targeted integration of process and construction plan- ning) wt Werkstattstechnik 91 (4), 186 – 191 (2001)

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Breitenbach, F (Hrsg.): Planung modularer Fabriken Vorgehen und Beispiele aus der Praxis (Planning modular factories Approach and practical examples) Hanser, Munich Vienna (2005)

[Wie07] Wiendahl, H.-P., et al.: Changeable manufac- turing — classi fi cation, design and operation. Annal CIRP 56 (2), 783 – 809 (2007)

[Wir00] Wirth, S (eds.): Flexible, tempor ọ re Fabriken -

The article discusses the essential steps required to develop transformable factory structures, emphasizing the importance of flexibility in temporary factory designs It presents research findings from the Karlsruhe Research Center, highlighting innovative approaches and methodologies for creating adaptable manufacturing environments The study serves as a valuable resource for understanding the dynamics of modern factory architecture and its implications for efficiency and sustainability in industrial operations.

A workplace can be analyzed from various perspectives, particularly focusing on its technological functions, which involve the interaction between equipment and human labor This article outlines the necessary technology and equipment for producing piece products, essential for factory planners Additionally, it addresses workplace design through the lens of work organization and explores the spatial integration of ergonomic and architectural elements Together, these aspects form the core principles of effective factory design.

Design Aspects

Workstations serve as the fundamental units in factory planning, integrating personnel and equipment to perform tasks that enhance the value of individual parts, components, or assemblies with minimal effort The design elements relevant to a workstation are illustrated in Figure 6.1.

Raw materials, semi-finished products, and partially assembled components serve as the essential inputs at the workstation To effectively carry out tasks, these materials require energy for processing and assembly.

A workstation requires essential resources such as electrical power, steam, fuel gas, and various media like water, protective gas, and lubricants Detailed information, including drawings, work plans, control programs, and work instructions, guides the process The actual operations occur at the workstation, utilizing process equipment like machine tools, assembly devices, and annealing furnaces, along with necessary tools and clamps The level of automation determines the extent of human integration in the process Adequate space is essential for accommodating equipment, workers, and materials, making these elements critical planning parameters for an efficient workstation.

The workstation produces a final product at its exit, but it also generates unwanted material waste, including chips, remnants, and auxiliary materials, which must be disposed of properly Additionally, emissions such as noise, vibrations, heat, gases, dust, and vapors pose health risks and require effective management Furthermore, the workstation provides valuable information regarding the quality of the results, process duration, and output quantity.

A workstation usually forms a part of a pro- cess chain and is characterized by its integration into the material flow, information flow, com- munication flow, and work organization of the

H.-P Wiendahl et al., Handbook Factory Planning and Design,

DOI 10.1007/978-3-662-46391-8_6, © Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2015

The design of a workstation encompasses both environmental conditions and human factors, including climate control, cleanroom specifications, ventilation, lighting, and color schemes These elements are crucial for creating an effective workspace and are integral components of building design.

In workstation design, there exists a contrast between a technical/economic perspective and a human/organizational perspective The goal is to integrate these two viewpoints to achieve a sustainable and successful outcome Figure 6.2 illustrates this dichotomy, highlighting the significance of balancing economic principles with human-centric design.

(added value)”and “humane work design”from which four goals are developed [Mar94].

Effective allocation of technical and human performances is crucial for achieving technical and economic objectives, necessitating an optimal combination of system elements and alignment of work requirements with human capabilities Health and safety measures are essential for preventing work-related illnesses and injuries, managing workload demands, and fostering a positive work environment Social orientation emphasizes the importance of adhering to social norms, enhancing interpersonal relationships, and involving employees in workstation design, which is increasingly vital in light of environmental changes for efficient planning and employee acceptance Lastly, personal development focuses on creating workstations that empower employees to build confidence, enhance their skills, and gain autonomy These considerations guide the effective design of workstations within factory planning processes.

It has to be kept in mind that the planning tasks can’t be fulfilled by a single person, but rather environmental conditions integration in input output

The design of a workstation necessitates collaboration among a skilled planning team In Chapter 15, we will explore the makeup of this team and their approach to the design process.

The initial situation is provided by the task of manufacturing or assembling a part or group of components that is to be produced in the future.

Whenplanning the technology,manufacturing or assembly functions need to be specified and the local logistics for supplying and disposing of materials, including required information, needs to be defined.

Strategic considerations are crucial for the future of key technologies, particularly through the lens of 'technology differentiation.' This assessment focuses on the competency and appeal of the technology, influencing its potential success in the market.

Technological competence encompasses a production's technical capabilities related to specific technologies and the resources needed for manufacturing tasks The potential for enhancing this competence is influenced by the technology's attractiveness, which includes factors such as technology availability and interdependencies with other technologies This competence, along with the technology's appeal, positions production processes within a 'technology portfolio,' helping to identify their strategic importance and growth potential Processes are categorized into key competency, differentiation, and standard processes, guiding investment decisions Understanding these strategic factors is crucial for factory planners, as they inform the design requirements for processes and facilities, a topic further explored in Sect 14.6.

The defined technology must be effectively implemented through facility planning, incorporating essential equipment such as tool machines, assembly stations, and storage/transportation systems Additionally, prioritizing ergonomics in the organization of workstations within technology facilities is crucial for enhancing efficiency and worker comfort.

Fig 6.3 Aspects of designing a workstation from the process view

• personal development targets economic principle (added value) humane work design

Fig 6.2 Constraints and objectives of work design

When designing a system, it's crucial to consider the effective supply of information to both equipment and workers Additionally, the implementation of equipment for the management of materials—encompassing storage, transportation, and handling devices—is essential Proper waste disposal mechanisms, such as chip conveyors and coolant filtration units, must also be integrated into the design to ensure efficient operations.

Planning technology and facilities is only neces- sary when new products are being introduced.

Usually when planning workstations the majority of the equipment already implemented is adopted.

Work plans detailing the sequence of tasks, required equipment, setup time, and cycle time for each workpiece are typically available for existing products These plans serve as a foundation for future capacity planning and material flow management.

Design aspects such as organization and ergonomics focus on the human element in work processes, making early involvement of the works council crucial due to numerous regulations Organization entails defining tasks for each workstation, which can vary from simple monitoring to complex responsibilities found in manufacturing cells Consequently, these work tasks impose specific demands on workers, necessitating particular skills and abilities.

In this way, the basis for personnel planning and recruiting or for qualification measures is derived.

Designing an organization involves creating an effective work time model to swiftly address customer needs Additionally, it is essential to establish a remuneration system that focuses on rewarding employees based on their results rather than merely compensating for their time worked, thereby granting them greater autonomy in their roles.

Production Technology

Manufacturing Processes

According to DIN 8580, manufacturing processes are classified into six primary groups, as illustrated in Fig 6.4 The production of a workpiece is guided by detailed drawings that specify the materials, geometry, dimensions, tolerances, and surface roughness, facilitating the transformation of formless materials into the desired shape.

(b) by changing the form of an initial material or

(c) by changing the properties of the material.

The group of primary shaping processes

The primary focus of casting methods involves transforming metals, ceramics, or plastics from a fluid, pulp, or paste-like state into precisely defined geometric forms While metal and ceramic castings typically require post-processing, plastic castings are often ready for immediate use due to their accurate dimensions and high-quality surfaces.

Forming processes, a key category in manufacturing, differ from forging methods and sheet metal forming Forging involves reshaping a solid or semi-solid material into a new geometric form while maintaining its mass and material integrity, resulting in strong semi-finished products like sheets, tubes, and bars, as well as durable workpieces such as screws and gears Steel can be forged at various temperatures: cold forging at room temperature, warm forging between 600 and 900°C, and hot forging at 1000–1200°C In contrast, sheet metal forming transforms a flat sheet into a three-dimensional component with consistent wall thickness.

Among theseparation processes(main group

Shear cutting is the primary method used in splitting processes to transform sheets and produce raw pieces from rod materials for forging This technique employs cutting tools with geometrically defined edges, such as lathes, drills, planes, reamers, and saws During this process, layers of material are mechanically removed from the raw material in the form of chips, allowing for alterations in the shape and surface of the workpiece.

The continuous advancement of cutting materials has significantly increased cutting speeds, reaching up to 2000 m/min with unalloyed metal and ceramic cutting tool tips Non-geometric cutting methods, such as grinding, honing, and lapping, rely on abrasive particles bonded to wheels or bands, with geometric-specific abrasive disks being the most crucial Ablation remains a vital separation technique, categorized into thermal, chemical, and electro-chemical methods Thermal ablation generates energy through sparks or high-energy beams, like lasers or electron beams, while chemical ablation involves reactions between the workpiece material and active mediums, such as acids or alkalis, to etch away material Among thermal ablation techniques, laser beams have become predominant due to their programmability and wear-free operation, finding applications across various manufacturing processes, especially in separation, joining, and surface treatment.

The diversity of joining processes, categorized under main group 4, is essential for both permanent and temporary assembly of workpieces and components These processes not only alter the shape and material properties of the components but also establish physical cohesion This group complements other manufacturing processes, including primary shaping, forming, separating, and coating, while also focusing on enhancing or reducing physical cohesion as needed.

Fig 6.4 Features of the main groups of manufacturing processes [DIN03a]

6.2 Production Technology 123 and products Challenges on joining processes are result of more complex component forms, increasing functional needs, growing safety requirements and the ability to easily disassemble products for the purpose of recycling Other, basically competing joining processes include welding, soldering, adhesive bonding, riveting, clinching, seaming and using threaded fasteners.

Innovative joining processes designed for large-scale production and quick cycle times have been introduced in the assembly of precision engineering and electronic devices Emphasizing process reliability, these methods involve monitoring essential parameters during operation, such as tracking current levels during welding and analyzing torque curves during threading.

When choosing a joining process, several key criteria must be considered, including functional aspects like material properties, form, strength, and corrosion resistance Additionally, process engineering factors such as pre and post-processing, production capabilities, automation potential, and flexibility are crucial Cost-related elements, along with personnel and environmental considerations—such as investments, operating expenses, environmental impact, ergonomics, and employee needs—also play a significant role in the decision-making process.

Group 5, known as coating, includes all manufacturing processes for applying anti-wear and anti-corrosion layers to components Given that wear and corrosion-resistant materials tend to be costly, applying protective layers locally can result in significant cost savings It is essential to weigh the cost benefits of extending the component's lifespan against the expenses associated with the coatings.

Coating processes can be categorized into electro-chemical methods, such as cathodic electrocoating and anodic oxidation, which effectively apply layers ranging from a few micrometers to 100μm on metals, plastics, and ceramics Organic coating systems utilize a fluid or paste-like polymer to create a strong adhesive film through chemical or physical changes In contrast, powder coatings employ solvent-free powders to produce thick polymer layers, including polyethylene, nylon, and fluoropolymers This technique requires heating the workpieces to melt the powder, forming a continuous film that can reach millimeter thickness, although it is primarily suitable for metallic and ceramic substrates.

Enameling is a process that creates very resistant yet brittle layers by applying purified oxidized minerals and fluoride in layers to a metallic base material, which is then baked at temperatures between 550 and 900 °C This technique is commonly utilized in components for the chemical industry, food processing engineering, and household appliances, ensuring durability against acids, alkalines, and temperature fluctuations ranging from -50 to 450 °C.

Hot-dip galvanizing is an effective method for protecting metallic parts from corrosion This process involves immersing pre-treated components in a liquid metal bath made of aluminum, tin, or zinc Through repeated submersions, these components develop a protective coating that ranges from 20 to 80 micrometers in thickness.

Vapor phase coatings are essential for applying thin, durable layers to nitride and carbide items, such as tools and joints, providing anti-corrosive and anti-friction properties Utilizing physical vapor deposition (PVD), materials are vaporized or atomized and deposited in film-like layers ranging from a few nanometers to tens of micrometers thick This technique is ideal for lightweight coatings in optical, magnetic, and micro-electronic components, as well as for decorative finishes In contrast, chemical vapor deposition (CVD) coats objects with gaseous metallic compounds at temperatures between 600 and 1000°C, where the gas reacts with the substrate to form a solid phase layer between 0.1 and 20 μm thick on the base material.

Thermal spraying is a significant coating method that encompasses three primary techniques: flame, electric arc, and plasma spraying, each named after its energy source These methods fuse sprayed materials into molten particles that are propelled toward the substrate with high kinetic energy, creating a layer that can range from 50μm to several millimeters in thickness Notably, these processes operate at relatively low temperatures, making them versatile for various applications.

100 and 250 °C) a broad range of coating materials and base materials can be combined.

Assembly Methods

Assembly involves the processes of joining individual parts and components, along with software, to create functional products This process often requires the use of amorphous materials like grease and glue Components can be assembled using non-destructive methods, such as screws, allowing for disassembly, or through destructive methods like riveting, which do not permit disassembly The specific assembly methods used are typically dictated by the product's structural design.

Products can be organized based on functional or assembly-oriented criteria, with decisions on the number of assembly stages and component level variants influenced by the overall structure of the assembly sections The objective is to design the assembly process to form variants as late as possible in the sequence, minimizing the need for interim storage of semi-finished components and products As illustrated in Figure 6.7, an early formation of variants leads to a higher number of variants at each product level, necessitating extensive planning and temporary storage In contrast, an optimized assembly structure results in significantly fewer interim variants, streamlining the process.

A basic assembly scheme illustrates the operations involved in assembling a product from individual parts In this traditional Black Box system, each station functions as a crucial element in the production flow A transport system carries partially assembled components on workpiece carriers, enabling the identification and fixation of the assembly object Components are joined with the assembly object, which is typically tested for quality features before being moved to the next station.

An independent transverse part flow is essential for efficient internal logistics, focusing on primary shaping, forming, separating, joining, and coating processes It involves managing molds, input materials, and plant size while considering forming die and emissions cleanliness The manufacturing method must address various levels of obstacles related to emissions and the handling of aggressive fluids Additionally, the changeability of processes can be categorized as low, medium, or high, impacting overall factory site operations.

Fig 6.5 Changeability of manufacturing processes

Parts are initially stored locally in a defined quantity through a process known as buffering, which involves separating components from the buffer and orienting them spatially before placing them on a workpiece carrier To accommodate minor disruptions and variations in cycle times, interim buffers are often utilized Typically, parts are delivered in a pre-ordered state This article will explore the technical aspects of part delivery from suppliers to the consumption site in the factory, as detailed in Section 6.2.3 on logistic processes, and will also examine the strategic implications within our discussion of procurement models in Section 9.5.1.

VDI Guideline 2860 outlines the assembly process and its sub-functions, which include joining, handling, controlling (for quality testing), adjusting, and executing special operations Adjusting refers to the precise geometric positioning of parts in relation to other components, while special operations involve unique tasks performed on the components.

FP P final product part A assembly shapeless auxiliary material SM components output element product input elements parts and shapeless auxiliary materials intermediate level assembly assembly level product structure

A level product level component level

A assembly of final object disassembly of final object

Fig 6.6 Components and structure of an assembly product (Spur) before optimization after optimization product level

Fig 6.7 Determining product variants (Schuh)

6.2 Production Technology 127 for example, cleaned, printed or marked From the perspective of factory planning, the stations necessary for these operations do not differ from a joining station.

The assembly process plays a crucial role in manufacturing, particularly in the key functions of joining and handling The "joining" category, which is one of the main manufacturing processes, is further divided into nine sub-groups as outlined by DIN 8593 This classification highlights the complexity and importance of effective joining techniques in the assembly process.

Connected joints involve putting parts toge- ther by laying them on or in one another, nesting them together, hinging them as well as latch assembly function handling function

All processes, which serve the assembly of geometrically determined bodies.

In principle shapeless substance can be applied. joining

(VDI 2860) checking adjusting special operations store changing quantity moving fixing checking

An assembly station, as outlined in VDI 2860, encompasses several sub-functions that facilitate efficient product flow These functions include transporting parts from the previous station, supplying components, and buffering materials Additionally, the assembly process involves separating, orienting, and magazining parts before transferring and placing them into the handling system Ultimately, these steps culminate in the joining of components, ensuring a seamless part flow throughout the assembly process.

An assembly station utilizes various sub-functions to maintain the joined state of components through gravity, friction, and interlocking mechanisms Additionally, some methods leverage the elastic distortion of the parts or auxiliary components to ensure a secure connection Importantly, these connecting joints can be separated non-destructively, allowing for damage-free disassembly.

Filler joints are created by introducing gaseous, vaporous, fluid, or paste-like materials into hollow or porous objects through methods such as pouring, soaking, or saturation These joints can typically be easily dissolved, often by the application of heat.

Press joints create connections between components through forced closure, typically resulting in elastic deformation This category includes various methods such as screwing, clamping, cramping, nailing, joining with press fittings, hammering, and spreading Like other joining techniques, press joints can usually be separated without causing damage, often utilizing specialized tools.

Formed joints generally involve connecting parts together by forming specific areas of parts— the way the parts then interlock secures the joint.

Sub-groups here include forming wire and tape- like bodies as well as riveting processes These joints can only be removed by damaging or destroying the joint parts.

Welded joints are created by connecting parts through heat and/or force, utilizing methods such as fusion or pressure welding, with or without the use of fillers The primary objective of these joints is to achieve strength comparable to that of the base material, ensuring that the joint can only be destructively tested for integrity.

According to DIN 8593, soldered joints are categorized into soft, hard, and high-temperature joints The filler metal used in these joints has a melting point lower than that of the workpiece materials, allowing for the possibility of dissolving the joint with a desoldering tool, albeit with certain limitations.

Adhesive bonds use non-metallic bonding agents which harden physically or chemically joining the workpieces through adhesion and cohesion The bond can be dissolved within limits.

Textile joints insert textile fibrous materials from the production of threads, filaments and materials up to the joints of semi-finished and

finished products These processes have not yet been standardized further and since they are rarely applied in manufacturing—except for modern car and air plane bodies made of carbon

fibers—the mechanical and electrical products we are considering here, we will not consider them further.

According to VDI Guideline 2860, handling is a crucial aspect of assembly, serving as a sub-function of "creating a material flow," alongside conveying and storage It represents the final link in the material flow process, extending from the company's boundary to the joining phase.

Joining refers to the durable connection of two or more geometrically defined workpieces or similar materials using a shapeless substance This process enhances local cohesion, contributing to the overall strength and integrity of the assembled components.

4.1 4.2 4.3 putting together filling pressing on/in

Fig 6.10 Classi fi cation of the main manufacturing process joining [DIN03c]

6.2 Production Technology 129 position on the workpiece carrier or joining position of the assembly station.

Logistic Processes

The term "logistics" originates from the military sector, encompassing tasks that support armed forces operations This concept evolved into business logistics in the 1970s, expanding rapidly in the 1980s and branching into industrial, trade, and service logistics Essentially, logistics focuses on the spatial movement of goods over time, ensuring they are available in the right quantity, combination, and quality at the appropriate time and location Additionally, it emphasizes minimizing costs while prioritizing customer-oriented delivery services.

Industrial logistics encompasses procurement, production, and distribution logistics, while disposal logistics is not considered significant in the context of industrial goods production These core processes can be further subdivided into specific subprocesses, as illustrated in Fig 6.14 These functions are integral to supply chains, which are modeled by the regularly updated SCOR framework developed by the Supply Chain Council In procurement, external transport processes deliver ordered goods to an incoming store, where they are unpacked and moved to an intermediate storage area Typically, manufacturing, assembly, and distribution require multiple articles at specific times, often in varying quantities, referred to as 'orders' or 'commissions.'

• securing assembly method level obstacles emissions insignificant strongly feature dependent station section factory site change ability: low middle high

• checking workpiece specific form elements

Fig 6.13 Changeability of assembly processes

Order-picking, also known as commissioning, is the essential process of gathering items for customer orders Effective procurement requires careful planning, control, and monitoring of all its sub-processes to ensure efficiency and accuracy.

The manufacturing and assembly processes encompass essential sub-processes such as storage and transportation of raw and semi-finished products When local storage facilities are available, order picking becomes an integral part of the workflow Additionally, effective planning and control of manufacturing and assembly operations are crucial, tailored to the specific production location.

Distribution plays a crucial role in delivering products to customers, whether they are distribution centers, retail stores, or end consumers This process involves not only storing, picking, and transporting goods but also ensuring their protection through effective packaging Additionally, it requires organizing items into transport units and managing tasks like transshipping when needed Proper planning, control, and monitoring of distribution processes are essential for efficient operations.

Factory planning can streamline sub-processes into three reference processes: production, transportation, and storage Kuhn’s Process Chain Elements and Nyhuis and Wiendahl’s Logistic Operating Curves effectively illustrate the relationships among these processes The former helps visualize the logical connections between elementary functions and process chain plans for specific articles or groups, while the latter outlines the functional interplay between logistic objectives such as Work in Process (WIP), throughput time, output rate, and schedule compliance within a workstation or manufacturing sector For instance, a sample process chain plan for producing microelectronic chips involves creating an electronic circuit on a silicon wafer, which is then separated and housed in a casing, with components requested by a laptop producer as needed Each step in this chain serves one of three fundamental logistical functions and necessitates resources, personnel, space, and control information Process chain elements can represent a company holistically or be hierarchically divided down to individual work operations.

In planning a factory at the workstation level, it is essential to consider the Logistic Operating Curves for production, transportation, and storage These curves, illustrated in Fig 6.15, are crucial for effectively dimensioning workstations and their associated buffers.

We first have to identify what the logistic objectives are for these three reference processes as is summarized in Fig.6.16.

Objectives can be categorized into internal and external perspectives, with schedule compliance and throughput times being key attributes of logistic performance as perceived by customers In contrast, factors such as output rate, utilization, work in progress (WIP), and the management of receiving goods, storage, transportation, and commissioning play crucial roles in the core processes These processes encompass procurement, manufacturing, assembly, distribution, and the planning and control of logistical and technological sub-processes, highlighting the importance of efficient logistics in overall performance.

Fig 6.14 Core and sub-processes of industrial production

6.2 Production Technology 133 costs are internal objectives and should be max- imized or minimized respectively.

The question of course is how can the three processes and their objectives be modeled, dimensioned and designed from a logistic per- spective? The Funnel Model and Throughput

Diagram have proven to be useful for the ‘pro- duction’ reference process (see Fig 6.17, [Nyh09]).

The workstation appears as a funnel, whereby the balls represent the waiting orders (WIP) and the variable opening symbolizes the set capacity. schedule compliance throughput time output rate

Optimizing work-in-progress (WIP) costs is crucial for enhancing production efficiency and transportation processes By maintaining low WIP levels and ensuring high utilization rates, businesses can achieve reduced costs per yielded unit and minimal delivery delays This approach also supports short throughput times and efficient stock management, resulting in lower storekeeping expenses Ultimately, aligning enterprise objectives with customer expectations leads to a streamlined supply chain, characterized by punctual deliveries and high operational efficiency.

Logistic objectives in production focus on optimizing key metrics such as output rate, throughput time, and work in process Effective management of transportation time and stock levels is essential to minimize delivery delays and storage time Additionally, enhancing the production curve involves streamlining setup and connection technologies while ensuring efficient separation and checking processes in housing manufacturing.

Coating & removal photo lithography mechanical processing masking substrat processes: producing/testing transporting storing synchronization point

Fig 6.15 Elements and logistic operating curves for production processes in a process chain plan

The volume of the balls represents the work content measured in planned hours By analyzing this system over an extended period, we can create a 'Throughput Diagram' that illustrates input and output events In this diagram, the lower curve reflects the accumulated output progression, while the upper curve shows the accumulated input progression Typically, there is an initial Work In Progress (WIP) level at the beginning and a final WIP level at the end of the observation period The slope of the output curve indicates the average output rate in planned hours per workday, whereas the slope of the input curve represents the average input rate of the workstation during the same timeframe.

When production input is halted, the available Work in Progress (WIP) can sustain operations for a duration determined by the output rate and WIP ratio This duration is known as the "range," which is defined by the Funnel Formula: range equals WIP divided by output rate Additionally, the average throughput time is calculated from the mean of the individual throughput times.

In this article, we have addressed two key objectives related to the "producing" process, as illustrated in Fig 6.16 We still need to explore the aspects of utilization and schedule compliance, including lateness These parameters can be effectively visualized in a Throughput Diagram, as demonstrated in Fig 6.18.

In the center of the figure is the so-called

‘logistic target cross’with the external perceived performance objectives ‘throughput time’ and

‘lateness’and the internally perceived objectives

The Throughput Diagram visually represents key objectives such as utilization and WIP (Work In Progress) In this diagram, WIP is illustrated as the blue area between the input and output curves Each order's throughput is shown as a rectangle, where its length indicates throughput time and height reflects work content Lateness is also represented as a rectangle, with its length based on the difference between planned and actual output dates, which can be positive (late), negative (early), or zero (on time) Utilization is defined as the ratio of actual output to planned output To create a Throughput Diagram, essential elements include planned waiting orders, incoming and completed orders, maximum capacity, current output rate, planned work hours, and the time frame in shop calendar days.

Fig 6.17 Funnel model and throughput diagram of a workstation

6.2 Production Technology 135 and actual input and output dates are required along with the planned work content for each order.

The interaction of objectives on a workstation is illustrated through a set of Logistic Operating Curves, as shown in Figure 6.19.

Production Operating Curves (see Fig 6.15).

Facilities

Manufacturing Facilities

Manufacturing facilities are essential for executing various manufacturing processes, as illustrated in Sect 6.2.1 and Fig 6.4 Manual workplaces, which include workbenches, clamps, and tools, are rarely utilized in industrial production for tasks like bending tubes, deburring, and welding In contrast, the majority of facilities consist of manufacturing machinery, categorized as shown in Fig 6.24, which aligns with the aforementioned processes Although we won't delve into specific details regarding their properties, such as geometric dimensions and media supply, it's crucial for factory planners to distinguish between individual machines and machine systems These can further be classified based on their productivity and flexibility, as depicted in Fig 6.25.

Flexibility in manufacturing varies significantly among machines, from single-purpose machines designed to produce a specific part to convertible single-purpose machines These machines can adapt to subsystem, section-level manufacturing systems, assembly systems, and logistics systems, enhancing overall efficiency in production processes.

FACILITIES all means, equipment and plants for the fulfilment of a production task process enabler workpiece handling systems tool handling systems control systems periphery

Fig 6.23 Facilities from the perspective of factory planning

PVD: physical vapor deposition CVD: chemical vapor deposition machines for primary shaping machines for forming machines for joining machines for separating machines for coating machines for changing material properties

The classification of manufacturing machinery encompasses various systems designed for productivity and flexibility These include rigid multi-machine systems, flexible multi-machine systems, individual machines, and transfer lines Integrated rigid manufacturing systems and convertible transfer lines enhance efficiency, while flexible transfer lines and flexible manufacturing systems adapt to diverse production needs Additionally, flexible manufacturing cells and convertible single-purpose machines, along with machining centers and numerically controlled universal machines, play crucial roles in modern manufacturing processes.

Manufacturing equipment productivity and flexibility vary significantly, ranging from machining centers designed for specific part spectrums to numerically controlled universal machines that have limitations primarily based on workpiece dimensions Additionally, flexible multi-machine systems enhance operational efficiency by allowing for versatile production capabilities.

(flexible transfer lines, flexible manufacturing systems, flexible manufacturing cells) link a number of single machines into an automated workpieceflow in which the sequence of oper- ations is more or lessflexible.

Takted transfer lines represent the most productive yet least flexible machine systems, designed for specific workpieces like motor blocks These systems can be adjusted to accommodate varying setups, but are restricted to a narrow range of dimensions and features In factory planning, the manufacturing machines discussed can be distilled into a limited set of defining characteristics.

An example here is the numerically controlled universal machine Whereas, its general structure is depicted in Fig 6.26 [Toe95], Weck and

Brecher provide an extensive introduction

[Wec05] A comprehensive overview is given by

The machine's frame establishes its spatial structure, influencing the arrangement of both moving and fixed components Guides are essential for the precision of the manufactured workpiece, allowing for accurate shifting and turning of moving parts Drives supply the necessary mechanical energy for both primary and secondary feed motions, while control systems manage motors and actuators, facilitating power and information control through Numerical Control The control unit connects to a Local Area Network (LAN) for efficient data exchange with higher-level systems In factory planning, the machine's frame dictates the required floor area, height, and load capacity, determining if anchoring is needed Meanwhile, drives and processes dictate the necessary power and media supply, such as compressed air or cooling water Tool handling systems are comprised of tools and measurement devices supplied on-demand by the tool preparation department, utilizing integrated or separate magazines for larger quantities, complete with specialized loading and unloading guides.

Fig 6.26 Elements of a machine tool (T ử nshoff)

6.3 Facilities 143 devices, can be implemented From a factory planning perspective tools systems are floor space consuming, ancillary systems that have to be designed ergonomically and considered in the spatial planning and organization.

Workpiece handling systems, as illustrated in Fig 6.23, are essential for the efficient movement and storage of workpieces both in front of and within machine workspaces These systems utilize workpiece palettes, or carriers, which are specifically designed to transport specialized components.

Fixtures play a crucial role in accurately positioning and securing workpieces, even under significant cutting forces While manual workpiece changes are possible, automated loading and unloading systems with dedicated workpiece magazines are also widely used The handling subsystems required for these workpieces can demand substantial floor space, depending on their size.

They create the interface with the internal mate- rial flow and are decisively designed by the factory planning and logistics.

Control systems are essential components of machine tools, often presented to users as control or operating panels These systems not only generate quality data but also allow for the input of organizational feedback, such as production quantity and completion time, thereby closing the logistical control loop For factory planners, the primary requirements for implementing control systems are the space for control cabinets and the necessary operational resources for connective lines.

The periphery of manufacturing machinery is largely influenced by waste material removal, interim storage, and adherence to health and safety guidelines dictated by environmental regulations These factors necessitate significant space and must be seamlessly integrated into the factory's disposal system to maintain production flow Notably, cooling lubricants can substantially increase disposal costs when combined with chips and sanding dust, warranting careful management through avoidance (dry cutting), reduction (minimal lubricant systems), or substitution.

When choosing manufacturing machinery, it is crucial to evaluate the necessary technology for the processing task, along with the machinery's flexibility and productivity The organization of these units and their level of automation significantly influence the overall efficiency of the manufacturing facility Automation encompasses the programming of tool and workpiece movements, as well as the changes made to tools and workpieces According to Spath, the stages of automation for individual machines can be further categorized, providing a clearer understanding of their operational capabilities.

A machining center is a sophisticated manufacturing machine designed to perform multiple processing operations on a single workpiece within one setup It incorporates a power drive, local control, and a local tool magazine equipped with various tools such as drills, cutters, and thread cutters Additionally, an automated tool changer and an integrated measuring device enhance its functionality, making it an essential asset in modern manufacturing processes.

Figure 6.28 illustrates a machining center designed for producing small, rotationally symmetric components Raw parts are placed into a circulating workpiece magazine, where a vertically and horizontally adjustable turning spindle secures them using a chuck The shaping of the parts occurs through a chip removal process, employing numerical control to maneuver the rotating component alongside a stationary cutting tool.

The drum turret machine is designed for efficient part processing, featuring a conveyor belt that removes falling chips into a bin It houses all necessary tools for operations such as drilling and threading, which are activated by rotating the turret head to specific positions Upon completion of processing, the spindle places the finished part onto a workpiece magazine, which advances to position the next raw part for processing Additionally, the machine's floor space requirements are crucial for factory planning For machining centers handling prismatic parts, workpiece clamping occurs externally on a workpiece pallet, which is transported in and out of the machine using a pallet changer.

Assembly Systems

From the perspective of the factory planning and operation, the following properties distinguish assembly from manufacturing:

• In order to produce a workpiece a manufac- turing machine requires an initial material that usually consists of a single piece of a semi-

A finished product can be created from similar materials in various geometric shapes In contrast, an assembly system requires the integration of numerous distinct parts, which must be assembled in multiple configurations and thoroughly inspected to ensure proper installation.

In manufacturing, the precision of parts is a key indicator of quality, making it essential to consider the rigidity and dynamic behavior of tool machines due to the significant forces involved in the processes Conversely, assembly processes require less force, emphasizing the importance of accurately positioning joint parts and ensuring the reliability of joining methods.

In serial production manufacturing processes, work content varies significantly, typically ranging from 0.5 to 20 hours based on part complexity and lot size, although high-volume production lines with minute-cycle times present an exception Conversely, assembly processes characterized by a wide variety of components generally have much shorter cycle times, often between seconds and minutes, with lower limits typically around 2 to 3 seconds for picking and joining parts efficiently.

Manufacturing processes typically have a mean continuous runtime of about an hour, with repair durations averaging between 10 and 20 minutes In contrast, automated assembly processes experience more frequent disruptions due to the handling of multiple parts and shorter cycle times, leading to interruptions that can occur just minutes apart and last for several minutes Consequently, manufacturing machines are often designed to operate continuously despite these challenges.

6.3 Facilities 149 night shifts without supervision, while assem- bly stations and even linked systems require on-site personnel who continually monitor the processes and are prepared to intervene as needed.

• As a result of the above mentioned reasons manufacturing machines are thus in principle better suited for automation, whereas assembly systems are rarely fully automated.

Assembly systems are categorized based on output rate, the number of parts to be assembled, and the number of assembly operations This classification distinguishes between flexible manual assembly and automated assembly methods.

Manual assembly workstations prioritize the needs of personnel by considering the space required for movement and the physical and mental demands of the tasks Effective workplace design accommodates both sitting and standing positions, as illustrated in Figure 6.34 From a logistics perspective, products are assembled in lots, and during product or variant changes, the contents of the picking bins are either partially or fully replaced to maintain efficiency.

Effective workspace organization requires essential resources such as a work desk, seating options, picking bins, and a joining tool The outcomes of the work should be systematically placed in a transportable container or on a conveyor belt for efficiency Additionally, the layout of the work equipment must account for the desk height, viewing distance, gripping range, and sufficient space for the operator's unobstructed movement.

The operations performed by workers consist of five fundamental movements: reach, grasp, move, position, and release The goal is to create a sequence that minimizes time and simplifies difficult movements Enhancements can be achieved by executing similar or different actions with both hands simultaneously and eliminating non-value-adding activities Lotter defines the effectiveness of an assembly workplace as the ratio of primary assembly operations to the total of all assembly operations, including both primary and secondary tasks.

0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 automated single place assembly one piece flow assembly hybrid assembly manual flow assembly manual single place assembly

0 product complexity [number of parts or operations] automated flow assembly flexible assembly output rate [units/hr] rigid assembly

Assembly systems can be classified based on their output rate and complexity, as illustrated in Fig 6.33 Primary assembly operations are those that enhance a product's value during assembly, while secondary assembly operations consist of essential tasks that do not contribute to value creation.

If increasing output rates through personnel adjustments is hindered by excessively short cycle times, implementing partial mechanization and automation is a suitable solution.

The assembly process is characterized by batch-wise and partially automated operations As illustrated in Figure 6.35, the assembly workplace features a turntable equipped with fixtures for 18 workpieces, where the base part T1 is inserted from a picking bin The turntable continuously adjusts to achieve the optimal joining position, enhancing efficiency in the assembly workflow.

Following that turntable 2 is turned so far that part t2 is in the optimal position for grasping.

This part is then joined to part t1 eighteen times.

The process involves repeating the assembly of six parts a total of 18 times, ensuring they are placed in a container in the correct order Notably, the operation minimizes secondary efforts through short grasping distances and utilizes an automated joining press for simultaneous operation.

Assembly solutions such as this are thus also known as hybrid assembly systems.

One-Piece-Flow Assembly allows for the individual processing of products rather than batch-wise production This method enables each item to be worked on separately, enhancing efficiency and productivity An illustration of this approach can be seen in a single workplace setup, as shown in Fig 6.36.

Here the worker picks the base part and puts it on a workpiece carrier that can be shifted using an

The assembly sledge on a ball roller table allows workers to manually position the sledge for efficiently grasping and joining parts, with a total of 11 components (P1 to P11) required before the final product is completed This system enhances efficiency by reducing worker movements and minimizing external material supply, which is particularly advantageous during variant changes Additionally, in response to fluctuating demand, a flexible workforce can be implemented, as illustrated in a U-shaped system where products A and B are assembled Depending on production needs, one to three workers can be allocated to area A, while two workers can manage area B.

This article outlines essential specifications for assembly operations, focusing on various dimensions and ergonomic considerations The work table height should range from 900 to 1080 mm (35.1 to 42.1 inches), while the sitting height is recommended between 250 and 300 mm (9.75 to 11.7 inches) Job distance should be adjustable from 0 to 325 mm (0 to 12.7 inches), with work heights of 350 to 550 mm (13.7 to 21.5 inches) for h1 and 1000 to 1250 mm (39.0 to 48.8 inches) for h2 Key clearances include foot clearance and knee clearance, with minimum gripping space at 120 mm (4.7 inches) and leg room depth between 520 to 720 mm (20.3 to 28.1 inches) The article emphasizes the importance of these dimensions for optimizing comfort and efficiency during assembly tasks.

Fig 6.34 Assembly workplace for manual assembly (Bosch Rexroth)

16 cm (6.3”) turn table 2 for 6 part bins (bulk goods) assembly fixture turn table 1 for

18 products press deposit finished products joining position

Fig 6.35 Assembly workplace for batch-wise assembly (Lotter) base part finished product picking bin (bulk goods) ball roller table P1

P11 rotatable work table with workpiece fixture assembly sledge moving on ball roller table

Logistical Resources

The logistical resources already outlined in

The core and sub-logistic processes outlined in Fig 6.14 are essential for the effective storage and handling of piece-goods, ensuring that their functional properties remain unchanged while adhering to criteria such as quantity, time, and location The selection of logistical resources is influenced by the geometry, dimensions, weight, and sensitivity of the packaged goods, similar to the considerations in feeding technology during assembly This section will concentrate on in-house logistics that connect the manufacturing and assembly functions, with a discussion on external logistics planned for Chapter 9.

To effectively analyze logistical resources, it is essential to first examine the fundamental processes underlying the logistic sub-processes This understanding clarifies the significance and attributes of the classification features.

Effective storage processes encompass several key steps: receiving and identifying goods, determining their storage location, storing the items, commissioning them, and finally, removing and dispatching them to the designated transfer point, such as a loading dock.

Conveyingconsists of loading and unloading the conveyor as well as the loaded and idle runs of the conveyor.

Packaging is essential for protecting goods, requiring both packing materials and the items themselves to create cargo units In a factory setting, packaging typically occurs only when goods are ready for dispatch To enhance efficiency and safety, it is advisable to use specialized returnable carriers instead of conventional packaging, as these carriers not only organize the goods but also provide better protection during transportation.

Commissioning, also known as order picking, involves retrieving a specified quantity of items from a storage area This process includes the commissioner removing the requested amounts from their respective bins, placing them into a picking bin, and subsequently gathering additional items into the same bin to fulfill the order Finally, the empty bins are returned to their original locations.

Trans-shipping processes, typically reserved for external transport hubs like container terminals and rail dispatching stations, are infrequently needed in factory settings In contrast, sorting plays a limited role in factory logistics, primarily used to direct a diverse flow of goods to specific destinations, akin to operations in package distribution centers or airport luggage systems The fundamental processes involved in sorting are similar to those of storing or transporting, with the main difference being the larger, well-packaged units that are protected from environmental factors Effective execution of these logistics functions necessitates careful planning, monitoring, and control, which includes managing quantities and capacities of logistical units, processing orders, generating necessary documentation, and tracking orders, all while ensuring timely information precedes the orders.

In today's digital age, electronic communication is crucial, yet there is a growing expectation for real-time tracking information regarding order status.

To enhance statistical evaluations and order tracking systems, it is essential to generate feedback data regarding items removed from stores and completed transport operations.

Logistics processes rely on essential facilities that operate alongside automated devices and skilled personnel This article will focus initially on the importance of storage facilities in these logistics operations.

Figure 6.45 illustrates the components of an effective piece-goods storage system Load carriers, which include pallets, boxes, girders, or containers, are essential for forming cargo that can be transported by conveyors To meet specific protection and automation needs during loading and unloading, goods are secured with holding strips or intermediate layers featuring appropriate pits In factory planning, it is crucial to minimize the variety of charge carriers to streamline operations.

Load auxiliary devices are essential for managing cargo units during various processes, as illustrated in Fig 6.44 These devices can be either permanently attached to storage conveyor systems or interchangeable with them Common types include rigid and adjustable forks for lifting charge carriers, while side grippers or squeeze clamps necessitate robust side walls on the carriers Additionally, load handling devices can pull, push, lift, or roll the charge carriers Storage conveyor systems play a crucial role in accepting charge carriers, transporting them from drop-off points to storage locations (storing), from storage to supply points (retrieval), or between storage areas (sorting) In non-automated settings, manual vehicles like forklifts, high-lift trucks, and reach trucks assist in these processes, allowing the driver to operate at ground level.

• removing demanded amount of goods

7 planning • volume and capacity planning

• information provisioning (ahead and accompanying)

Fig 6.44 Sub and elementary logistic processes (based on Fleischmann, Gudehus and ten Hompel)

With rack trucks operators drive with the device to the individual storage places.

The storage devices fulfill the core function

‘storing’(see Fig.6.46) The charge carriers can be stored in blocks or rows on thefloor and are then referred to as block stores (Fig.6.46top left).

Due to the need for space and accessibility stor- age racks—usually hand or medium to high racks

—are predominantly implemented; Fig.6.46top right depicts a rack with stacked pallets.

When the pallets can move in the rack they are referred to as drive-through or drive-in racks

(Fig 6.46 bottom left), whereas with movable racks the individual racks move as a whole with the pallets (Fig.6.46 bottom right).

Within a factory, rack stores mainly tend to be found in the inbound and outbound stores as well as in the dispatch area of shipping companies.

Figure 6.47 depicts a visualization of possible forms and their dimensions which, depending on the overall height, can be implemented with different storage means [Hom07].

The lift system illustrated in Fig 6.48 is commonly utilized for internal intermediary storage of B-parts, tools, and consumable materials due to its quick access, compact design, dust protection, and mobility This system enables easy access to items from multiple levels, facilitating efficient commissioning processes.

Continuous conveyors play a crucial role in both storage and transportation Their storage capacity is defined by the number of charge carriers they can accommodate, with dynamic stores allowing movement of these carriers and static stores not permitting movement Comprehensive details on storage systems, including their components, technologies, and dimensions, can be found in the works of ten Hompel et al [Hom07], Furmans and Arnold [Fur08], and McGuire [McG10] Additionally, the term 'transportation' encompasses external transport methods, while internal transport systems are addressed separately.

‘conveying’ For factory planners then, the internal conveyor systems for piece goods are of primary concern; Fig.6.49differentiates between continous and static systems.

Conveyors such as sliding, roll, or belt types are ideal for short distances, effectively linking machines and assembly systems For longer distances, suspension and drag chain conveyors are utilized to connect material flow systems between different production areas or halls These conveyors are typically installed overhead, just beneath the ceiling, to maximize floor space for machinery and personnel Most conveyor storage systems for piece goods utilize charge carriers and auxiliary devices to enhance storage efficiency.

Fig 6.45 Components of a piece-good store pallet rack drive through racks block storage movable racks

Fig 6.46 Typical types of piece-goods storage

(Schulze) forklift pallet stacker narrow aisle truck storage and retrieval truck module widths lift height aisle widths

0.75 - 1.5 m 2.5 - 4.9 ft module widths aisle widths

Fig 6.47 Typical rack systems (ten Hompel)

6.3 Facilities 161 systems implemented are non-continuous, whereby floor conveyors are broken down into fork-lifts, towing tractors and wagons as well as hand-pulled (or pushed) carts and overhead conveyors Figure 6.50 depicts two typical forklifts and their respective performance ranges

Overhead conveyors include monorails which transport their load along an overhead track.

Cranes, trains and lifting devices as well as ele- vators are summed up as lifting tools and primarily serve to vertically transport individual loads.

Summary

Workplaces are the fundamental building units of each factory Their constituent components are equipment and people both requiring space.

Production technology encompasses three primary process groups: part manufacturing, assembly, and logistics Part manufacturing involves shaping or altering the properties of materials to create usable components Assembly refers to the joining of these parts into final products, while logistics processes manage the spatial and quantitative movement of parts and products This chapter outlines each of these processes in detail and examines the machinery and equipment utilized for their execution Additionally, it highlights the key design features of the equipment and the challenges associated with modifying them.

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The VDI guideline 2860 focuses on assembly and handling techniques, detailing handling functions and units, along with relevant terminology, definitions, and symbols established in 1990 Additionally, the work by Weck and Brecher, titled "Machine Tools — Machine Types and Application Fields," provides an overview of various machine types and their applications, published in its sixth edition by Springer in Berlin in 2005.

[Wie00] Wiendahl, H.-P., et al.: Transportprozesse mit logistischen Kennlinien gestalten und bewerten (Design and Evaluation of Transport Processes with Logistic Characteristic Curves), vol 5(4), pp 16 – 21. PPS Management (2000)

In the realm of cutting technology, Weinert (1999) explores the applications of dry machining and minimum quantity cooling lubrication, emphasizing their significance in modern manufacturing processes Meanwhile, Zehnder (1997) discusses competence-oriented technology planning, highlighting the importance of aligning technological advancements with organizational capabilities for enhanced efficiency and effectiveness.

Organizational Perspective 7 by Detlef Gerst

Employee skills development, effective division of labor, and a well-structured wage system are crucial for a factory's economic success, alongside technical equipment and workplace design This chapter focuses on enhancing employee capabilities and clarifying responsibilities within the organization, while also addressing the importance of working schedules Additionally, the ergonomic design of workspaces and their spatial environments will be explored in detail in Chapter 8.

Human Resources as a Concept

The term 'human resources' is often debated, similar to the term 'human capital,' which was labeled a taboo in 2004 Critics argue that it reduces employees to mere objects of production planning, viewed solely from a monetary perspective However, in professional contexts, 'human resources' emphasizes the unique performance capabilities of individuals and aims to enhance these through targeted development measures By focusing on designing workstations that boost production efficiency while considering employee motivation for personal growth, organizations can leverage the competencies, motivation, and flexibility of their workforce, which are crucial for maintaining competitiveness in the market.

Viewing employees merely as resources can detract from recognizing their unique capabilities and potential Effective workforce planning and design should prioritize hiring practices, fostering long-term relationships between employees and the organization, and strategically scheduling work hours Additionally, it is crucial to acknowledge the qualitative value employees bring, which sets them apart from inanimate resources like facilities.

• Human work is characterized by a specific flexibilitythat technology can at best partially emulate.

Creativity is a crucial aspect of human capability, allowing individuals to move beyond programmed routines and procedures This ability enables the development of innovative and suitable solutions for both technological and organizational challenges.

• In addition, employees carry specific knowl- edge Whereas machines are capable of storing

This chapter wasfirst published in German as Gerst, D:

„Humanressourcen“ in: Arnold et al (Ed.): Handbuch

Logistik, 3rd ed., pp 343–361 Springer Berlin

Heidelberg 2008 The authors would like to thank

Dr Gerst and Springer-Verlag for the permission to reprint it.

H.-P Wiendahl et al., Handbook Factory Planning and Design,

DOI 10.1007/978-3-662-46391-8_7, © Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2015

Humans possess extensive experience and contextual knowledge that enable them to navigate new situations effectively, despite processing a vast amount of information Additionally, employees' free will significantly impacts their job performance.

Motivation plays a crucial role in human resource development, shifting the focus from viewing individuals as mere 'flexible machines' to recognizing their unique competencies and creativity By prioritizing flexibility and motivation, the concept of human resources evolves to foster a more dynamic and engaged workforce.

Human Resources and Production Performance

The relationship between human resources and production performance becomes clear when production is viewed beyond mere methods and algorithms that convert materials into products and manage inventory and material flows.

While the primary aim of designing production processes is to minimize human impact on quality and logistics, it's essential to recognize that humans possess the ability to adapt and respond to unexpected technological and organizational challenges, particularly in situations where bureaucratic controls may fall short.

Employees play a crucial role in enhancing the economic efficiency of industrial production Well-developed human resources significantly impact production performance, which is essential for achieving strong logistics performance and minimizing logistics costs.

The impact of human labor on production performance is largely determined by workforce competency, motivation, and effective incentive systems A key challenge in enhancing competencies and creating incentive structures lies in understanding how the human workforce affects logistics performance.

Technological knowledge is validated through direct experience, unlike logistical relationships, which often remain misunderstood due to their complexity Incentive programs in production play a crucial role in influencing the behavior of those involved in logistics These systems can determine whether production staff focus solely on productivity and quality or also prioritize minimizing work-in-process (WIP), reducing delivery times, and enhancing delivery reliability Therefore, the competency, availability, and goal orientation of production personnel are essential factors in effective production planning.

Competency and Human Resources Development

Professional Competence

To effectively assess existing competencies and identify gaps, it is essential to recognize the various aspects of professional competence A widely accepted typology includes four key areas: technical, methodological, individual (self), and social communication competencies These categories, illustrated in Figure 7.1, provide a structured framework for understanding competencies Unlike qualifications or skills, competency research focuses primarily on individual and self-competence.

Bergmann even equates competency to expertise:

“Competency refers to the motivation and aptitude of a person to independently further develop knowledge and ability in an area to a level that can be characterized as expertise” [Ber00: 21].

Current research highlights the distinction between explicit and implicit knowledge, emphasizing that professional competence relies on both Explicit knowledge is defined as conscious, logically structured information that can be communicated, while implicit knowledge arises from experience, enabling individuals to perform tasks confidently without being consciously aware of the underlying processes Studies suggest that explicit knowledge contributes to only 20% of professional competence, indicating that both explicit and implicit knowledge are essential across various domains This knowledge forms the cognitive foundation necessary for executing specific tasks, encompassing technical, methodological, individual, and social competencies Key components include technical knowledge, problem-solving abilities, self-awareness, autonomous learning, and effective communication skills, all of which are vital for responsible action and organizational integration.

Fig 7.1 Dimensions of Professional Competence © IFA 11.627_Wd_B

In the context of researching innovation processes, the professional competence model has been expanded to incorporate two additional elements: motivation, or the willingness to take action, and organizational integration, which reflects the employee's sense of responsibility This model suggests that when an individual is officially assigned responsibility for a specific task, their professional competence is enhanced.

The four dimensions of professional competence, along with the differentiation between implicit and explicit knowledge, readiness to act, and organizational integration, can be synthesized into a model This model effectively elucidates numerous unmet business objectives associated with employee performance.

Employee participation in improvement processes often falls short due to inadequate organizational integration To enhance specific competencies, it's essential to identify key starting points based on a structured model Consequently, operational measures aimed at improving employee skills must target various competency areas effectively.

To effectively manage the development of competencies, organizations implement competency profiles that clearly outline employees' occupational and methodological skills This approach addresses the challenges practitioners face when assessing social and self-competencies, which can be methodologically complex Focusing solely on functional and methodological competencies in target competency profiles may limit a comprehensive understanding of an employee's overall capabilities.

files, it can result in systematically underestimat- ing the significance of self-competence as well as social and communicative competence.

The competency profile developed during a research project at Sartorius AG's Göttingen site exemplifies a comprehensive approach that extends beyond just technical and methodological skills Unlike typical competency profiles that focus solely on specific tasks or functions, this profile encompasses a broader range of competencies, highlighting its unique features and applicability in various contexts.

The competency profile for shop floor supervisors aims to enhance workforce adaptability by qualifying employees at the lowest managerial level This profile categorizes essential competencies into four key areas: technical, methodological, social, and self-competence By organizing and visualizing these competencies, businesses can effectively assess whether they have overlooked critical dimensions in their analysis or qualification plans, ensuring a comprehensive approach to employee development.

Strategies for Developing Competence

Traditional formal education has been the standard for continuing education, but it often comes with disadvantages such as high costs, delays, and a lack of relevance to participants' practical experiences In contrast, work-based learning is gaining recognition for its value, as it connects learning directly to work tasks and enhances both social and self-competence To effectively develop these competencies, a variety of learning settings are necessary, leading to the identification of three distinct forms of learning.

Formalized learning is structured and guided, typically occurring in courses, training sessions, and instructional settings It effectively develops professional and methodological skills while facilitating the communication of explicit knowledge Additionally, partially formalized learning occurs within integrated workplace environments, enhancing the learning experience.

Designing workplaces that foster learning processes allows employees to independently tackle complex assignments using available educational materials, exemplified by concepts like learning islands or training stations This method effectively communicates both explicit and implicit knowledge across various dimensions of professional competence, enhancing employee development It promotes a culture of creativity, responsibility, and pressure management, while driving results through decision-making, innovation, and teamwork Additionally, it cultivates essential skills such as conflict resolution, customer orientation, adaptability, organization, problem-solving, and process optimization, ultimately leading to continuous improvement in business and production processes.

Lean Production further skills for team leaders self- competence social competence methodological competence technical competence

Fig 7.2 Changeability competency pro fi le for a shop fl oor supervisor (per [Sal13]) © IFA 17.596_B formalized learning partly formalized learning definition examples • instructions

• in a learning island systematically didactically guided learning partly structured learning (work integrated learning environment) informal learning learning

• at the workplace unstructured, experience guided learning

Fig 7.3 Learning forms. © IFA 14.798_Wd_B suited to improving social and self-competence.

Partially formalized learning has the drawback of offering limited chances to delve into theoretical concepts, potentially resulting in knowledge gaps that formalized learning can address In contrast, informal learning is an unstructured process grounded in experience, often occurring in the workplace through job-related tasks or discussions with colleagues This type of learning is experience-oriented, enhances informal knowledge, and is typically not consciously recognized as learning by those involved.

However, it is indispensable for improving skills and for passing on informal knowledge to colleagues.

Human Resources Development

Human resources development encompasses three key areas: qualification, behavior optimization, and career management These areas are often referred to in professional literature as knowledge-oriented, behavior-oriented, and career-related, respectively.

The primary objective is to align personnel with production requirements for both the medium and long term Human resource development methods can influence individuals directly, such as through educational initiatives that enhance job-related knowledge, or indirectly, by designing workstations that promote collaboration For instance, implementing group work encourages team members to support and stimulate each other's learning processes, fostering a more effective and knowledgeable workforce.

Human resources development focuses on aligning individual competencies with job requirements, emphasizing the need to compile essential knowledge and skills for specific tasks While a reactive approach is possible, a proactive orientation is deemed more effective Key tools for human resources development include requirement analysis, scenario building, and staff appraisals, which assess current abilities and potential for growth This process involves an analysis phase followed by the creation of development plans that outline specific measures, timelines, and evaluations Current knowledge-oriented approaches take into account individual learning styles and incorporate complex learning objectives tied to real job situations For the industrial and technology sectors, it is recommended to utilize educational objective systems, learning islands, and training offices.

A variety of behavior-oriented instruments exist for effective change management, including training measures and coaching approaches aimed at achieving concrete goals While change management focuses on medium-term improvements, organization development seeks to ensure the acceptance of changes and enhance organizational culture sustainably Recent behavior modification tactics emphasize a holistic approach, addressing criticisms of traditional methods like group development and outdoor training, which often lack long-term effectiveness and transfer potential More effective strategies integrate training with workstation design, as a well-structured work environment fosters the long-term development of employee competencies.

The objective of career-related staff development is to create a career system that harmonizes organizational needs with individual professional aspirations Career planning can take two forms: vertical careers, which involve ascending the hierarchy, and the less commonly recognized aspect of descending the hierarchy, reflecting a nuanced understanding of career progression.

Designing workplaces that prioritize horizontal careers is essential as they allow employees to remain within their fields without the pressures of climbing traditional corporate ladders The rise of horizontal careers reflects the recent trend of flattening company hierarchies, emphasizing the importance of job satisfaction and professional development over conventional promotions.

In designing a career system, human resources development must consider employee motivations, which typically favor vertical advancement over lateral moves This preference for climbing the corporate ladder is driven by desires for autonomy, power, self-development, prestige, and higher earnings Conversely, horizontal changes are often motivated by the pursuit of more engaging and less stressful work or the need for greater recognition and success that current roles may not provide However, the inclination towards stable career progression often hinders lateral transitions.

To address existing challenges, the objective of human resources development is to clarify career paths and offer employees opportunities for both personal and professional advancement It is beneficial to structure careers based on employment phases, distinguishing between integration, early, mid, and late career stages, as well as the transition out of the company Additional insights into human resource development can be explored in [Mon12].

Work Structuring

Effective factory planning relies heavily on the structuring of work, which involves the division of tasks and the allocation of responsibilities across various functional areas within a company There are two main strategies for structuring work: people-independent strategies, which outline activities and tasks in job descriptions without associating them with specific individuals, and people-dependent strategies, which tailor work organization to meet the unique needs of individual employees.

The impact of work structure on motivation, competency, health, and job satisfaction is widely recognized, yet its effect on economic efficiency remains a topic of debate Research on High Performance Work Organizations (HPWO) suggests that the economic viability of participative and team-oriented structures is enhanced when paired with performance-based remuneration systems, flexible work schedules, and training initiatives.

Key strategies for structuring work encompass job enlargement, job rotation, job enrichment, and partially autonomous group work These methods are illustrated in relation to their achievable objectives Notably, changing workplaces is excluded from this analysis due to its variable impact, which can either align with job enlargement or job enrichment, though it typically tends to focus on job enlargement.

Job enlargement involves expanding the scope of an existing position by incorporating similar tasks, such as extending the assembly cycle This approach typically does not raise qualification requirements but provides employees with a varied workload and increased diversity in their work, enhancing job satisfaction within a manageable range.

Job enrichment enhances a position by incorporating activities that demand greater thought and qualifications, aiming for a more comprehensive approach to work tasks This concept includes not only the execution of tasks but also their planning, preparation, and control For instance, a machine operator's role can be expanded to encompass maintenance, quality testing, and order management Typically, job enrichment leads to higher qualifications and potentially increased earnings.

Partially autonomous teamwork involves a group of employees who collaboratively plan, prepare, and manage their work activities, effectively integrating job enlargement and enrichment strategies This approach enhances personnel management by enriching job roles, which helps to alleviate workloads and expand employee competencies The rise of partially autonomous group work is largely driven by the increasing complexity of production processes, offering significant performance benefits such as flexibility and rapid development of action strategies in response to varying production demands and environmental factors Implementing teamwork can lead to improved product quality, reduced throughput times, minimized waiting periods, and decreased downtime To further enhance work schedule flexibility and goal orientation, it is beneficial to pair group work with bonus schemes and flexible working hours.

Many companies adopt the concept of "supervised teamwork," which originates from the Toyota Production System and involves a designated team leader, or hancho, responsible for ensuring smooth production and ongoing process improvements However, when the hancho is tasked with managing all indirect work functions, it can undermine the positive effects of teamwork on employee motivation, skill development, and adherence to work and safety regulations.

Work structuring concepts that prioritize people include differential and dynamic work design Differential work design aligns tasks with individual interests and competencies, while dynamic work design continuously updates tasks to reflect evolving skills and preferences These approaches promote partially autonomous teamwork, job enrichment, and job enlargement, fostering responsibility and enhancing workplace flexibility They aim to support continuous improvement processes, protect human work ability, and alleviate management from routine tasks Additionally, these strategies reduce the vulnerability of the work system, enhance communication, boost work motivation, alleviate monotony, and minimize physical strain, ultimately promoting competence development in the workforce.

Sociotechnical system design offers a well-researched framework for structuring work in the field of work sciences, emphasizing the alignment of technological and social sub-systems within enterprises to enhance economic efficiency This method highlights teamwork as a more effective work form and draws conclusions regarding task structure Key assumptions of the sociotechnical system approach underscore its significance in optimizing organizational performance.

• The group is interested in efficiently organiz- ing and fulfilling tasks.

• A group is efficient when it can complete tasks as a whole.

• Related tasks within a group require team members to have satisfying social relationships with one another.

• A group being responsible for a defined terri- tory positively impacts the social relationships within the team.

In addition, the London based Tavistock

Institute, which was largely responsible for developing the sociotechnical system, also for- mulated principles for designing work with ref- erence to the individual [according to Fri99].

• be challenged on a professional level,

• be able to make decisions on their own,

• see their work as practical and

• consider their work as contributing to a desirable future.

In addition to the original differentiation between technological and social systems, later versions of the sociotechnical system approach recommended distinguishing between three types of systems:people,organizationand technology

[Fri99] The aim of sociotechnical system design is to align the interfaces of these three systems.

The sociotechnical system approach has traditionally focused on aligning the social system with technological advancements However, recent research indicates a paradigm shift, suggesting that technological systems should be designed with social concerns in mind during the production planning phase Despite this insight, the implementation of this approach remains limited, leading to persistent issues within the social system, such as decreased motivation, work-to-rule behaviors, and increased absenteeism and illness rates.

Motivation

Employee performance is influenced not only by their skills and workplace design but also significantly by their motivation, which manifests through actions and results Motivation encompasses the energy behind actions, the direction of that energy, and the persistence in achieving goals It can be categorized into intrinsic and extrinsic motivation; intrinsic motivation arises from the enjoyment of the task itself, often linked to personal growth and professional challenges, while extrinsic motivation is driven by external rewards or consequences While traditional views emphasize extrinsic factors like pay and punishment, intrinsic motivation is increasingly recognized as vital in modern work environments.

Motivation research encompasses two main categories of theories: content theories, which focus on defining human motivations by addressing specific deficiencies, and process theories, which analyze actions within the context of complex, multi-stage decision-making processes Both approaches provide valuable insights for organizing work and managing personnel effectively.

The most well-known content theory stems from Abraham Maslow It differentiates the 5 classes of motives depicted in Fig 7.5 middle.

The "hierarchy of needs" theory posits that an individual's actions are primarily driven by one class of motives at a time, with higher-level needs becoming relevant only after the lower-level needs have been fulfilled.

Maslow distinguishes between growth motives and deficit motives, noting that satisfaction cannot be achieved at the highest level of needs, unlike the four lower classes.

According to Maslow's hierarchy of needs, the five levels correspond to distinct areas of workplace organization Basic physiological needs can be addressed through an effective reward system, while safety needs are met through job security Social relationships are fostered through collaborative work environments, recognition is achieved via career advancement opportunities, and self-realization is supported through learning and development initiatives.

The hierarchy of needs, one of the earliest content theories of motivation, highlights the diverse range of human motives However, the clear distinction between needs and the hierarchical structure has faced criticism Subsequent theories have simplified the classification of needs and abandoned the hierarchical model, yet they continue to prioritize performance and growth motives, challenging the original assumptions of motivation.

Taylorism and indicate ways to implement workers more productively As a result:

• Employees can be motivated in a variety of ways, not only—as Taylorism sug- gests—by financial compensation for efforts made and strain endured.

Fostering personal growth within employees is a significant asset for any company To harness this potential, it is essential to provide ample room for decision-making and autonomy, ensuring that limitations are kept to a minimum By doing so, organizations can cultivate a strong willingness among employees to collaborate and contribute effectively.

Management must cultivate a work environment that aligns employee satisfaction with business objectives, fostering personal motivations to enhance performance.

Process theories in motivation research emphasize that human actions are primarily driven by decision-making processes that encompass various stages of the work experience These theories suggest that motivation stems from the work process itself and the mental anticipation associated with it Key factors influencing motivation include participation in decision-making, opportunities for learning, and the fulfillment of physiological and safety needs Additionally, social relationships, recognition, self-realization, career advancement, income levels, responsibility, and job security play crucial roles The working environment, workload, and breaks also contribute to motivation, highlighting the importance of both deficit and growth motives in the workplace.

Fig 7.5 Maslow ’ s hierarchy of needs as applied to designing a work system [per Sch00, Spa04] © IFA 14.800_B

Process theories primarily focus on the value that specific processes and their outcomes hold for employees Additionally, these theories emphasize the importance of an employee's expectations regarding the attainability of that value.

One of the best know process theories, which explains not only the work satisfaction but also the motivation to work, stems from Porter and

Lawler (Fig 7.6) [Port68] According to the theory, employees will only make an effort when they anticipate a reward that is of value to them.

The relationship between effort and performance is influenced by individual abilities and personal perceptions of success Employees' definitions of success shape their efforts, which in turn result in intrinsic and extrinsic rewards These rewards are evaluated through the lens of fairness, ultimately impacting overall job satisfaction.

Porter and Lawler’s theory includes decision processes that accompany an employee from the start of a work task up until its conclusion.

Practical consequences for personnel man- agement can be derived from process theories such as Porter and Lawler’s.

Involving employees in the goal-setting process is essential for management to establish clear objectives and define operational targets When targets are collaboratively agreed upon and documented, it enhances overall goal orientation and accountability within the organization.

Effective management involves creating an environment that enables employees to achieve their goals This includes removing technological and organizational barriers, as well as implementing strategies to enhance skill development and competencies.

Effective management should align its approach with the diverse value orientations and competencies of employees A participative and performance-driven management style works best with skilled and decisive individuals, while a more directive approach is necessary for less competent employees and teams that struggle with conflict and constructive collaboration.

Designing Remuneration Systems

Payment rates should be guided by key criteria that influence remuneration systems, focusing on two main objectives: establishing a compensation structure that is viewed as fair and effectively managing employee performance Essential factors include the perceived value of rewards, the effort required, the likelihood of receiving those rewards, individual abilities, personal relationships, role perception, fairness of the rewards, and the distinction between intrinsic and extrinsic rewards, all of which contribute to overall employee satisfaction.

Fig 7.6 Motivation theory according to Porter and Lawler © IFA

14.801_B of which remuneration system is best suited to the fairness criteria is dependent on normative decisions and cultural backgrounds [Wọc97,

For04] Depending on the fairness criteria selected, the remuneration is an expression of:

• the relationship between the offer and demand on the job market,

• acquired qualifications and professional certifications,

• acquired social privileges, e.g., the length of time someone has belonged to an organization or their length of service,

• social needs such as the responsibility for spouses and children,

• the general difficulty of the work task,

• the specific performance of the employee.

Modern compensation systems prioritize employee performance and market demand, recognizing that individuals with unique, in-demand qualifications enjoy better earning potential.

Moreover, an individual’s performance is also greatly valued in many remuneration systems.

In today's corporate landscape, organizations focus not only on fair compensation but also on guiding employee behavior towards desired outcomes In this context, remuneration serves as a performance incentive, acting as a reward for specific efforts and contributions.

In addition to monetary incentives, non-monetary incentives play a significant role in shaping employee behavior Thommen and Achleitner provide a comprehensive overview of these influences It is essential to design monetary incentives in conjunction with various other incentive types to maximize their effectiveness.

Remuneration systems typically consist of a pay pillar structure, starting with requirement-dependent base pay, followed by performance-dependent standard remuneration components, and additional payments that exceed the agreed scale The base pay is determined through a job evaluation process, also known as job assessment.

Job evaluation involves assessing job requirements in comparison to other positions using a standardized reference, aiming to establish pay differentiation based on these requirements Beyond determining base pay, job evaluations also focus on personnel development and the optimization of work processes.

In Germany, the REFA association has established a comprehensive 3-stage method for job evaluation, collaborating with researchers and tariff partners This method encompasses various incentives, including monetary incentives such as profit sharing and social benefits, as well as non-monetary incentives like training opportunities, career advancement, and a supportive workplace culture Additionally, it emphasizes the importance of participation, flexible working hours, engaging work tasks, and an appealing workplace design to enhance employee satisfaction and performance.

180 7 Designing Workplaces from a Work … training modules for work design and industrial organization Thefirst step in evaluating a job is compiling and describing the job activities, workplaces and organizational relationships.

Step two is comprised of analyzing the types of requirements, while step three entails an assess- ment of the requirements and an overall evalua- tion of the work activities.

Job evaluation methods can be divided into summary and analytical approaches Summary methods involve comparing job activities with one another or against a reference catalogue to determine pay or salary groups In contrast, analytical methods evaluate individual job requirements separately to calculate a total work value for salary allocation Both approaches utilize quantification processes, which can be classified as ranking or grading Ranking processes classify jobs based on difficulty, while grading processes establish clearly defined levels for pay or salary groups.

(summarizing) or for the characteristics of the individual requirements (analytical) All of the methods depicted in Fig 7.8 quantitatively evaluate job activities [Doe97].

The ranking method utilizes pair-wise comparisons to systematically rank all activities within a company, while the pay/salary group method relies on a structured catalogue that categorizes work activities in a hierarchical manner For instance, one category might include "difficult skilled work requiring special abilities and years of experience."

‘directive examples’are provided as an aid.

Analytical job evaluations in Germany rely on requirement catalogues set by collective agreements The Genfer Schema, developed in 1950 during an international conference on job evaluation, serves as a key guideline in this process.

The article distinguishes between mental and physical requirements, along with associated responsibilities and working conditions It discusses two analytical methods: the rank-row method and the step method The rank-row method assigns numeric values based on the difficulty of the work for each requirement type, while the step method utilizes evaluation tables that also provide numeric values for various requirements Both methods include exemplary activities to guide users effectively.

The ranking system evaluates job requirements using qualitative terms such as "very high," "high," "average," "low," and "very low," along with detailed descriptions of each requirement stage Examples serve as guidance for this evaluation process Similar to the rank-row method, each requirement characteristic receives a score, which contributes to determining the appropriate pay or salary group for the job The step method is distinguished by its user-friendliness for evaluators and its clarity for employees.

Payment schemes are primarily categorized into two types: pure payment and combined payment Pure payment forms focus on factors such as working hours, work difficulty, or performance, while combined payment forms integrate two or more of these elements Additionally, payment methods vary in their responsiveness to performance; for instance, hourly pay remains constant regardless of performance, whereas piece rate pay and bonus systems directly correlate with it Various job evaluation methods, including ranking, grading, and quantification, are utilized to establish pay or salary groupings effectively.

Hourly pay is a fixed compensation model where employees are paid a predetermined amount for each hour worked This payment structure is straightforward and does not vary based on individual performance, meaning that employees are primarily expected to be present during their scheduled hours.

• that requires a high quality standard,

• that needs to be conducted carefully and conscientiously,

• where is there is a high risk of accidents,

• whose performance cannot be measured or is difficult to measure (quantitatively) as is the case for example with tasks requiring creativity,

• where there is the danger that people or machines will be put under too much pressure or strain”[Tho03: 716].

The disadvantage of hourly pay is the lack of

Financial compensation for performance can be enhanced by combining hourly pay with performance-based bonuses These bonuses are awarded based on evaluations of individual contributions, effectively rewarding personal efforts that positively impact the company's overall performance.

Planning Working Times

Planning working times is a critical calculation parameter in designing the resource capacities.

The article emphasizes the importance of managing working hours by focusing on their duration, location, and distribution over a defined period, such as a week or month It outlines the need for rules regarding vacation and planning rest breaks Key objectives in work time planning include aligning personnel capacities with production needs, ensuring adequate opportunities for employee rest and recovery, promoting health and sustained performance, and considering individual preferences The emphasis on these goals may vary significantly across different working time models and their specific configurations.

When scheduling work hours, employers and employees enjoy contractual freedom, but must adhere to legal and collective bargaining regulations In Germany, the primary legal framework governing this area is essential for maintaining fair labor practices.

Working Hours Act (ArbzG) In the US the according laws can be found in the Regulatory

Library of the U.S Department of Labor (www. dol.gov).

Historically considered, the Working Hours

The protective act for employees emerged in response to the harsh working conditions during the early days of industrialization in Germany, where average workdays stretched to 15 hours, and even children over the age of six were compelled to work long hours.

12 h of heavy physical work, according to the

German law current work hours are generally 8 h per day This can be extended to 10 h; however the average number of hours per work day over a

6 month period cannot exceed 8 h per day.

Additional rules for planning the working times are also found in collective bargaining agree- ments and individual work contracts.

In Germany, work hours are mainly governed by legal regulations and collective bargaining agreements, while in other countries, such as the USA, individual agreements play a more significant role The Fair Labor Standards Act (FLSA) establishes federal labor laws but does not impose a maximum limit on work hours Instead, it mandates a minimum 50% surcharge on wages for any hours worked beyond a 40-hour week, indirectly encouraging employers to limit work hours.

Models for planning work hours can be categorized based on their flexibility levels Flexible and rigid work hours are defined in various ways, with normal work hours typically referring to a structured schedule from 7 a.m to 7 p.m While most employees currently adhere to this traditional model, it is increasingly being supplanted by more adaptable alternatives.

Not all variations from traditional working hours equate to flexible work arrangements; for instance, part-time work often involves reduced regular hours Similarly, while shift work deviates from standard hours, its structured rhythm does not qualify as flexible work hours.

Another category of work hour models features an irregular distribution of hours, including seasonal work and à la carte arrangements While these models do not inherently imply flexible hours, seasonal work often adheres to a strict annual schedule, and à la carte work can be allocated to specific days or portions of the week According to Nachreiner and Grzech-Šukalo, a practical concept of flexible working times, from an occupational science perspective, should highlight the importance of adaptability in work arrangements.

Flexible working hours allow for negotiation and planning regarding the duration, location, and distribution of work hours However, the diversity of working time models within this concept makes it challenging to make generalized statements about flexible working arrangements.

Designing workplaces requires consideration of work models that incorporate rigid working times These rigid schedules are defined by the consistent repetition of work blocks and time-off, maintaining the same duration and location throughout a specified period.

The evaluation of flexible working time models hinges on the evaluator's perspective and the authority to schedule work hours In capacity-oriented variable work hours, where employees are 'on-call', only employers can dictate schedules, leading to union opposition Conversely, models like flexitime, flexible part-time, and trust-based working hours empower employees with some autonomy while meeting employer flexibility needs Job-sharing enables two employees to collaboratively manage a single position, further enhancing flexibility Additionally, options like unpaid leaves and "lifelong work accounts" facilitate smoother transitions into retirement, showcasing the diverse possibilities within flexible work arrangements.

In today's economy, night work and shifts are essential for various reasons, including the need to maximize the use of costly technologies around the clock to justify investment costs The rapid evolution of technology also shortens the amortization period for manufacturing resources, necessitating continuous operations Industries such as steel and chemicals, as well as sectors providing critical services like energy and healthcare, often require shift work to meet demand beyond regular working hours.

German labor law mandates that night and shift work must be organized based on scientific insights into humane working conditions This involves prioritizing employee well-being and health through ergonomic practices, while also ensuring adequate social participation opportunities for workers.

The "physiological performance curve" serves as a crucial framework for enhancing employee health and well-being This curve illustrates the relationship between physical and mental readiness throughout various working time models, including regular hours, reduced hours, and irregular shift work Understanding this progression can help optimize work schedules to support employee performance and overall wellness.

flexible working hours flexible part-time capacity oriented variable working time trust-based working hours long-term time accounts job sharing rigid working time flexible working time

Fig 7.11 Systematic of working times models ©

IFA 14.806_B work, is for the most part genetically set

During the physiological night, the body's internal clock remains within a range that allows for free will While the fluctuation of this internal curve can differ among individuals, it is biologically impossible to fully adjust it by shifting schedules, whether by a few hours or half a day Although the body can adapt to shift work, early and especially late shifts can lead to a constant battle against one's natural circadian rhythms.

To mitigate the ongoing challenges faced by employees, it is essential to implement scientifically backed measures that prioritize their well-being and reduce health risks Research indicates that during periods of low capacity, the likelihood of accidents and mishandling of items escalates Additionally, early shifts can lead to sleep disturbances and fatigue, while late shifts and weekend work negatively impact employees' social lives.

These problems also arise with night shifts.

Moreover, night shifts have also been proven to be associated with further disruptions in employees’well-being e.g., diminished appetite, gastrointestinal complaints and gastrointestinal or cardiovascular diseases [Kna97].

A study in which 9000 shift workers were examined shows that when planning shifts the following recommendations should be observed [Kna97]:

Influence of Demographic Change

According to the 12th coordinated population projection by the Federal Statistics Office of

Germany, the labor force in Germany will con- tinue to age up until 2024 Whereas, the share of the working population aged between 50 and

By 2024, the percentage of individuals aged 65 and older in Germany is projected to rise from 31% in 2008 to 40%, while the share of workers aged 20 to 30 will decrease by 2%, and those aged 30 to 50 will decline by 7% This demographic structure is expected to remain relatively stable until 2060 Concurrently, the overall working population will continue to decline, leading to an estimated 36 million people aged 20 to 65 in Germany by 2060, marking a 27% decrease compared to 2009.

The aging and decreasing working population impacts human resources and from a business perspective entails the following risks:

• uncertain supply of skilled workers,

• retirement of those with knowledge,

• increased costs due to illnesses and restricted performance abilities,

• increased recruiting and personnel costs,

• tensions and conflicts between generations.

As the legal retirement age gradually increases to 67 and transitional retirement options, such as partial retirement at 62, are phased out, individual employees face new risks Older workers may struggle with heightened psychological pressure and physical demands, leading to potential unemployment or early retirement This situation could result in significant reductions in their retirement benefits, highlighting the challenges faced by those with health-related performance limitations.

From a business standpoint, a critical question arises: Do the performance capabilities of employees decline due to biological aging, necessitating tailored strategies for work design and organization that cater to different life stages?

Scientific research indicates that while age-related changes in sensory, physical, and mental performance are common in the population, their impact on professional performance is minimal.

As we age, our vision, fine motor skills, physical strength, and reaction times decline, impacting our capacity for high-performance tasks However, most work tasks remain unaffected by these changes Professions that require heavy physical labor, such as those in the forging industry, or roles demanding exceptional information processing, like air traffic control, may experience more significant challenges due to these age-related declines.

Performance changes significantly among individuals, particularly in older employees, due to a combination of genetic factors, health behaviors, and vocational training Research indicates that the performance spectrum for older workers does not uniformly decline; instead, it varies across different dimensions The traditional deficit model, which focuses solely on performance declines, is being replaced by a competency model that acknowledges both the growth in skills and potential declines Older workers often possess valuable experience, strong collaboration skills, and the ability to adapt new knowledge effectively, making them highly efficient in the workplace To leverage these strengths, it is essential to create work environments and tasks that accommodate older workers, allowing them to compensate for age-related challenges, such as vision impairment or reduced physical strength, through innovative solutions.

Enterprises face significant challenges not from a general decline in performance with age, but from the high burden of disease among employees aged 45 to 65 This burden largely stems from the cumulative effects of stress and strain throughout their lives Chronic diseases not only hinder employee performance but also lead to increased sick leaves Therefore, companies must prioritize designing and organizing work environments that positively influence the aging process of their workforce With the average age of employees on the rise, this approach is essential for maintaining a capable and productive workforce.

Designing age-adapted work environments enables employees of all ages to maintain their competence, health, and motivation as they age within the company This approach specifically addresses the unique needs of different age groups, providing necessary protections for younger employees, such as exemptions from heavy lifting, and offering a wider array of protective measures for older workers.

Aging-adapted work design, particularly for older employees, often faces challenges in justification from a work sciences perspective, with its implementation frequently reflecting corporate ethics and appreciation for lifelong contributions While it is largely grounded in occupational health and safety regulations that mandate the prevention of health risks at their source, aging-adapted work design extends beyond mere legal compliance It encompasses comprehensive training programs aimed at sustaining employability and initiatives focused on facilitating knowledge transfer between generations.

Before an enterprise can plan measures for age and aging-adapted work design, a thorough analysis needs to be made including:

An analysis of age structure is essential to assess the current age distribution and forecast changes over the next 5 to 10 years This analysis should be detailed by production area and qualification levels to provide a comprehensive understanding of workforce demographics.

• A personal risk analysis to detect losses of specific know-how in the future as well as recruiting or cost risks.

• Risk assessments on the potential impact of strain resulting from work tasks as well as the physical and social environment.

• Training needs analyses to determine current and future qualifications bottlenecks and potentials. increasing decreasing

• reliability and awareness of responsibility

• coping with stress and chaos

• learning ability for structured contexts, associable with familiar situations

• muscle strength and physical performance

• learning ability for abstract contexts

Fig 7.14 Age related changes in performance according to the competency model (per

Following this comprehensive analysis both preventative and compensatory measures are planned.

The preventative measures mentioned in

To enhance long-term worker performance and employability, companies must implement measures focused on both situational and behavioral prevention Situational prevention, mandated by occupational health and safety laws, aims to eliminate health hazards in work environments and task designs In contrast, behavioral prevention, which is voluntary, promotes a health-compatible work culture and supports employees in maintaining a healthy lifestyle Research indicates that initiatives such as back training, physiotherapy consultations, and stress management courses significantly improve employee health It is essential for organizations to foster sustainable behavioral changes while ensuring that situational prevention does not overshadow the importance of behavioral initiatives Ideally, these two prevention strategies should be interconnected for optimal effectiveness.

Enterprises implement compensatory measures alongside preventative strategies to address the limitations in performance and operational capabilities of older workers These measures can be categorized into three main areas: first, employees may transition to different work areas, such as moving from the foundry to assembly; second, organizations can lower performance expectations by increasing breaks or exempting workers from shift work; and third, retirement options, including partial retirement and lifetime work accounts, are considered Additionally, there are political avenues for flexible retirement options that fall under legislative jurisdiction.

In summary, our exploration of work design and organizational factors essential for factory planners highlights the significance of the immediate spatial work environment This aspect is crucial for ensuring reliable and healthy work performance The next chapter will delve into the importance of spatial planning in enhancing workplace conditions and promoting situational prevention.

• adequate support provided by tools, equipment and personnel

• team work / tandem of young and old

• ergonomic construction, planning and design

• realistic personnel allocation and performance expectations

• participation of employees in the job design

• health oriented personnel management prevention behavioral prevention

Fig 7.15 Preventative measures for retaining performance and employability © IFA 7.598_B

Summary

Employees are crucial to a company's economic success, as their ability to perform effectively hinges on a combination of technical expertise, methodological competence, individual skills, and social skills.

Effective work structure design is essential for integrating employees into the organizational framework, especially as task complexity increases and necessitates group collaboration To foster a lasting commitment among employees, it's crucial to maintain their motivation, which hinges on the alignment of tangible and intangible rewards with their personal values A key motivating factor in this context is the design of working hours and remuneration, which can take many different forms to suit diverse employee needs.

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The article titled "Group Work - More Than a Concept" presents a comprehensive overview of various forms of group work within organizations It emphasizes the significance of group collaboration in enhancing productivity and fostering innovation The discussion includes a comparison of different group work models, highlighting their unique characteristics and effectiveness The insights provided by Antoni in "Group Work in Companies: Concepts, Experiences, Perspectives" serve as a foundational reference for understanding the dynamics of teamwork Additionally, the work of Appelbaum et al in "Manufacturing Advantage" underscores the benefits of high-performance work systems, reinforcing the notion that effective group work can lead to substantial organizational gains.

This article explores the stability and evolution of payment forms, pay systems, and pay policies across various industries, including the metal industry, textile and clothing sector, and banking industry Authored by Rainer Hampp and published in Munich in 2001, it provides an in-depth analysis of how compensation structures adapt to economic changes and industry demands, highlighting the significance of effective pay strategies in maintaining workforce motivation and organizational success.

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• career planning (e.g from machine operation into quality management)

• temporary phase-out of shift work

• early retirement at 63 with compensation reduction

• pension without reduction (a) with 60 after 40 insured years (b) after 45 insured years

Fig 7.16 Compensatory measures for older personnel © IFA 7.599_B

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The 12th edition published by Prentice Hall in New Jersey in 2012 highlights significant advancements in socio-technical design Mumford (2006) reflects on the successes, failures, and potential of this approach in his article in the Information Systems Journal, emphasizing its impact on system design Additionally, Nachreiner and Grzech-Šukalo (1997) discuss the importance of flexibility within these systems, underscoring the need for adaptable solutions in the evolving technological landscape.

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The guide by Sonntag et al (2000) provides essential insights into the implementation of work-integrated learning environments, serving as a valuable resource for vocational training Published by Bertelsmann in Bielefeld, this material emphasizes the importance of integrating practical work experiences into educational frameworks to enhance professional skills and competencies.

Sonntag and Stegmaier (2001) discuss behavior-based methods of personal development in their chapter within Schuler's "Textbook of Human Psychology," emphasizing the importance of aligning personal growth with workplace behavior Additionally, Spath (2004) explores the role of humans within work systems, highlighting the interaction between individual capabilities and organizational structures.

1 (The Human in the Work System Manu- script for the lecture work Science 1), Stuttgart (2004)

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The publication "Competence Development '99" edited by the Association for Qualification Development Management Berlin explores the evolving landscape of learning culture, highlighting the contradictions between high expectations and the shortcomings of training programs It presents various arguments, experiences, and consequences related to competence development, emphasizing the need for a more effective approach to learning This work, published by Waxmann in Münster in 1999, serves as a critical examination of training practices and their impact on skill enhancement.

Staudt and Kriegesmann (2002) explore the intricate relationship between competence, competence development, and innovation, providing an overview of the object, actions, and evaluation methods involved Their work emphasizes the critical role of expertise in fostering organizational, business, and regional development, highlighting how effective competence development can drive innovation and improve overall performance This comprehensive analysis serves as a valuable resource for understanding the dynamics of competence in various developmental contexts.

Thommen and Achleitner's "General Business Administration: Comprehensive Introduction from Management-Oriented Perspective" offers an in-depth exploration of business principles, emphasizing management strategies and practices Meanwhile, Ulich's "Work Psychology," now in its fifth edition, delves into the psychological aspects of workplace behavior, providing insights into employee motivation and productivity Together, these works contribute significantly to understanding both business administration and the psychological factors that influence organizational success.

[Wọc97] W ọ chter, H.: Grundlagen und Besti- mmungsfaktoren des Arbeitsentgelts In:

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Constitution Under Pressure to Change), pp 85 – 97 Edition Sigma, Berlin (1991)

High-performance management practices significantly influence working hours and work-life balance, as discussed by White et al (2003) Wiendahl et al (2005) highlight the challenges faced in production planning and control (PPC) systems, emphasizing the need for a holistic configuration Additionally, Zink (1997) explores socio-technical approaches in industrial engineering, providing valuable insights into the interplay between social and technical factors in work environments.

Workplaces, work related equipments, materials and the work flow should all be designed to ensure safe and healthy work within an aesthet- ically stimulating environment.

From a spatial perspective this means pro- viding a changeable yet orderly structure within the immediate visual field of a work area.

Workplaces have to be ergonomically (from

The term "ergonomics," derived from the Greek words "argon" meaning work and "nomos" meaning law, focuses on creating optimal working conditions It is essential to design workspaces and connecting pathways that prioritize accessibility, ensuring that physically challenged workers can navigate their environments comfortably and efficiently.

Ergonomics

Designing an ergonomic workplace aims to enhance working conditions by aligning manufacturing tasks and environmental factors with human characteristics and abilities This process ensures that output meets quality standards while minimizing costs Additionally, it is crucial to maintain a manageable workload that safeguards long-term health and safety Effective workplace design should incorporate established knowledge from the field and consider environmental conditions through thoughtful spatial planning.

Anthropometric design focuses on arranging workspaces, tools, and control panels based on human body measurements It takes into account the range of movements, reach distances, and visual fields that stem from the human skeletal and muscular structure.

H.-P Wiendahl et al., Handbook Factory Planning and Design,

DOI 10.1007/978-3-662-46391-8_8, © Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2015

When considering the implementation of protective clothing, it is essential to ensure that all operations are performed seamlessly and in alignment with human physical capabilities Work environments such as mobile assembly lines, workbenches, and office settings should facilitate natural visual and muscular movements For a comprehensive overview of this topic, refer to the works of Rüs06, Lan06, Sal12, and Til15.

Figure 8.3 depicts two different aspects, whereby the left side focuses on the maximum and optimalfield of vision These characteristics are particularly important with work that involves visual perception

• accessibility for the physically challenged

• colors & safety, identification of media pipes

• heat / cold and vibration protection

Effective workplace design prioritizes electrical safety, radiation protection, ergonomics, and health standards while considering factors such as anthropometrics, occupational physiology, and motion technology Key elements include air quality, lighting, sound, vibrations, and the management of dust and fumes Accessibility is essential, ensuring that workspaces accommodate all individuals and allow for necessary adjustments Furthermore, the design must account for human movement and distances to facilitate efficient traffic routes and promote a comfortable, safe working environment.

Figure8.4depicts an ergonomically designed workplace which allows work to be completed in both standing and sitting positions The shell sur- rounding the worker indicates his workspace.

Different body sizes are accommodated by adjusting seat heights and footrests The recom- mended dimensions for the space of movement and the assembly table can be taken from Fig.6.34.

Occupational physiological design emphasizes minimizing stress and strain from muscular work by preventing unilateral muscle strain and avoiding bent or stooped postures It is crucial to maintain strain within permissible limits, which are defined as the levels of human performance that can be sustained daily over the long term without causing significant fatigue or harm to the worker's health.

Movement technique design is guided by three fundamental principles: simplification, consolidation, and partial mechanization and automation Simplification focuses on five key movement elements—joining, grabbing, executing, reaching, and retrieving—to create a sequence that minimizes time while ensuring diligence and accuracy, thereby reducing unnecessary actions and optimizing material organization Consolidation involves performing similar or different movements simultaneously with both hands, further enhancing efficiency by eliminating non-productive activities Lastly, partial mechanization and automation contribute to streamlining processes, leading to improved productivity.

(15° against horizontal ) standing tight upright standing comfortably sitting comfortably slightly bent optimal field of vision

Fig 8.3 Ergonomic aspects of a workplace a optimal fi eld of vision, b distance and movement measures (in mm)

8.1 Ergonomics 199 encouraged after motions have been consolidated as much as possible, since the investment costs are disproportionate to the additional savings in time An example was shown in Fig.6.35.

Information technology design focuses on optimizing the flow of information among humans, materials, work objects, and the surrounding environment, primarily using visual and auditory signals Key principles such as reliability and clarity are essential for effectively organizing and designing process status monitors, machine control panels, and display interfaces.

Safety technology design serves to prevent accidents and occupational illnesses DIN 31000 distinguishes between three types of safety technology: direct, indirect and warnings

DIN79 emphasizes that direct safety technology is designed to inherently prevent hazards, and should be prioritized over other safety measures When direct safety solutions are unfeasible, indirect safety technology can be employed to incorporate protective measures in areas where injury risks exist.

To ensure hazardous areas remain inaccessible, it is essential to adhere to safety distances Although these areas cannot be entirely eliminated, implementing safety symbols and warning systems is crucial for their identification Additionally, providing appropriate safety equipment and protective measures is necessary For a comprehensive overview of safety technology measures in workplace design, refer to sources such as [Leh05, Rüs07, MCol07, Col01].

To enhance the design of ergonomic and cost-effective workplaces, various computer-aided methods have been developed specifically for manual assembly tasks An integrated workplace model that includes human movement patterns, furniture, and equipment for supplying parts can identify optimal settings and visualize them in 3D with algorithmic support For instance, a simulation program can generate a detailed visualization of an assembly workplace, as illustrated in Fig 8.5, which is seamlessly integrated into the process flow of a large manufacturing plant.

Room Interiors

Workplaces must be designed to ensure adequate ceiling height and air volume for all permanent employees In Germany, the Workplace Regulations stipulate a ceiling height between 2.5 m (8.2 ft) and 3.25 m (10.7 ft), depending on the work area’s floor space For flexible work environments, it is essential to consider future space requirements when determining ceiling heights Additionally, guidelines recommend that each employee should have a minimum air volume of 15 m³ (530 ft³) in transformable workplaces.

According to ASHRAE Standards in the United States, a minimum ventilation rate of 5 cubic feet of external air per minute (CFM) per person, equivalent to 141.5 liters per minute, is required This ventilation rate should be increased to 15 CFM per person to ensure optimal air quality in standing-sitting workplaces.

CFM (424.5 l/min) for reception areas and 20

CFM (566 l/min) for offices with moderate working conditions The standard value for des- ignated smoking areas with local mechanical ventilations is 60 CFM (1.698 l/min).

When designing a media routing system for the workplace, it is essential to incorporate flexible air feeds and outlets to accommodate different workplace configurations In the semiconductor industry, it is crucial to allocate specific media for clean-room technology to maintain optimal conditions Additionally, the choice of furniture should align with these requirements to enhance functionality and efficiency.

Fig 8.5 3D-simulation of an assembly workplace (acc Modine) base area

[m²] head room [m] minimum air volume per person [m²] activity type examples

1 ) for offices as well as workrooms with predominantly easy or sitting activity reduction by 0.25 m is possible predominant sitting activity

12 office work assembly of smaller parts predominant non sitting activity

15 mechanical metal processing, transportation of light loads predominant non sitting activity

18 manual transportation of heavy loads, forging of large work pieces

Fig 8.6 Minimum ceiling heights and air volume for workplaces (acc § 23 German Workplace Regulations). a Minimum headroom for workrooms, b Minimum air volume for employees permanently present

For optimal room interiors, modular and variable storage and desk systems are recommended The furniture should be lightweight for easy relocation, feature durable and easy-to-clean surfaces, and incorporate built-in installation space for electrical, data, and voice cabling.

Color Design

Psychological Impact of Color

In English, a variety of expressions for emotions have become common place We can temporarily

“see red”, “be blue” or “be green with envy”.

When we are unwell, we may appear "as white as a sheet," while regaining our health often brings back some color to our complexion Emotional differences among individuals influence color preferences in clothing and decor, allowing for personal expression and enhancing well-being through vibrant or soothing hues.

(depending on what the affected person needs).

This too can be applied in the work place The basic colors have been ascribed characteristic properties by color researchers:

Red The color of fire and blood, it expresses life and energy Red is inseparably bound to passion, heat, anger and war It is considered a stimulating color.

Blue, reminiscent of the deep sea and expansive sky, embodies a sense of infinity and vastness This color appeals to the intellect, contrasting with red, which evokes emotional responses Symbolizing truth, blue encourages calm reflection and thoughtful decision-making rather than hasty choices.

Yellow is the brightest of the primary colors, symbolizing brilliance and liveliness, akin to the sun's radiant glow Orange, a blend of red and yellow, merges the strength of red with the vibrant energy of yellow Green, created by mixing blue and yellow, represents nature and embodies serenity, resurrection, and peace, symbolizing hope.

Purple A mixture of red and blue, to which concepts such as pomp, splendor, and royal grandeur are linked; similar to green though it has a calming and soothing influence.

The relationship between spaces and behaviors is crucial in workspace design, where the color scheme should align with the nature of the tasks performed For monotonous work, incorporating stimulating color elements, such as on columns and doors, is beneficial, but these vibrant colors should be avoided on large surfaces like walls and ceilings In larger workspaces, spatial subdivision using special color elements can enhance functionality Conversely, for tasks requiring high concentration, a more conservative color palette is advisable, utilizing light or mildly toned colors for walls, ceilings, and structural elements to minimize distractions.

To achieve effective color contrasts, it is essential to differentiate color schemes for large surfaces, such as walls and furniture, from those for small surfaces like switches and grips For larger areas, select colors with similar reflection levels, and avoid bright colors, as they can strain the retina and create after-images Enhancing the visibility of workpieces can be accomplished by establishing a color contrast between the workpiece and its immediate environment, such as the workbench or machine, while also steering clear of significant brightness differences.

The architectural appearance of a building, which encompasses its sensory and visual impression, is largely influenced by the color of the materials used in its construction The selection of these materials directly impacts the overall aesthetic of the finished structure Externally, the building's character is defined by either the inherent color of materials such as exposed concrete, metal, wood, natural stone, and synthetic options, or by the application of a colored coating.

Internally, the choice of materials plays a sig- nificant role with regards to the levels of comfort.

In addition to the color of the materials, the material properties and surface texture (visual and haptic perception) are key criteria for the

“indoor climate” Thus for example, glossy enameled walls have a different character than those with a mattfinish.

Safety Colors and Identification

Nowadays, most countries regulate specific col- ors for designating defined dangers Pre-assign- ing colors to specific information promotes the development of automatic protective responses.

Similar to the coding of traffic lights, DIN 4818 in Germany regulates mandatory colors from the

RAL color system for specific dangers 1 The color RAL 1004 (golden yellow) thus signals caution and indicates possible dangers with conveyor belts, traffic routes and stairs Fire-

fighting equipment and systems should be iden- tified with RAL 3001 (signal red) Similar to street traffic signals, red stands for forbidden, stop, and danger According to DIN 4844, RAL

5010 (gentian blue) dictates additional safety regulations for e.g., preventing noise, while RAL

6001 (emerald green) signals safety andfirst aid. Emerald green is used in pictograms for escape paths, emergency exit doors as well as rooms and devices forfirst aid.

The identification of pipelines, alongside the color coding of firefighting equipment and systems, is governed by the German DIN 2403 standard Many companies have created their own coding systems for process media and building services based on these regulations Additionally, marking the direction of pipe flow with arrowheads enhances clarity and safety.

In the US the“Safety color code for marking physical hazards” has been published by theOccupational Safety and Health Administration under standard 1910.144.

Holistic Color Schemes

Industrial premises should maintain an organized visual structure, encompassing everything from general work areas to individual workplaces Utilizing color schemes can enhance clarity and emphasize spatial forms, operational arrangements, and lighting Effective organization principles such as spatial axes, reference planes, and geometric patterns are essential Additionally, processing sequences can be made clearer through the use of lines or arrows Furthermore, a comprehensive color scheme should also consider the environment of neighboring industrial buildings.

Surfaces serve as essential boundaries for building components, but colors significantly influence both functionality and aesthetics in machines and interior furnishings The psychological effects of color, the use of safety colors, media indicators, and prioritized corporate colors are crucial factors to consider in design.

1 First established in 1927, RAL is a German committee that regulates delivery conditions and quality assurance.

Among other things it determines these color codes.

8.3 Color Design 203 be combined into a functional and aesthetic whole With the aim of consciously developing a recognizable corporate identity, it often proves practical to differentiate between accented “pri- mary colors” and more subtle “secondary col- ors” Moreover, within the frame of a synergetic factory planning, it is advisable to comprehen- sively simulate the colors for the processes, building, media and furnishings using a 3D model (see Chap.15).

Traditional studies use color collages to develop color harmonies Color studies using a

3D model however are more advantageous in that one is able to assess the spatial effect by selecting any point of view;“primary colors”and

Secondary colors can be effectively distributed and their variations assessed Additionally, crucial areas like foyer furnishings can be realistically simulated by defining specific material and lighting properties.

Occupational Health and Safety Standards

Overview

Effective factory planning and operation require a thorough understanding of numerous laws, rules, and regulations Both factory planners and architects must be well-versed in these legal frameworks, with architects needing to pay particular attention to the specifics Two critical areas of focus include global occupational health and safety standards for workers, as well as comprehensive guidelines for finishing, furnishing, and fixtures.

fittings and operations of industrial premises.

In countries such as Germany, statuary co-determination promotes extensive participation of individual workers and their councils in social, personal, and economic matters Recently, there has been a growing influence of environmental legal considerations on corporate operations.

Workplace Regulations

In Germany, workplace regulations encompass a range of laws, including the industrial code, civil code, commercial code, and the work constitution act Key components such as the industrial safety code, safety of machinery law, accident prevention policies, and building regulations are interconnected and depend on one another Additionally, when managing international projects, it is crucial to consider local factors and the blend of traditions and expectations from the originating country.

The German Workplace Regulation (ArbStättV) is the most recent and comprehensive framework designed to safeguard workers' interests in Germany, complementing the existing Workplace Guidelines (ASR) This regulation integrates various individual guidelines, enhancing them with the latest insights on work safety, occupational medicine, and hygiene derived from current occupational science data Notably, it also includes protections for non-smokers, ensuring that these regulations are applicable across all types of workplaces, whether industrial, commercial, or service-oriented.

Under §3 of the German Workplace Regulations, employers are required to properly equip and maintain the workplace, including circulation routes, warehouses, machinery, and social areas Additionally, they must comply with all relevant safety regulations that protect employees and prevent accidents, encompassing technical safety, occupational health, and hygiene standards Employers are also expected to implement established knowledge derived from research in occupational sciences.

The regulations concerning worker protection and injury prevention primarily focus on object-related safety measures Essential laws encompass equipment safety, monitoring systems, and the management of compressed air, hazardous substances, and radiation protection Additionally, regulations pertaining to personnel safety are also crucial in ensuring a comprehensive approach to workplace safety.

Youth Employment Act, Maternity Protection

Act and accident prevention guidelines of the industrial trade associations.

Technical safety, occupational medicine and hygienic regulations include relevant standards such as the VDI (Association of German Engi- neers) and VDE (Association for Electrical,

The Electronic and Information Technologies guidelines, along with widely accepted professional standards, play a crucial role in the 30 workplace guidelines (ASR) established by Germany's Ministry of Labor and Social Affairs These guidelines have demonstrated their effectiveness in practice, ensuring a safer and more efficient work environment.

Affairs [ASR06] It is anticipated that a majority of these will be adopted across Europe soon.

Similar rules and regulations exist in British (see

[UK08, UK92]) as well as the American envi- ronments too (see [US07,US08]).

The German Workplace Guidelines, illustrated in Figure 8.8, focus on key aspects such as lighting, room climate, and social areas While these guidelines are not legally binding, they can only be bypassed if equally effective measures are implemented Additionally, state building codes complement these guidelines, often overlapping in certain areas Compliance with workplace regulations and legal protections for workers is overseen by federal states, which delegate monitoring responsibilities to trade supervisory boards and industrial trade associations.

European legislation significantly advanced with the establishment of Directive 89/391 EWG on June 12, 1989, which mandates measures for employee safety and health during working hours This directive places responsibilities on both employers and employees to implement preventative safety and health measures through an effective occupational health and safety management system In contrast, U.S workplace regulations encompass various laws, including industrial codes and safety regulations, which outline essential requirements for service contracts, employer fiduciary duties, labor protection rights, and workplace safety standards Employers are obligated to design workplaces that adhere to generally accepted safety rules and regulations to ensure a safe working environment.

Hygiene and ergonomic knowledge are essential for maintaining workplace standards, as outlined by the Technical Committee on Ergonomics at the German Institute for Standardization (DIN) Key stakeholders involved in implementing these guidelines include internal and external inspectors from trade supervisory boards, industrial trade associations, experts, managers, and workplace councils, all of whom play a crucial role in developing and enforcing effective workplace policies.

Fig 8.7 Connections between workplace regulations with other laws (to Avenarius and Pf ü tzner)

8.4 Occupational Health and Safety Standards 205 occupational safety and health standards for general industry promulgated by the Occupa- tional Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) are summarized in [OSHA11].

Proper facilities and processes for handling hazardous materials are essential for safe supply and disposal It is crucial to focus on fire and explosion prevention while identifying and assessing potential dangers to safeguard employees from accidents and health risks in the workplace.

Worker protection is a key aspect of workplace changeability, necessitating legal requirements for slip resistance, fall protection, and safe handling of hazardous substances Additionally, it is essential to address noise reduction, protection from extreme temperatures, vibrations, radiation, and electrical safety Before delving into these topics, it is important to acknowledge the role of workers' co-determination in the design of their work environments.

Participation

In Germany, workplace design mandates the inclusion of employees and the works council as per legal requirements Current regulations establish two key rights: participation and co-determination Participation grants employees the right to be informed, heard, or to provide advice, though the final decision rests with the employer Conversely, co-determination allows employees to engage directly in the decision-making process, which encompasses three distinct types.

• With the right to initiate, employees or the works council can demand or force certain measures.

• The right to object allows the workers council to speak up against measures that the employer can independently decide upon. exposure room climate developments social areas

- visual contact to the outside

- artificial lights for jobs and public traffic ways

- walls allowing for light transmittance ASR 8/5

- not to be entered roofs ASR 10/1

- glass doors, doors with glass insert ASR 10/6

- protection against digging, falling out of doors and gates ASR 11/1-5

- automatic doors and gates ASR 12/1-3

- protection against fall and objects falling down ASR 13/1,2

- crampon / non-slip walks and ladders

- washing facilities outside of required wash-rooms ASR 37/1

- means and equipment for first aid

- day accommodations on construction sites ASR 47/1-3,5

- wash-rooms for construction sites ASR 48/1,2

- toilets and toilet compartments on construction sites GermanWorkplace Guidelines (ASR) are not the same as European Workplace Guidelines 89/654/EWG

Fig 8.8 Overview of german workplace guidelines (acc Lehder)

• With the right of assent, the workers council’s agreement is required for certain employer’s measures.

In Fig 8.9 we can see which of the various workers council’s and employee rights for those participating cover which issues [Dlu08].

Employees have the right to be informed, heard, and to take action regarding their workplace and routines The workers' council plays a crucial role in this process, participating in significant areas that affect both the council and the workforce Their involvement primarily focuses on social and personnel-related issues, aligning with legislators' intentions to safeguard employees from adverse management decisions Consequently, employees enjoy robust rights to participate in matters that directly impact their work environment.

The workers council is granted significant rights under the law, specifically concerning information, consultation, and approval related to workplace design and occupation Additionally, the establishment of an economics committee ensures that the workers council remains informed about the company's financial matters.

financial situation and to participate in decision making processes leading to major operational changes havingfinancial implications.

The core principle of Germany's Workers Constitution Act is the promotion of trust-based cooperation between employers and workers' councils, aimed at benefiting both employees and the company.

When an agreement cannot be reached between the employer and the workers' council or employee, the matter is escalated to arbitration If arbitration fails to resolve the issue, the case is then taken to the labor court.

With that, we will now return to our discus- sion on work safety as mentioned above and consider a few aspects in depth.

Tread Certainty and Protection

To prevent falls caused by slipping, misplaced footsteps, or stumbling, it is essential to design tread surfaces appropriately Most accidents occur due to the lack of non-slip surfaces or uneven floors Addressing these safety concerns requires active participation from site stakeholders, including employees and worker councils, to discuss and implement effective solutions.

• workplace workflow personnel file complaint

• general tasks official affair rights complaint procedure

• social matters working conditions safety social facilities workplace design workflow work environment

• personal matters job tender training hiring dismissal classification and regrouping transfer principles of assessment

The economic affairs committee plays a crucial role in operational changes that require careful reconciliation of interests among stakeholders A comprehensive social plan must address disadvantages and ensure fair compensation for affected parties It is essential to uphold the rights to information, consultation, and participation, allowing individuals the right to initiate objections and seek approval Effective co-determination in the workplace fosters an inclusive environment where all voices are heard and valued.

Fig 8.9 Principles of co-participation (Dlugos)

8.4 Occupational Health and Safety Standards 207 slightly rough, rough or grooved surface may be specified According to DIN 51130 as well as industrial trade associations’ guidelines, slip resistant properties of tread surfaces are classified according to ‘R groups’ If considerable traffic and/or soiling are to be anticipated in workspaces or open areas, groovedfloors would be a better solution Along with tread surfaces, riser incli- nations or declinations of more than 25 % as well as raised edges greater than 6 mm (0.23 in) are to be avoided Moreover, there is a danger of falling when there is a change in level greater than 1.0 m

(3.3 ft) In accordance with workplace regula- tions and guidelines, guardrails or equivalents are required to prevent falls in dangerous areas such as these.

Protection from Hazardous Substances

Airborne hazardous substances, including gases, vapors, mists, smoke, and dust, can infiltrate the human body via the respiratory system, skin, or gastrointestinal tract In Germany, regulations addressing these airborne hazards are established under the Chemical Act.

(ChemG) as well as the Hazardous Substance Act

(GefStoffV) Further specific rules are set-out in the Technical Rules for Hazardous Substances

(TRGS), Technical Rules for Dangerous Work

Materials such as TRgA and the Technical Rules for Flammable Fluids (TRbF) are crucial for workplace safety Legally regulated permissible concentration levels for industrial toxins, known as MAK-values, ensure the health and safety of employees In the United States, the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) outlines the limits for Chemical Hazards and Toxic Substances, which can be accessed at https://www.osha.gov/SLTC/hazardoustoxicsubstances/.

Construction safety measures focus on the immediate collection of hazardous materials at their source, proper storage in specialized facilities, and safe disposal at designated locations In Germany, the Technical Rules for Hazardous Substances mandate that storage facilities for these materials must be equipped with specific fire protection systems, safety clearances, designated access for fire services, escape routes, and adequate lighting.

The rising use of chemical-based construction materials, such as bitumen, floor adhesives, and coating substances, has led to an increase in hazardous substances present in construction sites.

Implementing eco-friendly materials in building construction is increasingly prioritized by owners aiming for sustainable objectives Avoiding harmful substances like solvents and PVC not only benefits the environment but also enhances the long-term health of employees, making it a wise economic choice Additionally, buildings free from hazardous materials such as asbestos are more adaptable to structural changes, facilitating future renovations and modifications.

Noise Protection and Reduction

Noise at industrial sites is an undesirable form of audible sound, primarily resulting from a combination of equipment operations and external disruptions This noise originates from manufacturing processes, conveyor systems, and supply technologies, alongside background disturbances like street noise Sound-induced oscillations propagate through various media, including air, structures, and fluids While machines and processing operations mainly produce structural sounds that convert into air-borne noise, additional air-borne sounds can emerge from flow processes such as exhaust systems and fans Industrial workplaces are particularly noted for their high noise intensity levels.

Noise is measured in decibels (dB) An

A-weighting, denoted as dB(A), measures average noise levels and highlights the health risks associated with prolonged or repetitive noises Frequent and impulsive sounds pose greater dangers compared to less frequent, continuous noise Exposure to harmful noise emissions can lead to hearing loss, safety hazards, reduced job performance, increased errors, and even vegetative disorders.

To effectively reduce noise pollution, it is essential to implement low-noise machinery, minimize sound at its source, and decrease airborne sound transmission Research indicates that using intermediate layers of rubber, cork, or synthetic materials can significantly reduce structure-borne sound transmission in fixed components Additionally, soundproofing ceilings, walls, and interior surfaces with soft, thin porous materials can effectively absorb airborne sounds, enhancing overall sound dampening.

Soundproof cabins and barriers are designed to significantly diminish workplace noise These enclosed structures, equipped with their own ventilation systems, can effectively lower noise levels by as much as 30 dB, creating a quieter and more productive environment.

According to Sch96, Fig 8.11 highlights the maximum thresholds for noise protection and the available technical methods for noise reduction It is essential that the noise reduction structural system is designed to be flexible, mobile, and easily convertible to adapt to varying needs.

In the US permissible levels are defined under

Standard Number 1910.95 of OSHA the Occu- pational Safety and Health Administration

According to the US administration's regulations on permissible noise exposure, as illustrated in Figure 8.12, it is crucial to consider the combined effects of multiple periods of varying noise levels rather than assessing each exposure individually This approach ensures a comprehensive understanding of daily noise exposure impacts.

The Control of Noise at Work Regulations 2005 in the UK establish exposure limit values for noise, requiring employers to assess noise exposure risks and implement measures to prevent health damage Comparable regulations are present in all industrialized countries.

Protection from Thermal Radiation

Extreme cold or heat stress in production or storage processes poses significant risks to employee health, stemming from harsh environmental conditions and direct contact with extreme temperature surfaces, fluids, or gases Effective protective measures, such as mobile partitions, protective shields, and reflective coatings, can mitigate these dangers by shielding workers from harmful radiation Additionally, proper ventilation and air conditioning are essential to maintain a safe working environment.

Sound levels vary significantly across different environments, from the tranquility of a quiet library or office to the bustling noise of a primary classroom or a loud radio Industrial settings like tractor cabs, arc welding, and power drills generate considerable noise, while activities such as chainsaws and riveting contribute to high sound levels Additionally, the roar of a jet aircraft taking off from just 25 meters away exemplifies extreme sound intensity, highlighting the diverse auditory experiences encountered in various workplaces and recreational areas.

Fig 8.10 Examples of typical noise levels (Source

8.4 Occupational Health and Safety Standards 209 measures serve to support greater comfort In the

US the relevant information can be found in the

OSHA Technical Manual (OTM) Chap.4, heat stress (https://www.osha.gov/).

Mechanical vibrations are generated by factory equipment, transportation devices, and tools during operation, which are then transmitted through contact points into various parts of the human body, particularly the hands The impact of these vibrations is influenced by the duration of exposure in hours and the sound level measured in decibels (dB(A)).

Fig 8.12 Permissible noise exposure (US Dpt Of

To comply with DIN and ISO 1999 standards, noise levels in the workplace should not exceed 1910.95 dB(A) as per §15 WPR regulations Effective noise reduction strategies include minimizing emissions at the source, enhancing sound damping during transmission, and reducing noise exposure in areas designated for predominantly mental activities, such as break-out zones, lounges, and restrooms Implementing constructive measures, selecting quieter machinery, and optimizing processes can significantly reduce sound propagation, ensuring a more conducive work environment.

- sound absorbing ceiling and wall covering

- partition walls reduction of noise transmission

- separating joints of construction elements cabins acoustical barriers

1) at levels > 90 dB (A), in accordance with accident prevention regulations, among other things

- loud areas ( i.e > 85 dB(A) are to be indicated

- noise level reduction programs are to be drawn up and carried out

WPR German Workplace Regulations (Arbeitstọttenverordnung)

Noise protection and reduction are crucial for maintaining focus and enhancing performance, especially in activities that demand high concentration or fine motor skills Excessive oscillations can lead to physical strain and negatively impact health, potentially causing damage to the cardiovascular, nervous, and musculoskeletal systems.

Primary vibration protection focuses on eliminating the root causes of vibrations through process changes or new equipment, while secondary protection aims to minimize vibrations experienced by humans by adjusting the oscillating system Effective structural measures to reduce vibration transmission include lowering the natural frequency of machines by using springs or insulators made from materials like steel, rubber, or cork, which necessitates flexible connections in media and transport systems In multi-storied buildings, attention must be paid to harmonics that may arise from the excitation of the natural frequency of structural slabs and systems in contact with vibrating machinery.

Human reactions to varying levels of thermal radiation intensity can range from complete destruction of buildings to no damage at all At very high intensity, buildings experience total destruction, while major damages, such as cracks in load-bearing walls, occur at high intensity Medium-high intensity leads to significant structural issues, including cracks in light walls or plaster, whereas medium and low intensities result in minor damages or no damage to buildings at all.

1 2 3 4 5 10 20 30 40 50 100 frequency [Hz] swinging velocity [cm/sec]

Fig 8.14 Damaging effects of vibrations on buildings (acc Lehder)

8.4 Occupational Health and Safety Standards 211

Electrical Safety and Protection

Reliable electrical equipment is essential for uninterrupted operation Transformers and rectifiers should be housed in secure electrical service rooms, while switchboards must be safeguarded against accidental contact with live components and intrusion by foreign objects, particularly water Contact with voltage-carrying parts poses significant health risks, as electricity can flow through the human body.

Along with all measures that provide protection through an automated shutdown, equipotential bonding needs to be implemented in the building.

An equipotential bonding bar joins the switch- board with various metallic building structures, conductive parts from technical systems as well as metallic pipes.

Recent studies suggest that electro-smog in the workplace can pose health risks, stemming from unwanted electromagnetic radiation produced by electrical and magnetic fields To mitigate these risks, it's essential to choose electrical devices with low radiation levels and minimal electrical load, such as flat screen monitors Electro-smog encompasses both electromagnetic and corpuscular radiation, highlighting the importance of careful device selection for a healthier work environment.

The most important source of radiation is the sun.

Dangerous effects mainly arise from electro- magnetic radiation with a wavelength under

Radiation types, including x-rays, gamma rays, and radioactive corpuscular rays, typically have wavelengths ranging from 10 to 8 meters The intensity of this radiation generally diminishes with the square of the distance from the source Therefore, it is essential to implement appropriate safety measures tailored to the specific characteristics of each radiation type.

To protect against various types of radiation, structural measures vary in effectiveness: thin metal sheets are effective against beta radiation, reflective surfaces shield against infrared radiation, and metal shields provide protection from radio waves and alternating currents For more penetrating radiation like x-rays and gamma rays, thicker materials, such as iron shields, are employed for enhanced safety.

To ensure employee safety, it is essential to position devices and systems emitting high-intensity radiation away from frequently used areas Effective protection can be achieved through the use of fixed shields constructed from concrete or brick, flexible walls made of lead bricks, and mobile shields created from iron or textile materials.

In summary, we have explored design considerations at the workplace level from a spatial viewpoint, which integrates with our insights on functional and organizational workplace design This discussion sets the stage for our upcoming examination of workplace sections or divisions, first from a functional perspective in Chapter 9, followed by a spatial perspective in Chapter 10.

Summary

The design of a workstation should be tailored to its intended function while aligning with specific organizational needs Adopting an ergonomic approach ensures humane dimensions and comfortable working conditions, with a strong focus on labor protection It is crucial to mitigate risks associated with falls, hazardous substances, noise, extreme temperatures, vibration, live electrical components, and radiation Additionally, workplace design is regulated by law in industrialized countries, often involving a collaborative decision-making process.

[Arb04] Arbeitsst ọ ttenverordnung (Workplace regu- lations): ArbSt ọ ttV Bundesgesetzblatt Jg. Teil I Nr 44 , S 2149 – 2189 (2004) [ASR06] Arbeitst ọ ttenrichtlinien Vorschriften und

Empfehlungen zur Gestaltung von Ar- beitsst ọ tten (Workplace guide lines Regula- tions and Recommendations for the Design of Workplaces) Verlagsgesellschaft Wein- mann, Filderstadt (2006)

[Ave76] Avenarius, A., Pf ỹ tzner, R.: Arbeitspl ọ tze richtig gestalten nach der Arbeitsst ọ ttenver- ordnung (How to Design Workplaces Prop- erly According to the WorkplaceRegulation) M ü nchen (1976)

Lehre der Farbgestaltung nach Friedrich

Theory of Color Design After Friedrich

Ernst von Garnier) Siegl, Anton, M ü nchen

[Buc13] Buckley, J.F., Roddy, N.L.: State by State

Guide to Workplace Safety Regulation,

2013 edn Wolters Kluver, Alphen aan den

[Col01] Collins, R., Schneid, Th.D.: Physical Haz- ards of the Workplace (Occupational Safety and Health Guide Series) Lewis Publishers,

[DIN79] Allgemeine Leits ọ tze f ỹ r das sicherheits gerechte Gestalten technischer Erzeugnisse

(General rules for the Safety-Conscious

Design of Technical Products) Beuth, Berlin

In: Grochla, E (ed.) Handw ử rterbuch der

Organisation, 2nd edn Poeschel, Stuttgart

[Fas03] Fasold, W., Veres, E.: Schallschutz und

Raumakustik in der Praxis — Planungsbei- spiele und konstruktive L ử sungen (Sound

Insulation and Room Acoustics in Practice

— Design Examples and Constructive Solu- tions), 2nd edn Verl Bauwesen, Berlin

[Fit06] Fitting, K., et al (Hrsg.) Betriebsver fassungsgesetz (BetrVG) Handkommentar

(Works Constitution Act, Handbook of commentaries), 23rd edn M ü nchen (2006)

[Gek07] Gekeler, H.: Handbuch der Farbe – Sys- tematik, Ä sthetik, Praxis (Handbook of

Color Systematic, Esthetic, Practice), 6th edn Verl Dumont Buchverlag K ử ln (2007)

[Koe01] Koether, R., Kurz, B., Seidel, U.A., Weber,

Kap 10.3: Arbeitsschutzmanagement S 335 ff., (Worksplace Planning and Ergonomics,

Sect 10.3: workplace protection manage- ment), M ü nchen (2001)

(Small Manual of Practical Work Design),

[Lan06] Lange, W., Windel, A.: Kleine Ergonomi- sche Datensammlung (Small Data Collec- tion of Ergonomics), 11th edn.

Bundesanstalt f ü r Arbeitsschutz und Arbe- itsmedizin (2006)

[Leh05] Lehder, G., Skiba, R.: Taschenbuch Ar- beitssicherheit (Pocket book workplace safety), 11th edn Schmidt (Erich), Berlin

[MCol07] MacCollum, D.: Construction Safety Engi- neering Principles — Designing and

Managing Safer Job Sites McGraw-Hill Construction Series, New York (2007) [OSHA11] OSHA Standards for General Industry as of

01/2011 Washington, DC (2011) [OSP05] Opfermann, R., Streit, W., Pernack, E.F.:

Arbeitsst ọ tten (Workplaces), 7 ed H ỹ thig Jehle Rehm, Heidelberg (2005)

[Poe85] Poeschel, E., K ử hling, A.: Asbestersatzst- offkatalog Band 2: Arbeitsschutz (Asbestos substitute catalog, vol 2 OSH) Hauptver- band der gewerblichen Berufsgenossens- chaften Sankt Augustin (1985)

The methodology of planning and control is extensively covered in the six-volume work edited by REFA, published in Munich in 1991 Additionally, Rüschenschmidt's 2006 book on ergonomics in occupational safety and health emphasizes the importance of human-centered design in the workplace Further contributions to this field are made by Rüschenschmidt, Reidt, and Rentel in their collaborative work from 2007.

Gesundheitsschutz am Arbeitsplatz – mit Ergonomie gestalten (Health at Work — With Ergonomic Design) Technik & Infor- mation Bochum (2007)

[Sal12] Salvendy, G.: Handbook of Human Factors and Ergonomics, 4th edn Wiley, Hoboken (2012)

(Technical Noise Protection) VDI-Verlag.

D ü sseldorf (1996) [Til15] Tillmann, B., et al.: Human Factors and

Ergonomics Design Handbook, 3rd edn. McGraw-Hill, New York (2015)

[UK05] Noise at work Guidance for employers on the Control of Noise at Work Regulations

2005 Published by Health and Safety Executive, UK (2005) Health & Safety Offences Act 2008 Legislation Government

UK http://www.legislation.gov.uk [UK92] The Workplace (Health, Safety & Welfare)

Regulations, no 3004, 1992 Legislation Government UK http://www.legislation. gov.uk

US Dept of Labor, Occupational Safety and Health Administration http://www.osha. gov/

[US07] ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 62.1-2007, Ven- tilation for Acceptable Indoor Air Quality. American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers, (2007). http://www.ashrae.org/

[US08] ASTM E2350-07 Standard Guide for Inte- gration of Ergonomics/Human Factors into New Occupational Systems ASTM Interna- tional (2008) http://www.astm.org/ Standards/E2350.htm

A work area integrates multiple manufacturing and assembly zones, interconnected through storage, transportation, and handling systems, to efficiently produce a marketable product The functional design of this work area is influenced by the type of order being processed.

To effectively establish the framework for spatial design, it is essential to define key elements such as customer or stock production, procurement type, production and assembly organization, and production planning and control methods These components are crucial for optimizing operational efficiency and are elaborated upon in the subsequent sections, particularly in Chapter 10.

Overview of Design Aspects

When planning work areas, it is essential to consider various strategies for responding to both internal and external influences on the factory This involves designing, planning, and controlling production processes with an emphasis on their functionality Key design aspects relevant to this approach include the purchasing, manufacturing, and delivery processes, as illustrated in Figure 9.1.

To optimize production, businesses must align their processes with competitive strategies and customer demands It is essential to determine which product components will be made-to-order versus made-to-stock based on delivery times, replenishment needs, and economic factors, a decision known as the customer order decoupling point This decision informs how orders will be managed and necessitates the selection of appropriate manufacturing and assembly principles, considering product structure and technological constraints Subsequently, effective planning and control of production are crucial to sustainably leverage the potential of the product structure.

Production must be integrated with purchasing and delivery processes, as customer demands can directly impact production design, such as requiring hourly deliveries Additionally, purchasing considerations are crucial, particularly when agreements with suppliers stipulate varying lead times for different items, with some stocked in-house for immediate availability.

Choosing the right purchasing and supply models is crucial for determining order initiation, storage locations, supply methods, and the management of inventory operations These interconnected elements must be seamlessly integrated into the overall process for optimal efficiency and effectiveness.

H.-P Wiendahl et al., Handbook Factory Planning and Design,

DOI 10.1007/978-3-662-46391-8_9, © Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2015

Designing work areas in factories requires careful consideration by planners, integrating aspects of production and logistics The diversity of products and sales markets often leads to varying purchasing, production, and supply structures that may evolve over time Consequently, the adaptability of a factory is influenced not only by its production processes but also by the chosen purchasing and supply models.

Customer Order Decoupling Point

The term‘order decoupling point’was coined by

Hoekstra and Romme from Philips define the customer order decoupling point, or order penetration point, as the distinction between the customer order-focused segment of an organization and the planning-oriented segment The primary factor in determining this decoupling point is the disparity between the required delivery time and the replenishment time, which encompasses the entire process from material procurement to product delivery.

In complex product management, the customer order decoupling point is not established for the entire product but is achieved through a strategic allocation of components and individual parts This allocation occurs either before or after the decoupling point and is informed by a thorough analysis of the product structure Each product or representative of a product class—defined by factors such as customer specifications, product complexity, demand dynamics, and sales proportions—is outlined in a multi-level bill of materials.

(Fig.9.2left top)—is transferred into a so-called

The order schedule illustrates the essential components and their respective replenishment times along the time axis for purchased parts, alongside the planned throughput times for in-house assembled or manufactured components Additionally, it incorporates the time required for order management, known as TMT, which spans from order receipt to its integration into the PPC system, as well as the transportation time necessary for delivering the components.

final product up until the point where it is han- ded-over to the customer.

The total replenishment time for a product is determined by the order schedule By mapping the desired delivery time window, we can pinpoint the components that must be procured, manufactured, or assembled independently of specific orders This process ensures that the necessary components are initiated before the designated delivery time window.

• type and location of storage

• type and location of storage

• type of delivery deliver supplier enterprise customer

• configuration of production planning and control

Fig 9.1 Design aspects of a factory from process view

216 9 Functional Design of Work Areas

Components that fall within the delivery time window can be acquired either as customer-specific or customer-anonymous orders To ensure reliable supply and cost-effectiveness, it is essential to assess which option is more advantageous Key factors to consider include reusability, demand dynamics, and the overall value of the components.

After finalizing key decisions, the customer decoupling points can be integrated into the order schedule, as illustrated by the red triangles in Figure 9.2 If there remains an opportunity for selection, it is essential to establish this point after conducting thorough investigations across all relevant product groups.

Based on these results, the types of order han- dling and process models (see Sect.9.5) that are to be implemented across all of the products are then determined.

Approaches to Handling Orders

Figure 9.3 illustrates the four key processes involved in order fulfillment: purchasing, production (which includes both manufacturing and assembly), and delivery The method of handling customer orders is influenced by the location of the customer order decoupling point, leading to four primary strategies: make-to-stock, assemble-to-order, and others.

TMT delivery time total replenishment time

TMT customer order decoupling points according to order schedule purchased item manufactured component assembled component time for order management and transport time number of compon ent s

TMT wanted delivery time replenishment time product order schedule with decoupling points

Fig 9.2 Determining the customer order decoupling point order, make-to-order (each from standard prod- ucts) and manufacturing products with a portion of customer specific engineering.

With a make-to-stock approach, a saleable product is produced and stored based on a sales forecast even when there are no existing orders.

Cameras, household appliances, and printers exemplify products that benefit from efficient order handling, which offers shorter delivery times However, this advantage must be balanced with the increased costs associated with capital tied up in inventory.

As product variants increase and their value rises, traditional order handling becomes economically unviable, making assemble-to-order a viable alternative This approach initiates the assembly process only after receiving a customer order, utilizing prefinished standard components A notable example is Dell's online laptop ordering system, where customers use a product configurator to select their preferred specifications, such as hard drive, RAM, processor, and software By maintaining a stock of standard components, Dell can efficiently assemble and deliver customized laptops in a short timeframe.

Pre-finishing all components to meet customer demands, even for standard parts, is often impractical due to factors like costs and storage limitations Consequently, manufacturing is initiated only after receiving a customer order, a process known as make-to-order This approach assumes that existing work plans are in place and that no specific modifications are needed Typically, initial materials are procured and stocked based on sales forecasts, with a common example being the production of complex, high-value components in the automotive industry, such as interior trims or seats.

Engineer-to-order is the fourth type of manufacturing process, initiated when a customer's specific product requirements necessitate a tailored design for at least one component This approach often involves in-house manufacturing, which requires detailed individual work plans and bills of materials Such order handling is commonly seen in plant engineering scenarios.

Engineer-to-Order (E-t-O) fulfillment involves a supplier working closely with customers to manage the entire process of purchasing, manufacturing, assembly, and delivery tailored to specific needs Unlike stock supply, E-t-O focuses on custom orders that require unique construction and production methods, ensuring that each order is specifically manufactured and assembled according to the customer's specifications This approach allows for a more personalized service, catering to the distinct requirements of each anonymous purchase order while maintaining efficiency in delivery and production.

Make-to-Order (M-t-O) customer order decoupling point order-anonymous part order-specific part

Fig 9.3 Approaches to handling orders (modi fi ed to Hoekstra and Romme)

218 9 Functional Design of Work Areas

Logistic objectives vary based on order handling types, with a primary focus on reducing costs before the customer order decoupling point Key goals include optimizing resource utilization and minimizing work-in-progress (WIP) and inventory After the decoupling point, the emphasis shifts to enhancing logistic performance, specifically delivery time and reliability When determining the decoupling point, which serves as a storage area for anonymous order parts, it is crucial to ensure a steady supply for subsequent processes while maintaining minimal WIP and stock levels.

Order Types

Parallel to the types of handling, we can also derive different types of orders as well as the demands that these place on planning processes.

Figure 9.4 depicts the general types of orders, differentiated based on how the orders are triggered.

Customer-neutral process chains create orders for procurement, manufacturing, and assembly based on the production program and its derived manufacturing/procurement plans These orders are essential for maintaining stock levels at the decoupling point, ensuring a steady supply for subsequent processes The production program outlines the primary requirements for saleable products, detailing necessary quantities and due dates, and is formulated using historical data, market indicators, framework agreements, and customer inquiries.

A customer-neutral process chain enables the procurement or production of items through stock replenishment orders, following a pull principle Orders are initiated when materials are withdrawn from the decoupling store or when stock levels drop below a predetermined threshold This approach integrates various elements such as manufacturing and procurement programs, assembly delivery frame contracts, and customer orders, while also accounting for internal product development and historical data forecasts The process includes procurement orders, assembly orders, manufacturing orders, and purchase orders, all of which contribute to effective production program planning.

Fig 9.4 Types of orders serve to dimension the stock (maximum stock, stock order point) in the decoupling store.

Customer-specific process chains facilitate the management of concrete customer orders and internal prototype requests, as well as trigger procurement orders Internal or external customers provide article numbers, quantities, and due dates, while order handling focuses on scheduling and executing the necessary processing steps in a timely manner.

Process Models

Procurement Models

The procurement process encompasses all activities necessary for efficiently supplying an enterprise with essential manufacturing materials, commodities, and external services, serving as a vital link between suppliers and production.

Over the past decade, various procurement methods have emerged, focusing on optimizing supply while minimizing inventory and reducing processing costs Currently, there are six fundamental types of procurement, as illustrated in Fig 9.5.

These are distinguished from one another according to the trigger for procurement, the type and location of the storage and the point at which ownership is transferred.

Traditional reserve stock procurement involves the purchaser managing all procurement activities, including planning, ordering, receiving, inspecting goods, storing, and delivering materials for consumption This method ensures that material stores are consciously maintained to support subsequent processes In contrast, other procurement models rely on suppliers to maintain stores or do not maintain them at all Therefore, these alternative models necessitate the establishment of various storage areas close to the consumption site, which should be factored into factory planning.

A consignment store is a supplier-maintained warehouse that holds articles under a contractually agreed minimum stock, ensuring constant availability for the purchaser while the supplier retains ownership until the goods are withdrawn This model is typically used for high-value items, necessitating secure storage solutions, such as lockable areas, to protect the goods due to the unique ownership arrangement.

Standard part management is ideal for sourcing low-value standard items In this approach, suppliers consistently replenish the material buffer located near the workplace, maintaining stock levels as per the contractual agreement with the buyer.

In the reserve stock model, procurement is driven by a predefined program, while the consignment and standard part models rely on material withdrawals Conversely, the contract stock, single item procurement, and synchronized production processes are initiated by specific customer orders, ensuring a tailored approach to procurement.

Contract stock refers to a supplier-maintained warehouse situated near the buyer, enabling regular and timely deliveries that align with demand Deliveries are typically initiated by customer orders, although they can also be prompted by the need to replenish additional buffer stock.

220 9 Functional Design of Work Areas

Concrete customer orders drive single-item procurement and synchronized production processes, where materials are delivered directly to the consumption site without interim storage This synchronized production model involves close coordination between the supplier and customer, often with the supplier's production facility located near or on the customer's premises.

In the three procurement models discussed, the purchaser eliminates the need for storage processes; however, it is essential to incorporate provision areas in the factory layout to facilitate timely decoupling between suppliers and consumers.

In order to select the best suited procurement model in concrete situations and to allocate suppliers and material numbers the following criteria should be particularly kept in mind:

• the relationship between the procured good and a customer order,

• the significance of the article,

• the certainty of the supply from the procure- ment side, and

• the consistency of demand for the procured good.

When a procured good is used only once, single item procurement is relevant, particularly for high-value A-parts that are not stored due to infrequent demand For other A-parts and most B-parts, it's essential to explore the applicability of consignment concepts, contract stock, and synchronized production processes These models aim to minimize inventory costs while also reducing process costs, which encompass all expenses related to order management, manufacturing, and delivery within synchronized production systems.

In the context of manufacturing and delivery, the procurement process involves managing single item orders from suppliers, ensuring efficient delivery to the receiving department The transition of ownership occurs upon the acceptance of stock under contract, while delivery on call allows for flexible stock management Consignment stock is a key concept, enabling suppliers to provide inventory that remains their property until used Effective management of standard parts within consignment stock is crucial, particularly in maintaining a buffer stock close to consumption points Additionally, optional stock keeping practices facilitate the removal of items from the consignment area, optimizing the supply area layout relevant to the facility's operational needs.

Fig 9.5 Overview of typical procurement models

Standard part management emphasizes cost reduction and is most effective for C-parts Additionally, the traditional reserve stock approach is relevant when the price benefits from purchasing outweigh the higher logistics costs while ensuring a reliable supply.

Production Models

In the production area, the manufacturing and assembly process models are derived from the various order types outlined in Section 9.4 As illustrated in Figure 9.6, these models are accompanied by their respective information flows.

Make-to-stock (M-t-S) is a traditional manufacturing approach where products are produced and assembled without direct customer involvement, then stored in finished goods warehouses There are two primary process models under this system: the push model, where production orders are generated based on a predetermined manufacturing schedule and pushed through production areas, and the pull model, which operates on a consumption control basis, triggering orders only when inventory levels drop below a certain threshold.

Choosing between the two make-to-stock production models hinges on demand consistency, the versatility of the product, and the variety of available options.

The pull principle is ideal for scenarios with consistent demand, numerous uses, and limited variants In contrast, the push principle is generally recommended for situations that do not meet these criteria, despite requiring more effort in planning and control Accurate demand forecasting is essential for effective production planning When demand is sporadic, characterized by fewer requests and more variants, it is crucial to assess whether the required delivery times allow for a make-to-order (M-t-O) production approach.

With customer order related productions

(make-to-order ‘M-t-O’ and assemble-to-order

In the 'A-t-O' model, products are produced and dispatched only after receiving a customer order, ensuring a direct delivery post-testing without storage Conversely, when additional engineering adjustments are necessary, the engineer-to-order (E-t-O) model is utilized In scenarios where customer orders encompass multiple requirements for complete delivery, an interim buffer in the shipping area becomes essential to manage logistics effectively.

Delivery Models

The delivery process encompasses the entire journey of a customer order, starting from its receipt and order handling, through the transmission, processing, and control stages It also includes the flow of goods from the production site to storage, ultimately reaching the agreed delivery point at the customer's location.

In the procurement process, it is essential for the buyer's actions to align with the supplier's delivery methods This alignment is reflected in six delivery models that correspond to the previously outlined procurement models: customer neutral store, consignment, contract stock, standard part management, single item delivery, and synchronized production.

The primary distinction between the systems lies in how orders are processed and materials are delivered to customers However, in the context of factory planning, these aspects are of lesser importance compared to other critical factors.

finished products have to be stored or not and, if

Effective functional design of work areas, such as a finished goods store, is essential for suppliers managing orders from a customer neutral store and standard part management This setup ensures efficient processing and organization of inventory on the supplier's premises.

Maintaining an in-house store can be practical for consignment and single item delivery, especially when there are various purchasers for the product However, for customer-specific items, it is essential to assess the suitability of a make-to-order (M-t-O) process, which may eliminate the need for an in-house inventory In cases of contract stock, a separate storage facility near the customer is required Synchronized production significantly influences in-house production, as this model necessitates that neither the purchaser nor the supplier holds inventory, aligning the supplier's production with the purchaser's capacity and product variation needs Due to the demand for short delivery times, suppliers often need to establish production sites close to their customers, a practice predominantly seen in the automobile supply industry for high-value components, where the investment costs are justified by contractual agreements and substantial sales volumes.

Manufacturing and Assembly Principles

In industrial manufacturing, there exists a vast array of principles that dictate how essential components—such as workpieces, personnel, and machinery—are organized Each manufacturing system can be uniquely identified by its motion structure, spatial arrangement, and the temporal and organizational frameworks it employs.

Manufacture-to-Stock (M-t-S PUSH) demand production program planning manufacturing or assembly order stock notice custo- mer demand replenishment stock order removal notice stock control order generation

Make-to-Order / Assemble-to-Order without engineering (M-t-O / A-t-O) customer order manufacturing or assembly order scheduling (order net)

Make-to-Order (MTO) and Assemble-to-Order (ATO) processes involve engineering customized product designs tailored to specific customer requirements These approaches emphasize efficient scheduling and production management, ensuring that manufacturing and assembly align with customer orders Effective stock control and program planning are crucial for optimizing order generation and scheduling at every production level, ultimately enhancing customer satisfaction and operational efficiency.

Fig 9.6 Flow of information with different production models (simpli fi ed representation)

A practical classification of organizational types can be established by examining the spatial structure associated with different manufacturing principles The basic manufacturing principles, categorized by their classification criteria, typical terminology, and spatial structure, are outlined in Figure 9.7, along with relevant examples Among these, the job shop principle, flow principle, and group/segment principle are the most prevalent organizational forms, warranting a more detailed exploration of their characteristics and applications.

Manufacturing according to the job shop principle (or functional principle) arranges the workplaces according to the processing method.

Work items, whether individual components or in batches, are transported between workstations, where they often wait in line for processing The job shop principle offers significant flexibility, allowing for easy adjustment to various products and their specific operating sequences Additionally, this approach enhances resource utilization effectively.

The long throughput times and high WIP in the production process though are disadvantageous.

In contrast to job shop production, flow production, also known as the product principle, organizes operations based on the sequence of tasks for each product, allowing for quick throughput as workpieces move immediately to the next workstation after processing This system can be categorized into loosely or elastically chained flow production, where workstations are connected by buffer zones, and rigidly chained flow production, which lacks interim buffers However, rigidly chained systems are susceptible to disruptions at individual workstations, potentially causing the entire production line to halt.

A significant drawback of the flow principle is its rigid focus on a specific product, making it challenging to adapt the system when technical changes occur This limitation highlights the need for flexible spatial structures in manufacturing that can accommodate evolving criteria and innovations.

WI work item S station worker

• tool making shop manual workplace worker site fabrication product work item

• shipyard job shop (functional) task

WI grinding shop drilling shop turning shop

S S S segment (group) operation sequence of a part family

• assembly segment flow (product) operation sequence of defined variants

Fig 9.7 Structure of industrial manufacturing principles

224 9 Functional Design of Work Areas

Furthermore, producing parts then becomes more expensive when the facilities cannot be effi- ciently utilized due to a lack of demand for the intended workpiece or product.

Manufacturing segments, or cells, are strategically organized setups that consolidate all necessary equipment for producing a specific group of similar products efficiently By arranging machinery according to the operational sequence and implementing overlapping manufacturing processes, these cells minimize waiting times between individual work steps, enhancing overall productivity.

Overlapped manufacturing, also known as one-piece flow, streamlines production by allowing parts to be forwarded individually to the next station immediately after processing, rather than in large batches This approach enhances efficiency and reduces lead times in the manufacturing process.

In the manufacturing sector, operational responsibilities, including organizational planning and control functions, are delegated to a dedicated team of employees This group is primarily accountable for managing the segment, which involves crucial tasks such as material requisition.

Finite scheduling, order sequencing, and work planning are essential for effectively managing the control programs of numerically controlled tools and measuring machines By integrating planning and execution activities and spatially consolidating machinery and resources, organizations can achieve reduced throughput times for products while providing employees with greater flexibility and operational efficiency.

Site fabrication is essential for manufacturing large and heavy components, particularly in the construction of systems and machinery like hydroelectric turbine pressure housings and large generator shafts In these scenarios, workpieces are arranged on a base plate, allowing tool machines to be positioned directly where the work is needed The most extreme form of site fabrication occurs when workpieces must be assembled and completed on-site due to their size, rendering them non-transportable.

The manual workplace principle is a less common organizational type in the industry, typically utilized in environments where tasks are primarily performed by hand rather than through extensive machinery This approach is often seen in sectors such as tool and die making.

Similar to part manufacturing, assembly processes can be guided by specific organizational principles These principles encompass various aspects such as the relative movement of assembly objects, including both stationary and moving workstations Key factors include the alignment of objects during the assembly process and the types of movement involved, whether periodic or aperiodic Understanding these dynamics is crucial for optimizing assembly flow and efficiency, ensuring that both fixed and moving assembly objects are effectively integrated within the workflow.

Organizational forms of assemblies, as outlined by Eversheim, categorize assembly workplaces based on their structure Site assembly aligns with site fabrication, while group assembly operates on a fixed object, involving either periodic or aperiodic movements of workplaces and objects Within flow assemblies, clocked and combined flow assemblies are distinct sub-categories, characterized by the unidirectional movement of assembly objects The key difference lies in the integration of human operators into the clock cycle or flow rate, which is facilitated by continuously moving workpiece carriers.

Production Segments

The diversity of production requirements often stems from varying customer demands for specific delivery models and performance related to logistics This heterogeneity is also evident in the product structure and variety offered Consequently, it is often impractical to satisfy all these requirements using a single manufacturing or assembly principle.

When feasible, establishing product-oriented decentralized production segments is practical for enhancing efficiency These segments are defined by a competitive strategy aimed at cost reduction, shorter throughput times, and improved quality To achieve a greater level of autonomy, there is an emphasis on integrating planning and indirect functions Additionally, production segments uniquely integrate multiple stages of the logistics chain, allowing for the combination of various manufacturing or assembly cells within a single segment.

Figure 9.9 illustrates the production segments of a water pump manufacturing company, categorized by the rate of output The segments include various assembly lines and manufacturing processes, such as assembly line I, II, and III, alongside inventory management for incoming and outgoing goods Each segment aims to enhance punctuality and efficiency in shipping, while also focusing on value-adding processes within the production structure.

Fig 9.9 Example of a segmented factory (acc Brankamp)

The functional design of work areas encompasses three key manufacturing segments The first segment is mass production, characterized by constant sales and a focus on maximizing efficiency, measured by utilization rates and work-in-progress (WIP) levels The second segment addresses serial production with diverse product variations, utilizing integrated manufacturing cells to facilitate one-piece flow, resulting in low WIP and reduced throughput times, with due date reliability as a potential primary goal depending on customer integration Lastly, the third segment caters to single part production, where custom-tailored products with numerous variants are created, organized according to the job shop principle to accommodate varying operating sequences and ensure short throughput times.

Production planning and control must adapt to the unique requirements and constraints of various segments, necessitating the use of distinct methods for each This article will explore the fundamental principles of production planning and control, along with strategies for selecting and configuring the appropriate methods.

Production Planning and Control

The control loop model is effective for production planning, as illustrated in Fig 9.10 It begins with the target agreement process, which aligns with customer demands to establish target values A production planning and control system (PPC) then employs various methods to create a comprehensive production plan, which is subsequently divided into in-house production plans, procurement plans, and supply plans These plans guide the execution of procurement, production, and delivery processes After completion, actual performance data is collected and transformed into key figures and graphics through a logistics monitoring system This data is compared with the planned target values, allowing for the analysis of any discrepancies and the development of recommendations to enhance target achievement.

The key tasks of production planning and control include planning the production program, planning the production requirements, and plan- ning and control of external procurements and target agreement

• demands plan logistic monitoring production planning and control PPC execution

• delivery data- collection disturbances, changes target purchase program manufacturing program (type, volume, date) actual purchase program manufacturing program (type, volume, date)

Fig 9.10 Production planning and control loop in-house manufactured items (see Fig 9.11).

Production program planning involves determining the specific products and their quantities to be produced in upcoming periods This process evaluates the feasibility of the underlying sales plan, which includes projected sales and customer orders, through close collaboration with sales, production, and purchasing teams Typically, the essential requirements for marketable products or product groups are organized in a table format, covering a planning horizon of one or more years.

Production requirements planning identifies the necessary materials and resources based on the production schedule It assesses current or anticipated inventories to establish secondary requirements for parts and components This process involves scheduling manufacturing orders, determining workload for manufacturing and assembly stations, and setting due dates for procured materials The resulting procurement, manufacturing, and assembly programs are then refined by both external and internal production planning and control systems before being released for execution.

In contemporary manufacturing, the trend is to decentralize and segment production planning and control tasks, minimizing overly precise plans This approach empowers employees to take responsibility not only for executing tasks but also for choosing the methods and measures they employ As a result, the complexity of planning is decreased, which in turn enhances the quality of task fulfillment.

To enhance the efficiency of the value-adding chain, it is essential to implement three cross-cutting tasks alongside the four primary PPC tasks Order coordination is crucial for aligning processes, procedures, and schedules across various enterprise sectors and beyond Effective warehousing management ensures that inventories are maintained, supplying both manufacturing and assembly areas, as well as meeting customer demands PPC monitoring plays a vital role in assessing target achievement from both the customer's perspective and the company's standpoint The successful execution of these key and cross-cutting tasks depends on the meticulous management of master data and order status data.

In today's landscape, PPC is responsible for not only key and cross-cutting tasks but also additional network tasks that encompass all planning activities within a production network Central to these responsibilities is the strategic design of network configurations, comprehensive sales planning, and the assessment of network requirements.

The MRP II concept (MRP stands for material resource planning) represents a very common planning approach for fulfilling the key PPC tasks.

The system evolved from MRP (Material Requirements Planning) to encompass a comprehensive framework that includes data management, cross-sectional tasks, production program planning, production requirement planning, in-house parts planning and control, order coordination, warehousing, PPC monitoring, network configuration, sales planning, requirement planning, and purchased parts planning and control.

Fig 9.11 Key production planning and control (PPC) tasks (to [SCH12])

The functional design of work areas, rooted in a requirement planning approach from the 1970s in the USA, emphasizes a modular strategy due to the complexities of diverse parameters and their interdependencies Instead of simultaneous planning, which is deemed unmanageable even with advanced computing, the production planning and control (PPC) process is segmented into sub-problems or modules for better handling.

MRP II provides a structured solution for planning tasks through a gradual coordination process, where each level's outputs serve as inputs for the next The planning hierarchy is aligned with the chronological scope of sub-problems, refining material and capacity requirements from the strategic business plan to the individual machine loading This backward coupling ensures the feasibility of each sub-plan, prompting necessary adjustments in response to deviations, whether from order due dates or resource capacities MRP II serves as the foundation for many manufacturing execution systems (MES), emphasizing that the design of production planning and control (PPC), planning objects, and planning depth must align with specific structures and processes Consequently, all PPC tasks can be influenced by these design considerations.

Fig 9.12 Manufacturing resource planning (MRP II)

The level of detail in production program planning is largely influenced by the neutrality of order production concerning customers Before reaching the customer decoupling point, the production program focuses on generating customer-neutral manufacturing and procurement orders Conversely, beyond this point, specific customer orders initiate manufacturing and procurement activities Here, the production program's main purpose is to assess necessary capacity and materials, typically organized at the product group level.

The selection of a procurement process model significantly impacts the planning and control of external procurements When utilizing traditional reserve stock models or single item procurement, the procurement program effectively produces specific procurement orders In contrast, other procurement models merely establish minimum and maximum stock levels or trigger material requests based on ongoing customer orders.

Framework agreements then provide the basis for cooperation in these procurement models.

The design of in-house PPC is significantly influenced by various factors that dictate the choice of appropriate methods and their parameters Historically, numerous methods have been created for managing production processes, each tailored to meet specific tasks under defined conditions Given that production control plays a crucial role in determining production flow and impacts factory planning, it is essential to analyze these functions in greater detail.

Lửdding [Lửd13] offers an in-depth analysis of existing production models, detailing their operational conditions and limitations However, it is evident that no single model fully satisfies the diverse needs of the industry Consequently, the focus should shift to evaluating control methods based on the specific conditions, requirements, and capabilities of the production environment, tailoring their implementation to fit particular tasks The following section will outline a procedure for this evaluation.

Selecting and Configuring a Production

Production control is tasked with executing the targets established during planning, even amid unavoidable disruptions Lửdding developed a universal model of production control that outlines four essential tasks These tasks are illustrated in a funnel model, highlighting the relationship between actuating and control variables, as well as target variables influenced by their interactions The actuating variables are set by these tasks, while control variables, which impact the quality of goal achievement, arise from the differences between two actuating variables One key task, order generation, focuses on creating production orders based on customer demands, production programs, and material withdrawals, ultimately determining the planned input and output for each order while influencing the processing sequence during scheduling.

The order release establishes the timeframe for processing an order, ensuring that material availability is verified and, if needed, delivery is initiated Key factors influencing order release include the planned input dates from order generation and the availability of necessary resources.

Order sequencing is essential for determining the priority of orders in a queue, as each order is assigned a specific value based on established criteria This value helps to assess the order's importance relative to others in the queue Various sequencing rules exist, each tailored to support different primary objectives in order processing.

230 9 Functional Design of Work Areas targets such as short throughput times or saving setup times.

Capacity control plays a crucial role in defining the working hours for each workstation and assigning employees to specific systems or groups, ultimately impacting the overall production output.

Figure 9.14 illustrates various selected methods available for task fulfillment Given the extensive range of known methods, this article offers only a concise overview For more detailed information, we recommend consulting sources [Lửd13] and [Sch11] Key elements include the task differences, actuating variables, working direction, control variables, and target variables, all of which play a crucial role in understanding the interrelationships between tasks, order generation, capacity control, order release, disposition, and production.

Effective order sequencing is essential for optimizing throughput time and managing work in process (WIP) efficiently By aligning actual input and output with planned sequences, businesses can enhance schedule reliability and capacity control Monitoring backlog and sequence deviations is crucial for maintaining utilization and ensuring a smooth workflow Proper planning and execution of order release can significantly improve operational performance and overall productivity.

Fig 9.13 Model of production control — tasks and interrelationships order generation order sequencing capacity control order release

Fig 9.14 Allocation of selected control methods to production control tasks

MRP II, the Order Point system, and Kanbans are widely utilized methods for generating orders in manufacturing, while progress numbers, or cumulative production figures, are frequently employed in networked supply chains across various manufacturing levels.

For the order release, methods such as Load

Oriented Order Release (LOOR) [Wie95] or

CONWIP [Hop96] are commonly implemented.

Both are aimed at controlling the throughput times with the aid of WIP regulation Another approach is bottleneck control, e.g., Optimized

Methods for controlling capacities are fre- quently aimed at maximally utilizing workplaces, whereas others support due date compliance by regulating backlogs.

Sequencing rules play a crucial role in enhancing throughput times, ensuring due date compliance, and minimizing setup times However, research indicates that the effectiveness of these priority rules is significantly influenced by work-in-progress (WIP) levels Specifically, at low WIP levels, the performance of various sequencing rules tends to converge towards the 'first in-first out' (FIFO) approach.

Each production control method has its own specific range of application, implementation conditions, and restrictions, with some methods addressing multiple tasks When configuring production control for a particular case, it's essential to consider the enterprise's strategic goals, customer requirements, product structure limitations, and the capabilities of the manufacturing system.

The customer order decoupling point and individual production control systems are established, with specific objectives quantified for each system Each control system may focus on varying primary goals to enhance efficiency and effectiveness in production management.

In make-to-stock production environments, the primary objective is to achieve economically efficient production, while in make-to-order production segments, the focus shifts to logistic efficiency.

Furthermore, it is important that the targets for the control systems are aligned with one another process analysis customer decoupling points task definition throughput time

WIP schedule reliability utilization throughput time

WIP utilization customer supplier customer purchase manufact assembly delivery

Fig 9.15 Con fi guration of Production Control — process analysis and target de fi nition

Effective functional design of work areas is crucial for meeting customer order fulfillment For instance, if the objective for the make-to-order segment of the value chain emphasizes high due date reliability and short throughput times, it is essential to ensure supply certainty through an appropriately sized decoupling store or the capability for rapid response, necessitating short throughput times in preceding systems Conversely, in parallel manufacturing segments that cater to diverse customer groups, the primary goals for each segment remain independent of one another.

Analyzing individual production paths is essential for identifying control-relevant features related to both the completed products and the production processes It is important to differentiate products based on complexity—ranging from low-part to multi-part complex designs—as well as value and demand criteria such as sales volume, fluctuations, and variant numbers Storage constraints, including short shelf-life, can significantly influence decision-making Load flexibility is another critical factor, indicating whether internal or external customers can accommodate due date shifts, typically feasible in make-to-stock production but sometimes negotiable in make-to-order scenarios The chosen manufacturing principle and part flow type directly impact production control, with material flow complexity revealing whether the system is linear or networked, including bottleneck assessments A linear material flow often leads to consistent bottlenecks, emphasizing the need for effective management of product characteristics, capacity flexibility, and demand fluctuations.

(changing) several some no-one

In manufacturing, production bottlenecks can significantly impact material flow and overall efficiency Various methods, such as batch production and one-piece flow manufacturing, cater to different complexities and production scales, ranging from individual and small series production to mass production Effective transportation and workbench organization are essential for optimizing the flow principle within job shops and construction sites Data availability and supply reliability from predecessors also play a critical role in maintaining production quality To enhance operational effectiveness, it's crucial to assess and improve work plan quality across varying levels of production, from very low to very high.

(not available) middle high very high

In complex material flows, shifting bottlenecks often occur, necessitating an analysis of capacity demand fluctuations These fluctuations typically stem from product demand variations; however, when multiple products are manufactured, compensatory effects may lead to relatively stable capacity requirements at the workstation level, despite significant changes at the individual product level This stability is more likely with a diverse product range Additionally, the reliability of supply from preceding processes must be taken into account Ultimately, it is essential to balance these requirements and constraints against capacity flexibility and data availability.

In the next step, based on this information the production control can be configured (Fig.9.17).

Summary

Understanding the functions required in a work area is crucial for effective spatial layout, as these functions are influenced by the Customer Decoupling Point (CDP) and the associated order types Orders made before the CDP are typically for stock, while those after the CDP are customized to meet specific customer needs.

The production process involves key sub-processes such as procurement, manufacturing—which includes parts manufacturing and assembly—and the delivery of finished goods to warehouses or customers Different procurement models are utilized based on initiation, location, and ownership transfer, aligning with delivery models where the production company acts as the supplier It is essential to establish the production and assembly structure, including the spatial arrangement of resources like machines and utilities, as well as the staffing requirements Key manufacturing principles include the job shop principle, flow principle, segment principle, and site fabrication principle, with similar principles applicable to assembly Additionally, effective organizational planning and contract management are crucial, necessitating a robust Production Planning and Control system.

• capacity coordination order generation customer requirements

• release of jobs according to due date order release manufacturing job

• priority according to remaining slack

• job assignment order sequencing released manufacturing job

• short-term capacity flexibility capacity control jobs with rank value monitoring

Fig 9.19 Con fi guration of the production control — end situation for case study

The functional design of work areas focuses on planning both internal and external elements based on quantity and timing Key responsibilities of shop control include generating orders based on batch size, releasing orders, sequencing them effectively, and managing capacity to ensure smooth operations.

figured according to the selected order type with different methods.

[Frü06] Fr ü hwald, C., Wolter, C.: Prozessgestaltung

(Process Design) In: Hagen, N u.a (Eds):

Prozessmanagement in der Wertsch ử pfungskette

(Process Mangement in the Value Chain) Haupt

[Gol04] Goldratt, E.M., Cox, J.: The goal A Process of

Ongoing Improvement 3rd edn North River

[Hoe92] Hoekstra, S.J., Romme, J.M.: Integral Logistic

Goods Flow Mc Graw-Hill, Berskshire (1992)

[Hop96] Hopp, W.J., Spearman, M.L.: Factory Physics.

Chicago, Irwin (1996) [Lửd13] L ử dding, H.: Handbook of Manufacturing

Control: Fundamentals, Description, Con fi guration Springer, Berlin (2013) [Sch11] Sch ử nsleben, P.: Integral Logistics Management.

Operations and Supply Chain Management in Comprehensive Value-Added Networks, 6th edn CRC Press, Boca Raton (2011)

[Sch12] Schuh, G., Stich, V (Eds.): Produktionsplanung und -steuerung (Production Planning and - Control) Vol 1: Grundlagen der PPS (Fundamentals of PPC) Springer Berlin (2012) [Wie95] Wiendahl, H.-P.: Load-Oriented Manufacturing

Control Springer, Berlin (1995) [Wil98] Wildemann, H.: Die modulare Fabrik Kunden- nahe Produktion durch Fertigungssegmentierung(The Modular Factory Customer-OrientedProduction by Manufacturing Segmentation), 5th edn TCW, Munich (1998)

The work environment is a part of who we are.

As a personally perceived part of a production, workshop or office, the workspace should be a natural and pleasing extension of our personality.

It is essential to recognize that the quality of our lives cannot be solely defined by the time spent outside of work, nor can we clearly separate work from leisure Historically, legal standards for minimum lighting, ventilation, and maximum noise levels have been used to assess whether human needs in factories are being met, with compliance seen as key to 'humanizing' the workplace However, quantifying subjective factors like natural light and a harmonious environment remains challenging, despite their significant impact on our physical well-being.

When designing workspaces, it is crucial to explore options that enhance both the physical and mental well-being of employees, as well as their motivation and job performance Key design elements such as communication, lighting, comfort, relaxation, and fire protection play significant roles in this process In the subsequent sections, we will examine how these factors contribute to workplace adaptability.

Communication

Corridors, Stairwells, Intermediary Spaces

Circulation areas are often conceived unilaterally for functional necessities In the truest sense of the words these “evacuation routes” are mostly narrow, claustrophobic and dimly lit They

‘force’ people to rush through them without stopping for a moment There is no impetus to pause and spontaneously exchange a thought or an idea with a colleague.

Architectural elements like natural light and appealing views enhance evacuation routes, making them more inviting Buildings lacking naturally lit stairwells and corridors should be reconsidered, as varying sunlight and shifting shadows create a calming atmosphere Attractive views stimulate employees, satisfying their natural curiosity and fostering a sense of connection This environment encourages spontaneous interactions, whether through a simple wave or a friendly call-out.

• fire protection & fire-zoning concepts changeablity comfort lighting communication relaxation fire protection

• clearance areas, fire walls, partitioning walls

• fire-resistance ratings and classes

• smoke and heat ventilation system

• break-out areas, social rooms

• air temperature, radiation temp- erature

• air-humidity, air-speed, air-quality

• re-directing and guiding light

• spatially arranged and connected work areas

• location, shape, furnishings for common rooms

The design of workplace environments is influenced by various factors, including group allocation, spatial zoning, and the orientation of groups Different configurations, such as having several groups in one room or distributing them among separate rooms, cater to varying needs, with room capacities ranging from 1 to 30 individuals Strongly internally oriented groups benefit from minimized disturbances, while those that are externally oriented require environments that facilitate spontaneous communication However, excessive information and long corridors can hinder effective communication and external interactions Ultimately, the design should accommodate a high volume of customers or visitors, particularly when confidential discussions are necessary.

Fig 10.2 Communication oriented interior design © Reichardt 15.161_JR_B corridors, stairs, intermediary spaces spatial linking of work areas location, shape and furnishings for common areas

• building structure favors communication spaces Fig 10.3 Structural features promoting communication © Reichardt 15.162_JR_B

Corridors and staircase landings do not always need to adhere to standard dimensions; instead, they can be designed to foster “casual” encounters by incorporating larger areas that promote temporary gatherings These flexible spaces can be utilized for various purposes, such as coffee corners or copying stations, depending on the specific needs of the environment.

Utterback [Eba84] and Bismarck and Held

[Bis98] show that 80 % of all innovative ideas originate through direct personal contact and that informal communication promotes collaboration at the workplace Architecture which facilitates communication can be highly rewarding.

Arranging and Linking Workspaces

Changeable spaces, which allow mutual exchange and interaction, should be provided for the different sections of a factory from the man- ufacturing, assembly and prep-work areas to the

Many factories continue to be structured with production halls linked to separate administrative buildings through bridges, leading to inefficient layouts This design often results in narrow, isolated structures attached to the main production areas, hindering effective quality management and research and development processes in PPC (Production Planning and Control).

firewalls without a view into the production.

Sterile architectural solutions, strongly limit exchanging and intertwining thoughts, decisions and actions at meeting points, thus restricting a critical aspect of communication.

Building structures having mutable spaces with expandable and transparent room bound- aries as well as a range of multi-purpose com- munication spaces are definitely advantageous

The relationship between a building's shape and room depth in office spaces is influenced by working styles Traditional office designs, featuring a central corridor with cellular offices on either side, are often less effective compared to modern configurations like combi-offices and group rooms Typically, cellular offices result in a building depth of 12-13 meters (39-42 feet), which includes a minimum corridor width of 2 meters (6.7 feet) and a depth of 5 meters (16 feet) for small offices In contrast, combi-offices necessitate a greater building depth to accommodate their innovative layout.

15–18 m (49–59 ft) since corridors are substi- tuted with multi-functional spaces for common use or group activities.

The design of office spaces is increasingly integrated with factory planning, blurring the lines between manual labor environments and mental workspaces This shift reflects a growing recognition of the importance of cohesive design across different work settings For a detailed exploration of this evolution, readers can consult references such as [Spat03] and [Mar00] Current office concepts are categorized based on 'time present' and 'mode of operation', as illustrated in Figures 10.4 and 10.5 Traditional cellular offices provide employees with personal space to minimize disruptions, yet they are evolving alongside team-oriented and open office designs to enhance collaboration and functionality.

Office concepts vary based on worker presence and operational modes, with traditional designs often resistant to change and communication In contrast, open offices are designed to enhance collaboration but can hinder concentration due to noise from phone calls and movement To address these challenges, many organizations have opted to create smaller, designated areas and establish codes of conduct Additionally, team offices are available to accommodate temporary project teams, fostering a more focused work environment.

Combi-offices, which combine various office forms, have proven to be practical by utilizing large spaces partitioned with transparent, mobile dividers This design allows employees to focus individually while also facilitating spontaneous collaboration in larger work areas Additionally, the concept of business clubs is gaining popularity, offering temporary workplaces within companies for individuals or teams seeking to brainstorm or develop new solutions, similar to business centers found in airports and hotels Such approaches are particularly advantageous for marketing, research, product development, and engineering departments.

In modern office design, understanding employee presence and usage patterns is crucial For instance, if sales personnel are in the office only 50% of the time and spend much of that duration in meetings, it makes sense not to assign them permanent workspaces Instead, providing portable containers for their personal items can enhance flexibility and efficiency.

Employees can conveniently collect their files from a designated depot on their in-office days After retrieving their materials, they can find an available desk, log into the company network using their laptops, and be prepared to work in just a few minutes.

The need for additional research and development spaces, laboratories, or workshops can increase the building depth by at least 20 meters If production components can be organized vertically across multiple floors, it allows for the design of intelligently structured spaces with spacious floor plans.

“industrial lofts” without disruptive walls and Fig 10.5 Overview of of fi ce concepts (Congena GmbH acc to Wikipedia) © IFA 15.271

10.1 Communication 243 supports Variable spaces and room depths pro- vide the best options for changing work or communication forms The room closures for the different sections could be reversible and inter- changeable thus allowing spaces to be enlarged or reduced with minimal costs and effort as well as facilitating exchanges between sections and allowing them to be interconnected These mobile ‘transformation elements’ should be transparent for the most part, allowing people to see in and through the different areas This transparency between the individual groups helps develop and maintain a sense of community i.e., of a team realizing a common vision.

Organizations can enhance their communication strategies by creatively reinterpreting and expanding the role of circulation areas within their building designs This approach, rooted in the architectural floor plans and cross-sections, serves as a foundational principle for connecting diverse structures, spaces, and functions Scandinavian examples, such as the innovative Swedish car assembly plant, illustrate the effectiveness of this design philosophy.

Saab in Malmử, a number of variants for a communication backbone have been developed.

In a shift from conventional practices, the central space in Skoda's car plant in Mladá Boleslav, near Prague, prioritizes communication and recreational areas for employees over material flow and logistics This innovative approach redefines the workplace environment, fostering collaboration and well-being among staff.

Location, Shape and Furnishings

Strategically placing seminar and training rooms near production areas enhances communication within the building Utilizing Venetian blinds or slatted window coverings allows for flexible views, fostering an inviting atmosphere Meeting areas should be conveniently located near the entrance for frequent visitors Outdated and musty break-out rooms in the basement should be replaced with bright, airy spaces Additionally, a cafeteria or canteen on an upper level, such as a roof terrace, encourages employees to gather outside of main meal times, promoting informal information exchange.

The two-story production and engineering building exemplifies a holistic approach, emphasizing communication and adaptability in its design This facility is dedicated to the production of high-quality audio devices and houses offices for all divisions involved in technology development and device production within intermediate galleries on each level The expansive column grid, measuring 16.8×8.4 m, enhances flexibility in the workspace Features such as a break-out area on the ground floor, glass office fronts, and a centrally located meeting room facilitate swift communication Additionally, certain areas utilize lightweight construction systems to minimize emissions and meet specific climate needs The galleries are designed for outward extension, allowing for "internal" growth without altering the building's structural integrity.

Lighting

Daylight

Daylight offers dynamic qualities—such as intensity, direction, and color spectrum—that provide more information than static artificial lighting, enhancing visual perception and reducing mental stress This increased awareness leads to better attention and fewer mistakes However, many fail to utilize this free resource effectively, particularly in industrial construction, where lighting designer Christian Bartenbach notes a significant lack of understanding and implementation of daylight strategies.

10.2 Lighting 245 is, in fact, incomprehensible, since mistakes especially in this area have an immediatefinancial impact, moreover, investments in resources for lighting, seeing and perceiving measured against the investments in buildings and production resources are infinitesimally small”[Bar98].

Sunlight consists of both short wave light and long wave thermal radiation, allowing it to penetrate glass surfaces and warm indoor areas Therefore, it is essential to consider the thermal properties of large glass surfaces when designing spaces.

Recent advancements in technology have transformed the study of luminous efficacy and heat ingress, moving away from earlier reliance on assumptions and manual calculations Today, a variety of sophisticated tools, including 3D light and energy simulations, enable more accurate and efficient analysis of building performance.

Effective workplace lighting focuses on achieving consistent illumination and luminous efficacy to minimize shadows and glare The even distribution of light at the work level is influenced by the distance from roof openings, while the size and type of windows play a crucial role in determining the quality of light Additionally, the relationship between interior daylight levels and external light conditions, particularly on cloudy days, is assessed using the daylight factor (DF).

Natural Lighting

Figure 10.7 illustrates the variation of the daylight factor (DF) across different room configurations, where DF is calculated as the ratio of interior illumination to external illumination under cloudy sky conditions In the diagram, it is assumed that the total daylight openings account for one-sixth of the floor space, a crucial parameter for assessing natural light availability in interior spaces.

‘window factor’WF and defined as WF = win- dow area/floor space.

The typical daylight progression for a side window, considering the assumed window frame (WF), indicates that the window's positioning results in a suboptimal mean daylight factor (DF) value This is highlighted by the significant decline in intensity levels observed.

DF daylight factor (= internal luminous intensity / external luminous intensity at covered sky)

WF = window factor (= window space / floor space)

1 daylight factor trend DF (assumption: sum of daylight openings = 1/6 of the floor area)

2 WF value when requested DF m > 5%

The impact of room profiles on daylight factor reveals that natural light entering through side windows is often insufficient for deeper rooms, making them largely unusable without additional artificial lighting.

Workplaces with a daylight factor of 2% or lower should incorporate supplementary artificial lighting A useful guideline is that areas in a room where the sky is not visible likely need additional lighting To optimize daylight, it is essential to allow light to enter from above, as this provides the most effective illumination for the center of the space.

The entry surface should be designed such that the work area is uniformly illuminated.

A number of rooftop lighting systems and configurations have been developed for industrial buildings based on the criteria mentioned here.

As variants of so-called shed (or pitch) roof forms, they are oriented in the northern hemi- sphere for glare-free northern light.

Shed roofs are predominantly used in large-scale buildings, allowing for controlled roof height through a series of small ridge-like superstructures Each superstructure typically features two sides with differing slopes; one side is steeper to minimize the support needed for the roof structure, while the other side is often constructed from glass Figure 10.8 illustrates the light distribution within halls for various roof forms commonly seen in industrial buildings, and Figure 10.9 outlines the typical advantages and disadvantages of different overhead lighting arrangements.

On sunny days, incoming sunlight can create uncomfortable heat levels in spaces, leading to potential glares and reflections in workplaces To maintain permissible room and equipment temperatures, it is essential to implement shading devices that block solar radiation However, these shading systems also reduce natural light intensity, necessitating increased use of artificial lighting on bright days Various architectural elements, such as light domes, saddle rider monitors, lanterns, pitched roofs, and ribbon combinations, can be utilized to effectively manage sunlight while ensuring adequate illumination.

Fig 10.8 Light distributions for various roofs © Reichardt 15.165_JR_B

Intelligently designed industrial sheds, having north-lighting systems (in the northern hemi- sphere), ensure uniform illumination without glare Also, they do not require shading devices and/or cast shadows.

To effectively develop lighting design for industrial projects, it is essential to consider various long-term factors such as processes, logistics, and user needs, as highlighted by [Bra05].

The effectiveness of daylight utilization in a building is significantly influenced by the selection of optimal roof configurations and room layouts to enhance natural lighting By employing three-dimensional lighting simulation software, various skylight designs can be analyzed to predict light distribution and minimize unfavorable lighting conditions An example of daylight simulation outcomes for a large hall measuring 126 m by 40 m is presented.

When modeling light, it is essential to consider key parameters such as the geographical location, the cardinal direction of the hall, the hall's geometry, and the color and reflectance of all interior surfaces.

Artificial Lighting

Humans require about 75% of their total energy for uninterrupted vision, making artificial lighting essential in the workplace as a complement to natural light It enhances the working environment, promoting both comfort and efficiency Key factors that influence lighting quality include the intensity level, uniformity, absence of glare, direction, color, and overall efficiency Illuminance, measured in lux (lx), assesses apparent brightness, with one lux equating to one lumen per square meter; for reference, a candle emits approximately 10 lumens.

Based on research in physiological-optics, work-physiology and psychology the following recommendations are made:

• 200 lx as the minimum illuminance for a continuously occupied workplace,

• 500–2000 lx as the optimal range for work- places located in buildings and,

• 2000–4000 lx as the range for veryfine work requiring concentration over longer periods. light domes

For optimal climate control, a north-south orientation of openings is recommended in situations where sheds are not suitable, as this approach minimizes direct sunlight exposure Unlike traditional sheds, the lighting direction is less pronounced, allowing for a more balanced illumination The use of lanterns, pitched roofs, saddle riders, and monitor facades, combined with ribbon elements, creates a versatile design This combination effectively mitigates issues related to glare and heat, ensuring a comfortable indoor environment.

+north orientation removes unfavorable glares nearly; no sun protection necessary; for shell construction long distances between supports possible; regularity of lighting is very good

- specific building orientation necessary; relatively large heat radiating surfaces with vertical sheds; laborious construction and maintenance.

+regularity of the lighting is particularly easy to attain; due to form less collection of dirt; simple assembly

- large number of roof openings may cause leakage problems.

+ large span width possible, in correspondence to sufficient sub- construction

- danger of unfavourable glare in longitudinal direction.

+uniform distribution of sunlight in comparison to sheds

-danger of unfavorable glare due to building orientation and roof shape.

+good and simple solution for hall depths from 20.0 to 28.0 m (65.6 to 91.8 ft)

- danger of unfavourable glare especially with an east-west orientation

- large heat radiating surface; regularity of light may be inferior compared to other top light forms.

- large heat radiating surface ; regularity of light may be inferior compared to other top light forms

+ climatically favorable solution with north-south orientation of openings i.e where shed are not applicable; lighting direction not as distinct as with sheds.

Fig 10.9 Advantages and disadvantages of different overhead lighting arrangements © Reichardt 15.166_JR_B

DIN 5035 Part 2 lists the minimum values for the nominal illuminance for 176 different activi- ties The values for most workplaces are between

200 and 1000 lx Figure10.11depicts a table with the specified illuminance, light temperature, color rendering index and anti-glare factor for frequent industrial activities according to DIN 5035.

Excessive illumination density on surfaces can lead to distractions such as glare and reflections, negatively affecting worker well-being When users report that lighting is too bright, it often indicates inadequate design to mitigate these issues For further details, readers can consult DIN 5035 Additionally, Figure 10.12 illustrates the minimum illumination density in foot candles for standard operations according to OSHA regulations.

1926.56, where one foot candle is equal to one lumen per square foot or approximately 10.764 lx.

Reflected glare occurs when intense light bounces off shiny surfaces, leading to visual discomfort To minimize this effect, it's essential to strategically position lighting and incorporate matte finishes on equipment, as well as utilize tinted walls and ceilings.

Understanding the direction of light and resulting shadows is crucial for accurately perceiving spatial objects, as unnatural lighting can lead to misinterpretation of 3-dimensional forms For instance, silhouette effects from objects or individuals against bright windows can be mitigated with adequate top lighting, with a recommended top to side lighting ratio of 1:3 in industrial settings Additionally, variable lighting and its color significantly influence human moods and well-being beyond mere brightness, as the color temperature—defined by the spectral power distribution—affects the perceived color of light sources This temperature, measured in Kelvin (K), represents the heat required for a black body to emit light that closely matches the observed color under consistent conditions.

Electrical lamps are divided into three color temperatures (or qualities) based on their lighting distribution without roof lighting distribution with roof false-color image lighting distribution lighting intensity distribution

Fig 10.10 3D simulation of the distribution of daylight in an industry hall © Reichardt 15.167_JR_B

10.2 Lighting 249 impression of color: ww—warm white (up to

Lighting is categorized by color temperature, with warm white at 3300 K, neutral white between 3300–5000 K, and daylight above 5000 K Effective lighting also involves color rendering, which influences how accurately colors appear under different light sources The required lighting intensity varies by task type, measured in lux, and includes considerations such as color rendering index, anti-glare factor, and the specific needs of different spaces For example, secondary rooms like storage and washrooms require different lighting than office environments, which vary from easy visual tasks to data processing Technical areas, such as laboratories and assembly lines, demand precise lighting for tasks like welding, fine assembly, and inspection of intricate components, ensuring optimal visibility and accuracy.

1500 ww, nw 3 - ww, nw ww, nw ww, nw ww, nw ww, nw ww, nw ww, dw ww, nw ww, nw ww, nw nw, dw nw, dw nw, dw

1 ) dw - daylight; nw - neutral white; ww - warm white 2 ) indices: 1, 2, 3,4 3 ) factor: 1, 2, 3 Fig 10.11 Nominal lighting levels for industrial activities (to DIN 5035) © Reichardt 15.168_JR_B

TABLE D-3 - MINIMUM ILLUMINATION INTENSITIES IN FOOT-CANDLES

Construction sites, including ramps, runways, corridors, offices, shops, and storage areas, must maintain lighting levels that meet or exceed the minimum illumination intensities specified in Table D-3 during ongoing work activities.

3 General construction areas, concrete placement, excavation and waste areas, access ways, active storage areas, loading platforms, refueling, and field maintenance areas.

5 Indoors: warehouses, corridors, hallways, and exit ways.

5 … Tunnels, shafts, and general underground work areas:

During drilling, mucking, and scaling in tunnels and shaft headings, a minimum illumination of 10 foot-candles is essential Approved cap lights from the Bureau of Mines are permitted for use in these areas to ensure adequate visibility.

10 …… General construction plant and shops (e.g., batch plants, screening plants, mechanical and electrical equipment rooms, carpenter shops, rigging lofts and active store rooms, mess halls, and indoor toilets and workrooms.)

30 …… First aid stations, infirmaries, and offices.

Other areas For areas or operations not covered above, refer to the American National Standard A11.1-

1965, R1970, Practice for Industrial Lighting, for recommended values of illumination

Fig 10.12 US OSHA standard 1926.56 — illumination intensities under a given light source and is characterized by a color rendering index Ra (1 = incandescent lamp to

Sodium vapor lamps can distort colors more than incandescent lamps, which offer the least distortion True-Lite lamps, a newer innovation, emit infrared radiation, mimicking the color rendering of natural sunlight more closely than traditional lights It is essential to evaluate different lighting systems and combinations under comparable parameters Additionally, from an economic standpoint, the electro-mechanical structure of the luminaire should be considered for ease of assembly and regular maintenance.

To optimize flexible and adaptable workplaces, it is essential to future-proof the electrical power supply Effective lighting significantly boosts performance, enhances motivation, reduces fatigue, and supports cognitive functions while ensuring safety and minimizing errors and accidents Research indicates that increased illuminance positively influences work efficiency and decreases the likelihood of workplace incidents Utilizing 3D lighting simulation software can aid in visualizing lighting conditions for both day and night, aligning with the recommended lighting design.

Redirecting Light

The amount of side lighting in a room is affected by factors such as the height and depth of the space, as well as the presence of nearby buildings that may block light Generally, rooms with a depth exceeding 7 meters experience reduced side lighting.

(22 ft) can no longer be naturally lit; one of the reasons why historically multi-story buildings seldom had a room depth of more than 15 m

To effectively enhance job performance in spaces with high ceilings, it is essential to address the challenge of directing glare-free sunlight into the room's depths Innovative light redirecting systems can transport natural sunlight up to 20 meters (65 feet) deep, significantly improving the ambiance and productivity within the workspace.

0 80 lighting intensity [lux] lighting intensity [lux] tiredness

0 lighting intensity [lux] reduction of accidents [%]

0 share of workers that feel tired [%] improved performance [%] removal of faults [%] performance increase is dependent on difficulty of work. initial value of lighting intensity

Fig 10.13 Impact of increased illuminance on performance factors © Reichardt 15.169_JR_B

The concept of redirecting light has a long history, with a patent for using mirrors to channel sunlight into buildings dating back to 1900 Lighting expert Christian Bartenbach has been exploring methods to achieve uniform illumination in deeper rooms by redirecting daylight through roofing systems and facade elements, as well as utilizing LED systems Innovations like holographic sheets, developed by Müller, allow for precise control of light direction, enabling small strips on facades to illuminate the entire room while maintaining clear views Current techniques, including reflective mirrors, light shelves, and holographic sheets, can significantly enhance the daylight factor in office spaces, making them more conducive for work.

Comfort

Indoor climate plays a crucial role in human comfort, as it helps maintain an optimal internal temperature without conscious awareness This sensation of comfort varies significantly based on factors such as the type and duration of work, as well as individual characteristics like age, gender, health, and clothing Unfortunately, there are no universal standards for thermal well-being, as individual comfort arises from a complex interplay of various elements, including room temperature, radiant temperature, humidity, air flow, and air purity.

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 m work zone room depth room depth reflector room depth mirror reflectors reflector

1.6 m mirror reflector, mat white ceiling

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 m work zone room depth room depth mirror reflectors at window mirror reflector lamellae microprism panel lightshelf typical individual room light intensity traffic zone

Fig 10.14 Lateral lighting distribution systems © Reichardt 15.170_JR_B as the color scheme and noise thresholds are discussed in Sects.8.3.1and8.4.6.

An individual's comfort level is influenced by both the heat generated from their activities and their capacity to dissipate excess heat, including both dry (convective and radiant) and damp heat (evaporation) Heat transfer to a cold surface can feel cooling, similar to a draft, while radiation from excessively heated surfaces or shading systems can create discomfort Therefore, in environments where strenuous work is taking place, it is crucial to minimize drafts near entrances to enhance comfort.

Maintaining a tolerable internal environment in workshops can be challenging due to production methods and external climatic conditions, which can pose health risks When the body experiences stress or high external temperatures, it naturally increases sweat production to regulate heat through evaporation To ensure a minimum level of comfort and air quality, it is crucial to renew the air, especially in the presence of pollutants, heat, or excessive moisture.

The temperature zone in a workplace is defined by both air and radiation temperatures, which should ideally range from 18 to 24°C (64.4–75.2°F) based on the nature of the activity While 18°C is suitable for slightly flexible tasks, 24°C is recommended for sedentary work The mean radiation temperature can be 3–4°C (5.4–7.2°F) lower than the air temperature, leading to a perceived temperature that averages these two values For example, an air temperature of 22°C (71.6°F) combined with a radiation temperature of 18°C (64.4°F) creates a perceived ambient temperature of 20°C (68°F) During summer, a temperature of 26°C (78.8°F) remains comfortable for light work.

Proper thermal insulation is essential for maintaining stable temperatures in room enclosures such as walls, ceilings, and floors, ensuring they closely align with average comfort levels The comfort zones illustrated in Figure 10.15 highlight the relationship between room air temperature and floor temperature, indicating the ranges that are considered comfortable, uncomfortably cold, or uncomfortably warm.

Fig 10.15 Comfort zones for room air temperatures, ambient and fl oor temperature (acc Frank), © Reichardt 15.171_JR_B

To achieve optimal comfort for occupants, it is essential to consider the ambient room temperature in relation to the surface temperatures of walls, ceilings, and floors Effective heating and cooling systems, along with appropriate construction materials, must be aligned with the desired comfort levels to ensure a pleasant indoor environment.

Figure10.16depicts the comfort zones of the ambient room temperature as function of humidity

(left) and air speed (right) Accordingly, humidity should generally be within the range of 35–65 %.

To enhance heat emissions through evaporation in high air temperatures, it is essential to maintain lower air humidity; otherwise, the environment can become uncomfortably muggy.

The permissible air speed is dependent on the indoor air temperature If a temperature of 20°C

(68°F) is attributed to an air speed of 0.15 m/s

(0.5 ft/s) then 22 °C (71.6 °F) would relate to

Air speed can be increased for jobs that require physical activity, with a standard rate of 0.20 m/s (0.65 ft/s) The presence of air pollutants such as dust, gases, vapors, and unpleasant odors serves as an indicator of air quality and purity.

The required amount of fresh air for indoor spaces is influenced by the number of occupants and the types of pollutants present When specific gases and vapors are generated in certain areas, the hourly air exchange rate must be tailored to the concentration of these contaminants rather than applying a general standard For approximate values, refer to sources such as [Leh98, Ski00].

US is given in [Goe11].

To achieve a higher air exchange rate, it's advisable to install multiple smaller air supply units in strategic locations, enabling partial operation unlike a centralized air-conditioning system This approach is essential for creating adaptable workspaces and allows for individual control of the environment, necessitating careful planning to maximize natural ventilation in small volume work areas.

In terms of sustainable changeability, flexi- bility in controlling the room climate (tempera- ture, humidity, etc.) should be ideally defined based on a holistic consideration of the process

100 uncomfortably dry uncom- fortable uncomfortable air speed relative room air humidity comfort zones for combination of room air temperature and relative room air humidity

(acc Leusden and Freymark) comfort zones for combination of room air temperatures and air speed (acc Roedler) comfortable even comfortable comfortable uncomfortably humid

[%] room air temperature room air temperature

Comfort zones for room air temperature, humidity, and air velocity are essential for optimizing indoor environments By adjusting building services and structures, it is possible to meet new requirements for temperature and humidity without major alterations.

Relaxation

Break-Out Areas and Social Rooms

According to the prescribed rules outlined in the

According to German Workplace Guidelines, organizations must provide a break-out area for every 10 or more employees Additionally, specific recovery needs or particular activities may necessitate the establishment of separate break-out rooms.

Workplace guidelines emphasize the importance of designated break areas, particularly in factories where manufacturing processes affect employee comfort When break-out zones are lacking or too distant, employees may resort to eating near machinery, which is not ideal Therefore, creating appealing and accessible break areas is essential for promoting relaxation and enhancing overall workplace well-being.

‘oasis’—a visually attractive, ‘green’ area right in the middle of the production.

In Germany, "common areas" refer to essential workplace facilities such as locker rooms, wash areas, and lavatories Often located in basements with no natural light or outdoor views, relocating these spaces to brighter, more inviting environments can significantly enhance the overall atmosphere.

Canteen, Cafeteria, Coffee Corners

Dining and snack areas should be strategically placed in visually appealing locations within the building, ideally connected to outdoor spaces Sunlit terraces provide an inviting environment for meals and foster relaxed conversations that enhance social skills and team cohesion The selection of materials, lighting, furnishings, and color schemes must align with the overall design concept, creating a cohesive atmosphere Coffee corners are best situated at intersections within the building, such as upgraded hallways near stairwells, gallery spaces with views of production areas, landscaped zones, or foyers.

Sport, Recreation and Spare Time

Concerned organizations support the recovery phase of their employees with visits to a sauna,

fitness studio or to tennis courts Group activities outside work hours promote team-building and can also contribute to reducing personal conflicts

10.3 Comfort 255 between employees It seems logical to reserve areas like terraces or outside facilities for such activities, in the long term Measures such as roof landscaping or furnishing a recreational trail with sporting equipment for example, can then be made gradually.

Fire Protection

Fire Protection Concept and Fire

When creating a fire protection concept for industrial buildings, it is essential to consider the latest regional building codes, including municipal, provincial, and state regulations Additionally, guidelines for supervising construction processes and model fire protection standards must be taken into account to ensure compliance and safety For resources, refer to relevant websites like bauordnungen.de for Germany and NEPA 5000 for the United States.

Safety Code 2012) The regional building codes contain a plethora of material specifications with regards tofire protection, especially risk scenarios in residential or similar types of buildings.

Therefore, experts such as fire protection engi- neers in Germany generally inspect larger build- ings based on the model industrial building code

Once plans are finalized, it is essential to assess their compliance with the applicable building codes in different countries Key aspects of the project must be evaluated to ensure adherence to these regulations.

This article outlines the fundamental aspects of object description, including legal specifications and risk assessment from a fire protection engineering standpoint It also presents a fire protection concept supported by empirical calculations and planning documents.

The object description details the building's construction, structural features, and intended use It is crucial to consider changeability to prevent future issues with the building's systems and operations, such as underestimating the requirements for fire protection engineering during the factory's initial modifications.

The fire protection risk assessment evaluates the specific fire load associated with material flow at a site and the fire load of the building's construction As per DIN 18230, key outcomes of fire load calculations include determining the maximum size of a fire sub-compartment and its necessary fire resistance rating This rating specifies the duration, in minutes, that a building component can maintain its functionality when subjected to fire.

4102, Part 2) Fire resistance classes, also refer- red to as fire grading period or fire protection class, differentiate betweenfire resistant (at least

F 30), fire retardant (at least F 60) and best possibleflame retardant (at least F 120), whereby

F 30, F 60 and F 120 each refer to the fire resistance rating provided in minutes.

According to German fire regulations and DIN 18230, the size of fire compartments is defined by the allowable connected floor spaces separated by firewalls or complex partitioning walls The fire resistance rating of load-carrying and reinforcing components is determined by the safety classification of the building's usage and its number of floors Key requirements for clearances, firewalls (F 90), and separation walls (F 120, F 180) are essential for the overall adaptability of the building Additionally, complex partitioning walls are often necessary for storing high fire load goods, such as paper, which can significantly restrict flexibility due to their reinforced concrete construction.

Clearances, Firewalls and Complex

Figure 10.19 depicts an overview of the clear- ance requirements between buildings as well as access roads, deployment areas and free

10.5 Fire Protection 257 distance areas umfahrten, accesses on-floor spaces fire department movement areas

• to borderlines of industrial parks min 2.5 m;

• between buildings of one property at least 5.0 m;

• if walls without openings, at least flame-retardant and from non-combustible building materials;

• differing special regulations according to local state building regulations;

• for necessary works at certain windows, with window sills more as 8 m about area-surface: access roads > 3 m width, dependent on curve radius;

• passage and back passages to the building backside, walls and ceiling passage fire resistance class F90 - AB

• for buildings of middle height, second rescue way with rescue facilities of fire department;

• deployment areas: open to above, free from installations, permanently to kept free; widths > 3m < 6m;

• if building height > 18 m, distance < 6 m, permanently free, sufficient load-capacity for axle load of 10 t, permitted total weight 16 t

• movement area for each fire engine at least 7 x 12 m h

> 5.5 m > 3.5 m > 5.5 m horizontal distance access roads attack spaces for fire department movement areas distance area

Fig 10.19 Fire protection requirements for surrounding building areas © Reichardt 15.175_JR_B safety class **) number of building stories ground floor 2-storied 3-storied 4-storied 5-storied no require- ments

1 ) width of the industrial building ≤ 40 m (131.2 ft.) and heat exhaust area (according to DIN 18230-1) ≤ 5%

2 ) heat exhaust area (according to DIN 18230-1) ≤ 5%

3) permitted size of 1600 m 2 for low buildings fire resistance class *)

*) fire resistance class: a section with F30 can resist fire for 30 min, F60 for 60 min and F90 for 90 min

**) safety class: K1: no special measure, K2: fire alarm system, fire alarm and fire brigade, K 3: fire zones or fire fighting sections with automatic fire alarm system, K4: sprinkler

1 m 2 = 10.7639 sq ft fire resistance of the bearing and reinforcing components

According to German fire regulations, permissible fire compartment sizes and clearances between buildings are influenced by firefighting zones and rescue paths To ensure compliance and acceptance of building concepts by relevant authorities, it is crucial to address fire protection issues early in the planning process.

Fire compartments limit fire related damages and permit safe evacuation routes in areas that are less susceptible tofire by limiting spaces usingfire resistant enclosures (e.g.,floors, walls and doors).

According to state building codes in Germany,fire compartments are limited to 40 m×40 m = 160 m 2

(131.2 ft× 131.2 ft = 17.222 ft 2 ) Implementing industrial building regulations and in particular special measures such as sprinkler systems permit larger connected production areas.

Fire compartments, defined by firewalls, are designed to contain fires and prevent their spread beyond a designated area To ensure structural safety during a fire incident, these compartments should have a minimum fire resistance rating of one-and-a-half hours (F 90-A).

In high-risk areas where flammable materials are stored, the installation of partitioning walls is essential These walls must meet stringent fire resistance ratings and structural specifications to ensure safety Effective measures for fire prevention are crucial in such environments.

fires from spreading with roof partitioning, walls in building corners and openings in interior partitioning walls So called Complex Partition- ing Walls have to fulfil certain requirements like

fire resistance of 180 min, resistance of three times an impact of 4000 Nm and ensuring a complete room closure (VdS 2234).

Fire Resistance Rating Classes

Use offire resistant materials for construction of the supporting structures, shell, media and building services as well as furnishings would help in countering the development and spread of

fires Ideally, the building should remain stable at roof partitioning buildings with different heights in building corners openings in interior separation walls

• continuous wall F 90 - A with 0.3 m of roof partitioning fire Wall: fire wall

• linear, 5.0 m from building corner, 3 m roof partitioning F 90 - A

• angled, 5.0 m of diagonal, 0.3 m roof partitioning

• linear, 7.0 m from building corner, 0.5 m of roof partitioning F 180 - A or

• angled, 7.0 m of diagonal, 0.5 m roof partitioning

• no openings permitted in exterior fire walls/ complex partitioning walls

• isolation for cables and pipes remains unconsidered roof partitioning

• 0.3 m taller building with a fire wall F 90 - A

• 0.5 m taller building complex partitioning wall

• horizontal isolation up to roof panel of taller building

F 90 - A 7.0 m, < 15.0 m complex partitioning wall, F 90 - A complex partitioning wall:

• continuous wall F 90 - A with 0.5 m of roof partitioning

Fig 10.20 Types of fi rewalls and complex partitioning walls © Reichardt 15.176_JR_B

10.5 Fire Protection 259 least until all life saving measures have been conducted Depending on the local fire depart- ment’s requirements, the building regulations and the fire protection concept, afire resistance rating of F 0–F 90 is normally required for the supporting structures while F 90–F 180 for walling material for the fire compartments and materials for the shell and furnishings Chapter7

(Fire and Smoke Protection Features) of the

International Code Council provides the reader with a good overview [ICC12] Specific details and regulations can be found e.g., in the Euro- pean standard DIN EN 13501-1 and for Germany in DIN 4102.

The design and detailing of building services also have to undergo similar considerations.

For optimal fire safety, installation ducts, cables, lines, and pipes should primarily utilize fire-resistant materials It is essential that all media and utility lines that traverse fire-resistant walls are properly sealed to prevent the spread of fire Additionally, any openings, including doors, gates, and flaps in partitioning components, must receive authorization from a building inspector.

Evacuation and Rescue Routes

Effective vertical and horizontal evacuation routes are crucial for ensuring a swift and safe exit from buildings during a fire It is essential that entrances to these rescue routes and firefighter deployment areas are clearly marked and kept unobstructed at all times Additionally, incorporating architectural features such as natural light, transparency, and vantage points can significantly enhance orientation and facilitate the easy identification of evacuation routes.

In Germany, building and workplace regulations mandate that individuals must be able to access the outdoors or secure areas within 35 meters (114 feet) from any point in a building via exits or emergency exits However, the guidelines for model industrial buildings allow for longer rescue distances based on ceiling heights and fire protection measures.

Figure 10.21 outlines the requirements for rescue routes based on various factors such as fire location and the layout of the building It specifies the necessary paths for rescue on both the ground and upper floors, taking into account the length of these paths in relation to the height of the hall For industrial buildings with production or storage areas exceeding 200 m², the design must consider two-storied structures, with particular attention to clearance heights of 5.0 m or less, and those greater than 10.0 m Additionally, the layout of main corridors on upper floors larger than 1600 m² is highlighted to ensure effective evacuation during emergencies.

2 reachable from each position within 15 m walking distance

3 at least 2 m wide in a straight line to exits into the open, to necessary stairwell or other fire compartments

1 at least 1 exit from every place to a fire safe zone e.g., into the open, a stairwell

Automated fire alarm and internal fire-fighting systems, equipped with alarm devices and manual triggers, can effectively cover areas with a run length up to 1.5 times the direct distance to secondary rooms However, spaces exceeding 400 m² are excluded from this consideration, with intermediary values being interpolated for accuracy.

1 at least 1 exit from every place to a fire safe zone e.g., into the open, a stairwell

Automated fire alarm systems, including internal alarms and fire-fighting devices with manual triggers, can effectively cover areas up to 400 m² The actual run length of these systems can extend to 1.5 times the direct distance to secondary rooms, ensuring comprehensive safety measures are in place Intermediary values are calculated through interpolation to optimize coverage.

1 with a basement of F90 as well as for storeys that can be accessed by fire department, upper storey can be treated as a ground floor industrial building

2 at least two diametrical rescue paths as well as additional rescue paths via:

Rescue routes must adhere to specific requirements, including the building's resistance rating and the clear ceiling height High ceilings significantly enhance smoke exhaust capabilities, allowing for a permissible rescue route of up to 105 meters (344 feet) in halls with a ceiling height of 10 meters.

(33 ft) or more (see Sect.10.5.5) It is mandatory to connect all the floors in a building in one continual stairwell, designed and built such that

Open air entrances and exits can serve as effective rescue routes, adhering to German fire regulations that mandate internal walls possess a fire resistance rating of at least F 30 Compliance with DIN 4844 requires clear identification of all evacuation and rescue routes Additionally, workplace regulations stipulate the necessity of back-lit pictograms and safety lighting to enhance visibility and safety.

Smoke and Heat Ducts, Fire Extinguishing

Assessing the fire load in relation to the space, processes, and logistics is crucial for the effective installation of smoke ventilation systems on side walls or hall roofs, aiding in the removal of hazardous smoke and gases The efficiency of smoke outlets is significantly enhanced when appropriate air intake openings are present To accurately evaluate the thermal processes in specific scenarios, implementing a 3D flue gas simulation is highly recommended, particularly for production halls or storage areas equipped with automated systems.

In Germany, for industrial spaces up to 1600 m² (17,260 sq ft) equipped with fire-extinguishing systems, general regulations stipulate that smoke must be effectively removed via smoke vents with a cross-sectional area of 0.5% of the floor surface Compliance with the protection objectives and equipment specifications outlined in DIN 18232 is essential Additionally, the ratio of the air supply’s geometric opening surface to the total geometric input surface of all smoke duct surfaces within the largest smoke compartment should be maintained at 1.5:1 These requirements are crucial for ensuring safety in industrial buildings as illustrated in Figure 10.22, which details the smoke and heat duct specifications according to German fire regulations.

1600 m 2 smoke exhaust < 200 m 2 smoke exhaust > 200 m 2 smokeless layer

> 1600 m 2 , automatic fire extinguishing system production/storage areas

< 200 m 2 no smoke ventilation necessary production/storage areas

> 1600 m 2 without automatic fire- extinguishing system:

1 wall and ceiling ducts for venting smoke into the open

2 two air input areas straight across from exits outside, to necessary stairwells or other fire compartments with a sufficient fire - extinguishing system:

1 calculatory proof of smoke - free layer (rescue path)

> 2.5 m for every level required for fighting fires

2 systems for venting smoke must meet the technical requirements for a smoke exhaust system with automatic fire - extinguishing system:

> 0.5% of the aerodynamically effective smoke ventilation area

3 ventilation system, controlled up-take ventilation in case of fire

Fig 10.22 Requirements for smoke and heat ducts © Reichardt 15.179_JR_B

(17,200 sq ft) At every level, i.e., including galleries, one needs to verify a 2.5 m (8.2 ft) high smoke-free layer (breathable air without toxic smoke) from where people can be safely rescued.

Investing in additional hall clearance for fire protection is essential for accommodating future changes Effective fire suppression measures include an automatic sprinkler system linked to a fire detection and alarm system, along with the installation of external and wall hydrants A comprehensive sprinkler system should cover all fire compartments, necessitating expert design and installation This process requires collaboration among the insurance company, fire suppression system specialists, and local authorities responsible for fire safety permits.

In conclusion, our exploration of spatial design at the factory section level highlights the importance of functional sectional design, as discussed in Chapter 9 This foundational understanding will inform our analysis of the overall factory design in Chapter 11.

Summary

The spatial design of workspaces, whether permanent or temporary, is fundamentally influenced by the nature of collaboration and necessary communication levels Additionally, it is crucial to foster both mental and physical well-being within these environments Moreover, minimizing health risks must be a priority in all design considerations Effective communication is enhanced when the planning and execution of production tasks are closely integrated.

Modern office designs can take various forms, ranging from office cells and combined workspaces to business clubs, similar to those found in airport service centers Incorporating natural light significantly enhances the overall ambiance, contributing to a positive work environment Additionally, thoughtfully designed break-out areas, cafeterias, and recreational facilities further improve comfort and well-being for employees.

Of special significance isfinally thefire protec- tion, which is regulated in detail in all countries.

The article emphasizes the importance of dividing buildings into fire zones using fire-resistant walls and ceilings, alongside stringent requirements for emergency exits and escape routes Additionally, it highlights the necessity of effective smoke and heat extraction systems to enhance safety in the event of a fire.

Lichtlabor Bauen mit Tageslicht Bauen mit Kunstlicht (Light Laboratory Bartenbach. Building with Natural Light Building with Arti fi cial Light) Vieweg+Teubner Wiesbaden (1998)

[Bra06] Brandi Licht, U (ed.): Lighting Design: Prin- ciples, Implementation, Case Studies Birkh ọ u- ser, Basel (2006)

[Bis98] Bismarck, W.-B., Held, M.: Ergebnisbericht der Befragung zur Anwendung innovativer Kommunikationstechnologien (Results of the Survey Report on the Application of Innova- tive Communication Technologies) Univer- sit ọ t Mannheim (1998)

[Bra05] Brandi, U.: Detail – Tageslicht – Kunstlicht:

The article discusses the fundamentals of lighting design, focusing on daylight and artificial light, and provides examples to illustrate these concepts It references "Detail – Daylight – Artificial Light" as a key resource, published by the Institute of Architecture in Munich in 2005 Additionally, it cites the "Fire Protection Handbook," edited by A.E Cote and published by the National Fire Protection Association in 2003, highlighting the importance of fire safety in architectural design.

[Deh01] Dehoff, P.: Die sinnvolle Ver ọ nderung des

Lichts am Arbeitsplatz (The sensible change of light in a workplace) Architekten-Magazin 4 ,

The effects of communication on technological innovation are explored in a study by Ebadi and Utterback (1984), published in Management Science by the Massachusetts Institute of Technology Additionally, Fischer and Schmidt (200) discuss Sennheiser's strategic move to build a new manufacturing and technology center, highlighting the company's competitive approach to future challenges in the audio industry.

[Goe11] Goetsch, D.L.: Occupational Safety and Health for Technologists, Engineers and Mangers, 7th edn Prentice Hall, New Jersey (2011) [IES11] IESNA Lighting Handbook.: Reference and

Application, 10th edn Illuminating Engineer- ing Society of North America, New York(2011)

[ICC12] International Code Council (ed.): International

Building Code, Chapter 7 Fire and Smoke protection Features Ann Arbor (2012)

[Leh98] Lehder, G., Uhlig, D.: Betriebsst ọ ttenplanung

[Max13] Max, U., Schneider, U.: Baulicher Brandschutz im Industriebau: Kommentar zu DIN 18230 und Industriebaurichtlinie (Structural Fire Pro- tection in Industrial Buildings: Comment to

DIN 18230 and Industrial Construction Guide- line), 4 edn Beuth, Berlin (2013)

[Mar00] Marmot, A., Eley, J.: Of fi ce Space Planning:

[Mül01] M ü ller, H.F.O.: Die verschiedenen Systeme der Lichtlenkung (The Various systems of light control) Architekten-Magazin 3, 34 – 41

[Opf00] Opfermann, R., Streit, W.: Arbeitsst ọ tten (Work

Places) Forkel-Verlag, Heidelberg (2000) [Rei01] Reichardt, J.: Kommunikationsorientierte Fab- rikstrukturen (Communication-Oriented Fac- tory Structures) In: Proceedings of Fabrik 2005+ 3rd Deutsche Fachkonferenz, Fabrik- planung Stuttgart (2001)

Licht Gesundheit Arbeitsschutz (Light Health Safety), 6th edn Technik und Information Bochum, Verl (2005)

(Handbook Occupational Safety) Erich Schmidt Verlag, Bielefeld (2000)

[Spat03] Spath, D., Kern, P (Hrsg.): Zukunftsoffensive

21 - Mehr Leistung in innovativen Arbeitswelten (Future Offensive 21 - More Power in Innovative Work Environments) Egmont, K ử ln (2003)

The architectural and structural design of a building is influenced by four key components: the load-bearing structure, the shell, media routings such as pipelines and wiring, and interior furnishings These elements collectively determine the overall performance and functionality of the building.

The effectiveness of industrial buildings in meeting both present and future needs is influenced by the chosen technical and structural solutions, along with four key components For a variety of design examples, refer to [Ada04].

In our analysis, we present a detailed examination of how structural characteristics vary based on processes and surrounding environments It is crucial to distinguish between characteristics that are unchangeable, difficult to change, and easy to change, as this differentiation impacts the anticipated changes in requirements and ultimately influences the future adaptability of the building.

The load-bearing structure or structural framework is the most permanent component of a building and thus the most difficult to change.

The design of a building's structure is intended to endure throughout its lifespan, incorporating essential elements such as surface components, columns, reinforcements, and foundations for stability These components can be constructed on-site or prefabricated, utilizing materials like steel, reinforced concrete, wood, and light alloys The choice of structural materials significantly impacts both the long-term functionality of the building and its architectural aesthetics, affecting both interior and exterior designs.

Theshell separates a protected interior space

An independent climatic area is created through the use of stationary and transparent elements in the facade and roof, along with movable components like gates, doors, windows, and vents Key factors such as natural lighting, available views, and communication significantly influence the long-term quality and adaptability of the building's exterior.

Building services encompass all essential equipment that ensures efficient production processes, user comfort, and building security This includes technical centers, pipelines, wiring, and connections that facilitate spatial comfort and provide necessary technical resources for production facilities In literature, these technical facilities are referred to as TBE (technical building equipment) and cover systems for sewage, water, gas, fire extinguishing, heat supply, ventilation, electrical systems, and building control Key factors such as modularity, upgradeability, and accessibility for maintenance significantly influence the adaptability of building equipment.

Withinteriorfinishingswe are referring to all of the stairways, building cores and special built- in units like elevators or wet rooms as well as static optional components (walls, windows etc.).

H.-P Wiendahl et al., Handbook Factory Planning and Design,

DOI 10.1007/978-3-662-46391-8_11, © Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2015

Generally speaking, permanent interiorfinishings should be kept to a minimum so as not to limit or impede the changeability of processes.

Industrial and commercial architecture is defined by its cohesive atmosphere, structural clarity, and a balance between unity and diversity This harmony resembles that of a living organism, where each element contributes to the overall integrity The distinct architectural forms and well-defined structures, along with the clear understanding of each component's function, are crucial for creating a successful design.

High aesthetic quality can be achieved without incurring high costs or relying on intricate designs Simplicity should not be confused with a lack of creativity or sophistication often seen in standard commercial construction Instead, economic efficiency aligns perfectly with minimalism, emphasizing the absence of elaborate features and unnecessary embellishments.

The performance of a building, defined as its capacity to meet present and future needs, is fundamentally influenced by the selected technical and structural solutions, along with its shell, media, and finishes A key goal in the planning process is to facilitate comprehensive discussions among all stakeholders, ensuring a consensus on the performance-related features of the building.

An optimized layout utilizing modular resources enhances the coordination of processes and spatial planning By selecting a common dimensional scheme, the allocation of media systems to production units becomes simpler, allowing for easier modifications and adaptability Additionally, this approach facilitates the cost-effective integration of building elements, such as hall bays on the façade.

Load-Bearing Structure

Project Requirements and Load Assumption

To effectively address the diverse and sometimes conflicting requirements of a specific project, it is essential to design the load-bearing structure in alignment with the company's long-term production strategy Key factors influencing this structure include geometric and technological parameters from production and logistics, which also dictate the installation of building services As discussed in Chapter 5, the adaptability of size, usage areas, and built-in units is crucial During the utilization phase, ensuring the protection and safety of individuals and property, along with maintaining comfort levels, are vital considerations Ultimately, the primary focus remains on economic aspects, such as costs and construction timelines.

Synergetic factory planning integrates project-specific requirements into a cohesive 'requirement profile.' This approach ensures that all participants in the planning process align concrete parameters, taking into account the long-term adaptability needed for successful implementation.

After defining the basic project requirements, it's essential to estimate the dimensions of the structural members early in the process, utilizing tables like those in [Kra07] This estimation requires determining load assumptions for traffic, static, and dynamic loads Typically, national standards provide guidance for establishing these load assumptions, which are crucial for ensuring the adaptability of structures, building services, and overall aesthetics.

• project requirements of load assumption

• profiles of supports, beams, ceilings

• water, gas, sewage, sprinkler systems

• balance between simplicity and diversity

Fig 11.2 Structural features of a building © Reichardt 15.181_JR_B various building typologies For example in

European countries, loads generally need to be established in compliance with the EN Eurocode standards, Similarly one could refer to BS 6399

“Loading for Buildings” Part 1 of the practice code refers todead and imposed loads, Part 2 to wind loads and Part 3 to imposed roof loads

[BS6399] for projects which need to be in compliance with the same.

In the absence of relevant data, the planning team must rely on common assumptions, particularly regarding the location of key technical centers and media suspensions, which should be carefully addressed early in the project It is essential to document all findings and assumptions in segments and to continuously refine them as the project advances, ensuring effective project and facilities management.

Figure 11.4 highlights key load assumptions essential for the structural framework, influenced by various processes and local conditions such as snow load The design of foundations and base plates is significantly affected by the subsoil quality, particularly groundwater levels and the presence of load-bearing soil layers, necessitating a qualified soil report at the project's inception Additionally, the floor plate is crucial for adaptability, as it largely dictates the potential for relocating equipment and machinery or repurposing floor areas between logistics and manufacturing.

Considering potential future loads is essential, as designing a building to accommodate these loads may increase initial costs but enhances flexibility for future changes Decision-making should involve a careful evaluation of both strategic and economic factors It is important to anticipate the need for expanded floor and overhead areas, as well as potential changes in production, such as new machinery and equipment, along with their structural requirements.

Fig 11.3 Project requirements for the load-bearing structure © Reichardt 15.182_JR_B

Building Structure Form as a Static

The properties of the building structure are determined by the architectural usage of beams and supports systems, ceiling systems, floor plates, foundations, load-bearing walls and cores.

The distribution of forces within a static system shapes a building's structural form This selection of structural design, along with the load transfer principles and bracing methods, influences the potential directions for building expansion and its ability to handle specific loading conditions.

According to [Eng07], there are eight primary families of structures, which include beam structures, grids, frames, arches, cable suspensions, cable trusses, domes, and cable nets along with textile constructions.

According to [Gri97] structural forms for halls can be simplified into four groups: supports and beams, frames, arches and space frames.

Figure 11.5 illustrates the structural forms of halls utilizing combined support/truss structures or solely truss structures, while noting that arch systems and space frames are rarely employed in factory buildings and are therefore not discussed in this context.

All halls and multi-story buildings require bracing in both longitudinal and transverse directions Space frames and arch structures are stable in the transverse direction, necessitating only longitudinal bracing Directed structures feature distinct main and secondary support beams, channeling vertical loads along a single axis to the support columns In contrast, non-directed structures distribute vertical loads bi-axially across all structural members into the support columns, making them most efficient with square supports.

fields Nevertheless, it is easier to extend in two directions with non-directed structures than with directed structures.

In project design, it is essential to consider the interplay of modularity, span width, reinforcements, load distribution, and extensions from both process and spatial perspectives Distinguishing between horizontal and vertical extensions is crucial Utilizing 3D modeling techniques can help identify potential conflicts between process facilities and building services at an early stage Overall, a greater degree of changeability in design can lead to numerous advantages.

Fig 11.4 Overview of load assumptions for a building structure © Reichardt 15.183_JR_B of possibilities for extensions and expansions.

For large hall structures, it is essential to incorporate the capability for built-in galleries that support administrative functions such as work planning, production control, and quality assurance This design should facilitate easy modifications of the interior layout Additionally, if required, these auxiliary levels can be suspended from the main hall structure, ensuring a clear, unobstructed space below.

SUPPORTS AND BEAMS construction without purlins halls with purlins lattice purlins and trussed rafters suspended trusses

FRAMES fixed truss double articulated frame three-girdle truss frame guyed truss frame

Fig 11.5 Load-bearing structures and static systems for halls © Reichardt 15.184_JR_B

- first expansion direction of hall (1)

- second expansion direction of hall (2)

- expansion direction of a multi-story building (3)

- height expansion of a multi-story building (5)

- proactive layout of foundations and supports

-proactive layout of beams, ceilings, roof framework

-no disturbance to static fixed points, or braces

Fig 11.6 Possible structural framework forms © Reichardt 15.185_JR_B

Figure 11.7 shows two projects that were realized and the options they offer for external or internal extensions In the case of the pump factory, six additional modules of 21 × 21 m

The production facility is designed to allow for the seamless addition of large modules, measuring 68 × 68 ft, without interrupting operations The front section features office spaces that connect directly to the factory, promoting effective communication In the car radiator factory, independent modules of 18 or 36 m (59 × 118 ft) can also be integrated without operational disruption Rather than a separate administrative building, an integrated office gallery provides management with a direct view of the production processes, enhancing oversight and collaboration.

Skylights are ideal for enhancing natural light in low-rise buildings and halls, with their installation either parallel or perpendicular to the load-bearing structure When installed perpendicularly, structural members may extend into unregulated temperature zones, creating cold bridges that compromise energy efficiency Therefore, it is more effective to align skylights parallel to filigree beams, allowing daylight to penetrate the girder area Further insights on the applications of lighting elements, as well as the interplay between light openings, room heights, and depths, are explored in Section 11.2.3 on natural lighting.

When considering the economy of large-span hall structures, it is crucial to assess the impact loads caused by forklift truck movements on supports, along with the total loads that the roof structure must bear Additionally, exploring a floor-based distribution system for media can help reduce the load on expansive hall roofs.

In order tofind solutions for a specific project it is advisable to discuss optional plans from different perspectives Figure 11.8 depicts a comparative analysis of a few possible modular

1 factory for car radiators 1 outer expansion direction according to master plan

2 inner expansion by developing office galleries factory for pumps

Building structures, such as those found in a typical car assembly hall, involve a thorough evaluation of various factors This includes analyzing the benefits and drawbacks of architectural design, structural integrity, building services, and overall economic efficiency.

Steel is an ideal choice for load-bearing structures due to its high stress resistance and lightweight properties, enabling the creation of wide-spanning designs Its versatility allows for easy integration of service pipes within the truss-work Additionally, to meet fire protection regulations, composite steel constructions, which feature load-bearing elements encased in concrete, can be effectively utilized.

In Europe, the Euro codes, which were introduced as construction standards, regulate corresponding requirements for building struc- tures e.g., DD ENV 1993 Eurocode 3:Design of

Steel Structures [ENV1993], DD ENV 1994,

Eurocode 4: Design of Composite Steel and

Concrete structures are governed by various standards, including ENV1994, DD ENV 1998, and Eurocode 8, which focus on the design of structures for earthquake resistance In the United States, the regulations E72–E1670 oversee the entire construction process, encompassing 108 subsystems, processes, and quality controls to ensure safety and compliance.

Span Width

Determining the optimal span width for halls or multi-storied buildings is crucial for maximizing space efficiency while minimizing the number of supporting columns It is essential to balance the need for unobstructed areas with the structural integrity of the building Polonyi's analysis of a 300 m² (3,229 sqft) hall with a clearance of approximately 6.50 m highlights the relationship between span width, roof load, and material costs, emphasizing the importance of finding a compromise that meets both spatial and structural requirements.

(21 ft) [Pol03] A double articulated frame, a roof form: directional frame: directional saddle roof tent-roof / frame space frame

- higher costs of frame work

- multiform side beams roof form: non-directional frame: non-directional

- multiform side beams roof form: non-directional frame: non-directional

- complicated joints in case of expansion

Fig 11.8 Possible building structures for a car assembly hall © Reichardt 15.187_JR_B

In the analysis of building design, a cable-supported double-spreader structure and a frame-beam system were selected as the primary static systems for comparison, focusing on both steel and timber cross-sections.

Figs 11.9 and 11.10, the relative costs can be derived as a function of the span width.

Accordingly, in industrial hall construction, in comparison to the standard solutions with a 20 m

(65 ft) span, structures with a span of 30–50 m

Timber constructions with spans between 21 to 30 meters can be achieved without incurring additional construction costs, provided that the roof loads, such as snow and suspended loads, are kept to a minimum This approach often involves cable-supported designs that effectively divide the structure into compression and tensile zones.

(68–98 ft) may provide cost effective alternatives.

Additional studies were conducted on the afore-mentioned load-bearing frames for the car assembly hall with span widths of 15 × 15 m

An extensive analysis was conducted on fixed supports in steel and concrete, along with roof structures composed of steel, pre-stressed concrete, and timber The study revealed significant differences when evaluating the original 15×15 m (49×49 ft) column grid.

21×21 m (68×68 ft) column grid offered value addition over the long term with an approxi- mately 10 % higher construction cost.

Selecting the Materials and Joining

In industrial construction, a variety of materials are available for large span structures that must support significant roof loads Steel is especially advantageous due to its ability to bear heavy loads without buckling, making it ideal for modular buildings and expansive halls For structures with moderate spans, laminated timber and cable-supported timber constructions are suitable options Additionally, lightweight metal constructions offer benefits in terms of reduced building and dismantling costs.

% frame beam total roof load

(snow + media): case 1: 0.90 kN/m 2 case 2: 1.65 kN/m² case 3: 3.15 kN/m² basis: hall approx 300 m² 6.5 m head room double articulated framework, corner joint 3

Fig 11.9 Relative costs for timber load-bearing frames © Reichardt 15.188_JR_B temporary building structures quickly due to their lighter components.

When choosing materials, it is essential to consider fire safety, including the fire rating and the fire load from processes and logistics By utilizing appropriate coatings, steel structures can achieve fire safety ratings of up to F 90, indicating protection for up to 90 minutes Additionally, timber constructions can reach fire ratings of F 60 with the use of suitable profiles or intumescent coatings.

Multi-storied buildings, which have to meet higher safety requirements with regards to the

The fire resistance of supports, beams, and ceiling slabs is enhanced when constructed with concrete, steel, or composite steel materials As illustrated in Figure 11.11, the dimensions of beams and supports vary based on the materials used Notably, steel composites provide a slimmer profile compared to reinforced concrete, resulting in a reduced static height.

When selecting construction materials, resistance to corrosion and weathering is crucial Structures made from steel, timber, or reinforced concrete require protection from driving rain, with steel often safeguarded through hot galvanization or coatings Industrial buildings benefit from rapid construction, making prefabricated modular structures preferable to traditional in situ concrete methods Modular components facilitate assembly regardless of weather conditions, including snow, and offer significant advantages over monolithic designs The choice of joining methods—such as welding, screwing, or inserting—affects joint geometry and influences planning, manufacturing, and assembly timelines Moreover, the ability to easily dissolve construction joints allows for future strengthening or retrofitting of support beams to accommodate increased loads, enhancing overall structural flexibility.

% frame beam total roof load

(snow + media): case 1: 0.90 kN/m² case 2: 1.65 kN/m² case 3: 3.15 kN/m² basis: hall approx 300 m² 6.5 m head room double articulated framework, corner joint

Fig 11.10 Relative costs of steel load-bearing frames © Reichardt 15.189_JR_B

274 11 Building Design that supports changeability Furthermore, when the building is dismantled, materials need not be separated for recycling purposes.

There are four types of systems for joining structural members based on prefabrication and modularization Monolithic constructions utilize in situ concrete, featuring homogeneous, non-dissolvable joints created on-site In contrast, steel joints are welded to form homogeneous but dissolvable connections, allowing for the eventual separation of structures into individual components Additionally, with partial prefabrication, structural members can act as lost formwork, where their stability is ultimately reinforced by the concrete applied on-site.

A steel skeleton bolted together represents the highest degree of modularization with complete prefabrication of all components, whereby the structural members can be fundamentally chan- ged with additional joining.

Figure 11.12 provides an overview of various materials and joining principles used in halls and multi-storied buildings As noted by Ack88, a wide range of materials is available for halls, each exhibiting unique properties, particularly in terms of fire protection classes However, for multi-storied buildings, the options are primarily limited to reinforced concrete, steel, and steel-concrete composites Additionally, innovative fire-resistant timber constructions are becoming a viable option for industrial and commercial projects, as highlighted by Rei08.

For the changeable factory, modular con- structions (see also examples in Fig.11.42) seem to be the preferred approach to developing structural frameworks:

• Completely prefabricating a load-bearing structure with easy to dismantle joints facili- tates changes wherein beams can be equally quickly and easily reinforced or replaced.

• Removable ceiling panels, allows for future vertical openings between stories e.g., for conveyor systems.

• Required internal extensions can be realized through gallery areas, which when prepared appropriately can be hung on existing structural members (see also the example in Fig.10.6).

• ceiling height requirements: span width = 9 m total load = kN/m fire protection = F90 reinforced concrete ceiling beam steel girder with ceiling plate and fire protective covering composite ceiling

• column dimensions requirements: story height = 3.6 m pay load = 2500 N fire protection = F 90 reinforced concrete support

460 steel pillar with fire protective covering composite column dimensions in mm

Fig 11.11 Relevant measurements for structural members from various materials © Reichardt 15.190_JR_B

The construction design can be effectively realized using materials such as steel, concrete, timber, and light steel, as noted by Lac84 Features like plug-in connections facilitate the rapid assembly and disassembly of structural components, making them ideal for temporary or mobile factories However, it is essential to consider the additional costs in relation to the benefits of increased flexibility, including faster retrofits and minimized disruptions to ongoing operations.

Profiling Support Columns, Beams

The design of support columns, beams, roof coverings, intermediate floors, and ceiling slabs varies greatly based on structural form, span width, materials, and joining principles While minimizing the number of supporting columns is ideal, their presence is crucial for effectively incorporating conveyor systems and essential building services.

Proper coordination of guiderails for overhead or slewing cranes and other lifting equipment is essential for secure anchoring to support columns These columns can also support vertical trusses for building services, including uptakes, downspouts, and air ducts Additionally, the framework for machinery supply and disposal systems, such as electricity, compressed air, or water pipes, can be affixed to these supports Cross-shaped supports enable the suspension of media routings within the arms of the cross, optimizing space and functionality.

Modular building structures significantly reduce construction time by allowing foundations to be molded around support columns Impact sockets, approximately 1.2 meters (3.9 feet) high, are anchored in the foundation plate to effectively dissipate impact loads from vehicles, such as trucks, without adding static load to the supports Additionally, lowering the upper edge of the foundation on the support shaft facilitates the horizontal routing of media lines or retrofitting them beneath the floor plate In our car assembly case study, we examined the use of concrete and steel with various profiles for the hall's support columns, considering the roof load and clearance to assess the costs associated with the supports, beams, and foundations for each module.

• advantages of modular joining principle

- structural members can be reinforced and are interchangeable

- ceiling/roof elements are removable e.g for vertical connections

- expansions according to simple adaptive principle possible

• materials for multi-storied building

Fig 11.12 Materials and joining principles for load-bearing structures © Reichardt 15.191_JR_B

276 11 Building Design area of 20 m×20 m (65×65 ft) (see Fig.11.8).

In this case, concrete supports with a molded foundation proved to be an efficient solution.

The design of beams, whether as solid web girders, castellated beams, truss girders, or cable-supported trusses, significantly affects the distribution of media and natural light within a space Filigree beams enable the routing of media within the girder area, while solid web girders limit the usable height of the hall due to the installation space required for media lines Floor-high truss girders can accommodate maintenance bridges or technical galleries in the roof structure Permeable beams enhance natural light distribution, allowing for optimized lighting in work areas A flat roofing system facilitates the systematic installation of media services and lighting, whereas moderately sloped surfaces and trusses designed for roof drainage, although requiring more design effort, provide evenly spaced beams that support suspension systems for cables and processing equipment A well-coordinated media supply and disposal plan is crucial for effective planning and future modifications.

The roof's structural system and choice of materials should facilitate the retrofitting of skylights and other essential roof penetrations, such as vents Additionally, roof detailing must incorporate sound absorption features where needed Surfaces that enhance light reflection can brighten a room, while porous materials like perforated metal or hanging sails help reduce sound levels Utilizing corrugated or profiled sheeting materials provides flexibility for future installations of hanging elements or systems.

A modular system for a storey-high roof offers significant advantages over monolithic construction, including the ability to seamlessly integrate building service equipment, enhanced adaptability for future modifications, and a faster overall building process.

Equipping modules with details such as

The use of "tracks" facilitates the easy variation of installed media and allows for the seamless addition of vertical connections between multiple floors through modular elements To optimize space, media systems can be effectively organized within the ceiling height when utilizing ribbed panels A crucial aspect of long-term adaptability is the floor plate's load-bearing capacity, which must consistently support the same weight across its entire surface Additionally, uniform floor construction is vital, as mistakes in vacuum de-watered floors cannot be rectified later, necessitating careful future planning, especially for processing technologies Comprehensive floor plate planning should encompass media routing, conveyor systems, waste removal processes, specialized foundations, and fire escape routes If unavoidable, built-in cable trays, guide rails, or chip removal systems should feature standardized, interchangeable cover plates Moreover, special foundations for specific machinery can significantly limit adaptability, and the placement of escape tunnels and their entrances should also be considered with future needs in mind.

If we adhere to the principles introduced here, we can, in accordance with [Pol03], see the futility of decorating a building with unnecessary or impractical constructions.

Figure11.13summarizes the characteristics of changeability that are applicable when profiling the supports, beams and ceiling/floor slabs.

Shells

Protective Functions

Fig 8.12 Permissible noise exposure (US Dpt Of

To achieve the required noise levels of 1910.95 dB(A) in compliance with DIN and ISO 1999, it is essential to implement effective noise reduction strategies This includes reducing noise emissions at the source, enhancing sound damping during transmission, and minimizing noise exposure in work areas Key focus should be on predominantly mental activities, break-out zones, lounges, and restrooms Additionally, for simple automated office tasks and similar activities, constructive measures such as selecting quieter machines and processes, along with reducing sound propagation, are crucial for creating a conducive work environment.

- sound absorbing ceiling and wall covering

- partition walls reduction of noise transmission

- separating joints of construction elements cabins acoustical barriers

1) at levels > 90 dB (A), in accordance with accident prevention regulations, among other things

- loud areas ( i.e > 85 dB(A) are to be indicated

- noise level reduction programs are to be drawn up and carried out

WPR German Workplace Regulations (Arbeitstọttenverordnung)

Effective noise protection and reduction are crucial, particularly in environments demanding high concentration or fine motor skills Noticeable oscillations can lead to strain and reduced performance, potentially resulting in harm to the cardiovascular, nervous, and muscular-skeletal systems.

Primary vibration protection aims to eliminate the sources of vibrations by altering processes or using different equipment, while secondary vibration protection focuses on minimizing vibrations felt by humans through calibration of the oscillating system Effective structural measures to reduce vibration transmission include lowering the natural frequency of machinery by using springs or insulators made from materials like steel, rubber, or cork, which necessitates flexible connections in media and transport systems Additionally, in multi-storied buildings, attention must be given to harmonics that may arise from the excitation of the natural frequency of structural elements in contact with vibrating machines.

As thermal radiation intensity increases, human reactions vary significantly, ranging from complete destruction of buildings to minor damages such as cracks in light walls or plaster High-intensity thermal radiation can cause major structural damage, including cracks in load-bearing walls, while lower intensities may result in minimal or no damage at all Understanding these varying impacts is crucial for assessing building resilience against thermal threats.

1 2 3 4 5 10 20 30 40 50 100 frequency [Hz] swinging velocity [cm/sec]

Fig 8.14 Damaging effects of vibrations on buildings (acc Lehder)

8.4 Occupational Health and Safety Standards 211

8.4.8 Electrical Safety and Protection from Radiation

Reliable operation of electrical equipment is crucial to prevent disruptions Transformers and rectifiers should be housed in secure electrical service rooms, while switchboards must be safeguarded against contact with live components and protected from foreign objects, particularly water Direct contact with voltage-carrying parts poses significant health risks, as electricity can flow through the human body.

Along with all measures that provide protection through an automated shutdown, equipotential bonding needs to be implemented in the building.

An equipotential bonding bar joins the switch- board with various metallic building structures, conductive parts from technical systems as well as metallic pipes.

Recent studies suggest that electro-smog in the workplace can be detrimental to health Electro-smog is defined as unwanted electromagnetic radiation emitted from electrical and magnetic fields Therefore, when choosing electrical devices, it is essential to opt for low-radiation components, such as flat-screen monitors This radiation can be categorized into electromagnetic and corpuscular types.

The most important source of radiation is the sun.

Dangerous effects mainly arise from electro- magnetic radiation with a wavelength under

Radiation types, including x-rays, gamma rays, and radioactive corpuscular rays, typically exhibit intensity that diminishes with the square of the distance from the source Therefore, it is essential to implement appropriate safety measures tailored to the unique characteristics of each radiation type.

To effectively shield against various types of radiation, different materials are utilized: thin metal sheets provide protection against beta radiation, reflective surfaces are suitable for blocking infrared radiation, and metal shields are used against radio waves and alternating currents For more intense radiation, such as x-rays and gamma-rays, thicker materials like iron shields are employed to ensure safety.

To ensure employee safety, devices and systems emitting high-intensity radiation should be positioned away from commonly used areas Effective protection can be achieved through fixed shields made of concrete or brick, flexible walls constructed from lead bricks, and mobile shields crafted from iron or textile materials.

In summary, we have explored design considerations at the workplace level from a spatial perspective, which integrates with our insights on functional and organizational workplace design This discussion will continue by examining functional aspects in Chapter 9 and spatial elements in Chapter 10, focusing on the design of sections or divisions within the workplace.

The spatial design of a workstation should prioritize its intended function while aligning with specific organizational requirements Adopting an ergonomic design approach ensures humane dimensions and comfortable working conditions, emphasizing the importance of labor protection It is crucial to mitigate risks associated with falls, hazardous substances, noise, temperature extremes, vibration, live electrical components, and radiation Additionally, workplace design is regulated by law in most industrialized countries, often involving co-determination processes.

[Arb04] Arbeitsst ọ ttenverordnung (Workplace regu- lations): ArbSt ọ ttV Bundesgesetzblatt Jg. Teil I Nr 44 , S 2149 – 2189 (2004) [ASR06] Arbeitst ọ ttenrichtlinien Vorschriften und

Empfehlungen zur Gestaltung von Ar- beitsst ọ tten (Workplace guide lines Regula- tions and Recommendations for the Design of Workplaces) Verlagsgesellschaft Wein- mann, Filderstadt (2006)

[Ave76] Avenarius, A., Pf ỹ tzner, R.: Arbeitspl ọ tze richtig gestalten nach der Arbeitsst ọ ttenver- ordnung (How to Design Workplaces Prop- erly According to the WorkplaceRegulation) M ü nchen (1976)

Lehre der Farbgestaltung nach Friedrich

Theory of Color Design After Friedrich

Ernst von Garnier) Siegl, Anton, M ü nchen

[Buc13] Buckley, J.F., Roddy, N.L.: State by State

Guide to Workplace Safety Regulation,

2013 edn Wolters Kluver, Alphen aan den

[Col01] Collins, R., Schneid, Th.D.: Physical Haz- ards of the Workplace (Occupational Safety and Health Guide Series) Lewis Publishers,

[DIN79] Allgemeine Leits ọ tze f ỹ r das sicherheits gerechte Gestalten technischer Erzeugnisse

(General rules for the Safety-Conscious

Design of Technical Products) Beuth, Berlin

In: Grochla, E (ed.) Handw ử rterbuch der

Organisation, 2nd edn Poeschel, Stuttgart

[Fas03] Fasold, W., Veres, E.: Schallschutz und

Raumakustik in der Praxis — Planungsbei- spiele und konstruktive L ử sungen (Sound

Insulation and Room Acoustics in Practice

— Design Examples and Constructive Solu- tions), 2nd edn Verl Bauwesen, Berlin

[Fit06] Fitting, K., et al (Hrsg.) Betriebsver fassungsgesetz (BetrVG) Handkommentar

(Works Constitution Act, Handbook of commentaries), 23rd edn M ü nchen (2006)

[Gek07] Gekeler, H.: Handbuch der Farbe – Sys- tematik, Ä sthetik, Praxis (Handbook of

Color Systematic, Esthetic, Practice), 6th edn Verl Dumont Buchverlag K ử ln (2007)

[Koe01] Koether, R., Kurz, B., Seidel, U.A., Weber,

Kap 10.3: Arbeitsschutzmanagement S 335 ff., (Worksplace Planning and Ergonomics,

Sect 10.3: workplace protection manage- ment), M ü nchen (2001)

(Small Manual of Practical Work Design),

[Lan06] Lange, W., Windel, A.: Kleine Ergonomi- sche Datensammlung (Small Data Collec- tion of Ergonomics), 11th edn.

Bundesanstalt f ü r Arbeitsschutz und Arbe- itsmedizin (2006)

[Leh05] Lehder, G., Skiba, R.: Taschenbuch Ar- beitssicherheit (Pocket book workplace safety), 11th edn Schmidt (Erich), Berlin

[MCol07] MacCollum, D.: Construction Safety Engi- neering Principles — Designing and

Managing Safer Job Sites McGraw-Hill Construction Series, New York (2007) [OSHA11] OSHA Standards for General Industry as of

01/2011 Washington, DC (2011) [OSP05] Opfermann, R., Streit, W., Pernack, E.F.:

Arbeitsst ọ tten (Workplaces), 7 ed H ỹ thig Jehle Rehm, Heidelberg (2005)

[Poe85] Poeschel, E., K ử hling, A.: Asbestersatzst- offkatalog Band 2: Arbeitsschutz (Asbestos substitute catalog, vol 2 OSH) Hauptver- band der gewerblichen Berufsgenossens- chaften Sankt Augustin (1985)

The "Methodology of Planning and Control" is a comprehensive six-volume work edited by REFA, published in Munich in 1991 In 2006, H Rüschenschmidt highlighted the importance of ergonomics in occupational safety and health (OSH) with the second revised edition of "Human-Centered Design of Work," published by Verl Technik und Information in Bochum Additionally, Rüschenschmidt, along with Reidt and Rentel, contributed further insights into this field in 2007.

Gesundheitsschutz am Arbeitsplatz – mit Ergonomie gestalten (Health at Work — With Ergonomic Design) Technik & Infor- mation Bochum (2007)

[Sal12] Salvendy, G.: Handbook of Human Factors and Ergonomics, 4th edn Wiley, Hoboken (2012)

(Technical Noise Protection) VDI-Verlag.

D ü sseldorf (1996) [Til15] Tillmann, B., et al.: Human Factors and

Ergonomics Design Handbook, 3rd edn. McGraw-Hill, New York (2015)

[UK05] Noise at work Guidance for employers on the Control of Noise at Work Regulations

2005 Published by Health and Safety Executive, UK (2005) Health & Safety Offences Act 2008 Legislation Government

UK http://www.legislation.gov.uk [UK92] The Workplace (Health, Safety & Welfare)

Regulations, no 3004, 1992 Legislation Government UK http://www.legislation. gov.uk

US Dept of Labor, Occupational Safety and Health Administration http://www.osha. gov/

[US07] ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 62.1-2007, Ven- tilation for Acceptable Indoor Air Quality. American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers, (2007). http://www.ashrae.org/

[US08] ASTM E2350-07 Standard Guide for Inte- gration of Ergonomics/Human Factors into New Occupational Systems ASTM Interna- tional (2008) http://www.astm.org/ Standards/E2350.htm

A work area integrates multiple manufacturing and assembly zones, interconnected by efficient storage, transportation, and handling systems, to facilitate the production of marketable products The functional design of this work area is influenced by the specific order type being processed.

To effectively establish a robust production framework, it is essential to define customer or stock production, procurement methods, and the organization of production and assembly, along with the strategies for production planning and control These elements are crucial as they lay the groundwork for spatial design, which will be elaborated upon in Chapter 10.

When planning work areas, it is essential to consider various strategies for addressing both internal and external influences on the factory This involves designing, planning, and controlling production processes with a clear focus on their functionality The relevant design aspects, illustrated in Figure 9.1, emphasize the critical processes of purchasing, manufacturing, and delivery.

Production and Logistics

The shell of a building must meet specific structural requirements driven by production and logistics, including designated receiving and dispatch points, escape routes, assembly openings, and integrated media systems for processes Additionally, considerations for fire protection and building services that penetrate the shell are essential Examples of these structural necessities can be illustrated in Fig 11.15.

To enhance structural flexibility, it is recommended to avoid monolithic constructions for roofs and walls, opting instead for non-rigid or easily changeable zones For vertical facades, modular transparent or translucent components measuring approximately 3.00/4.50×4.50 m (9.8/14.7×14.7 ft) are ideal Additionally, supplementary exits and truck entrances can be designed using this modular grid, allowing for future modifications.

To enhance weather protection during vehicle loading and unloading, canopies with independent foundations can be erected along the hall's perimeter Interchangeable façade columns between the floor plate and girders allow for larger openings, facilitating the entry of bigger machinery and enabling quick hall expansions Additionally, skylights, heat exhausts, and process-related air ducts can be integrated into band-like roof structures Modular transparent and closed panel systems for sheds, along with floor-to-ceiling windows, can be easily adjusted to accommodate evolving requirements Two façade systems developed for a plant assembling automobile cooling systems exemplify this innovative approach.

11 - sound absorbent value, noise protection class of transparent faỗades

U-value: heat transfer coefficient; g-value: solar heat gain coefficient

Fig 11.14 Building shell features with protective functions © Reichardt 15.193_JR_B

Lighting, Views, Communication

German workplace guidelines mandate that 10% of the ground floor area of halls up to 2,000 m² must feature transparent façades at eye level For larger halls, direct outdoor views are not required due to their depth; instead, the emphasis is on incorporating skylights to enhance natural daylight in the workspace To create a more comfortable and vibrant atmosphere for employees, companies are increasingly adopting these design elements.

4 introduction of fresh air, disposal of stale air

Fig 11.15 Features of a building ’ s shell from the perspective of production needs © Reichardt 15.194_JR_B transparent areas flexible installation of gates closed areas

Fig 11.16 Fa ỗ ade systems for an assembly plant (example). © Reichardt 15.195_JR_B

Building design aims to create brighter workplaces by incorporating changeable work areas that feature openings in the shell, allowing employees to stay connected with the time of day and weather changes A well-profiled roof ensures that workspaces receive glare-free, naturally diffused light, fostering a comfortable environment Additionally, façades play a crucial role in enhancing communication between the building and its surroundings, while also conveying a sense of identity and significance.

Proper drainage is crucial for roof extensions, requiring a roof profile that maintains a minimum slope of 2% to effectively channel rainwater In large-span buildings, structural camber in girders is essential to support the roof Recent heavy rain events have highlighted the need for improved drainage systems, prompting a thorough review of existing roof structures to prevent damage from sudden downpours.

DIN and EN standards This in turn has impacted the design and detailing of even the emergency overflows.

Ecology and Energy Production

Façade surfaces are ideal for enhancing a building's ecological footprint and energy efficiency Incorporating green façades and roofs can be counted as valuable ecological measures in equalization area calculations Additionally, vegetation on roofs contributes to minimizing rainwater runoff into public stormwater systems, which can facilitate the approval process for discharge permits.

Modern building facades can incorporate various energy-producing systems, including thermal collectors for hot water, photovoltaic panels for electricity generation, and wind turbines These technologies can function as standalone units or be integrated into the building's facade and roof By utilizing a 3D computer model in a synergetic factory planning approach, the efficiency of these systems can be optimized based on the building's orientation and economic factors.

Figure 11.18 presents a comprehensive overview of features from an ecological standpoint and their relevance to energy production, demonstrating how these elements can be seamlessly integrated into the building envelope.

2 - illumination: daylight multi-storied building

Fig 11.17 Requirements of a building shell in terms of lighting, views and communication © Reichardt15.196_JR_B

Germany we anticipate that, in accordance with

The "passive building standard," which mandates annual energy consumption for heating to be less than 15 kWh/m², is set to be implemented for commercial and industrial buildings, following its current application in residential structures Numerous façade and system manufacturers are actively creating integrated solutions for generating sustainable solar and geothermal energy Furthermore, certification systems for achieving a "Green Building Standard" are being established for these sectors Consequently, eco-friendly and energy-efficient façades are poised to contribute significantly to future sustainability efforts.

Building Services

Supply and Removal Systems

The design of a building's media structures must consider supply and disposal systems within the overall master plan Key factors such as transfer points, quality, quantity, and potential for future expansion influence the distribution and collection systems Typically, supply systems encompass power, heating, ventilation, air conditioning, pressurized air, water, coolant, and lubricants, while removal systems include sewage and drainage networks, as well as coolant and lubricants Fundamental designs for these systems are highlighted in the works of Pistohl [Pis07] and Krimmling et al [Kri08].

When choosing between a centralized or decentralized layout for a plant, it's essential to consider the advantages and disadvantages of each A centralized supply system is a practical choice for large media demands, balancing investment and operating costs effectively Additionally, incorporating heat recovery technology in ventilation systems can enhance economic efficiency However, a significant drawback of centralized systems is their vulnerability; defects and malfunctions can lead to complete operational disruptions.

The hierarchy of media systems, as illustrated in Fig 11.19, highlights that centralized systems require significantly more cables and pipes compared to decentralized systems This results in an increased number of horizontal and vertical lines within the building, leading to a loss of efficiency due to the extended line paths.

Compact systems with enhanced efficiency promote decentralization, resulting in increased flexibility and adaptability in planning, operations, and modifications This independence of decentralized systems is particularly beneficial for modular factory concepts, allowing for greater responsiveness to changes.

The decentralized supply system for a motor assembly plant, illustrated in Figure 11.20, features four sub-factories, each consisting of approximately 5000 m² of three-story service buildings These buildings include technical centers for ventilation systems, with electrical systems located on the rooftop A comb-like branch flow system is designed for the distribution of ventilation, pressurized air, and electrical systems This modular approach ensures that the supply system can be easily adapted to meet the future needs of the sub-factories without causing any disruptions.

Technical Centers

To effectively generate, operate, and monitor various media such as pressurized air, steam, and cool air, it is essential to strategically plan technical centers This planning should encompass a comprehensive concept that addresses the location of these centers, their spatial requirements, room specifications, and potential for future expansions.

The placement of technical centers within a building depends on their centralized or decentralized nature, as well as whether they are constructed in-house or separately Typically, ventilation and air conditioning systems are situated close to heating centers, such as boiler rooms and distribution centers, as well as refrigeration units, while adhering to fire safety regulations.

Fig 11.20 Modular supply system for a motor assembly plant © Reichardt 15.199_JR_B

When designing a building, it is essential to consider the placement of the ventilation and heating systems, as locating them too close together may not be permissible However, strategically linking these systems near the vertical installation shafts of the building's core can offer significant advantages Other critical factors must also be taken into account during the planning phase.

• Calculating the load assumption of the tech- nical centers in thefinal stage as well as pro- visions for changing technical units early on.

• Required partitioning against noise, fire and vibrations.

• The location and layout of sprinkler systems and tanks needs to be discussed together with insurance agencies and public authorities.

Moreover they need to be closely coordinated with the strategic extension of the plant out- lined in the master building plan.

Centralized design offers the benefits of reduced investment costs, minimal floor space requirements, and simplified machinery installation In contrast, decentralized systems provide greater flexibility, allowing for easier local modifications to production areas and media systems This adaptability ensures minimal disruption to ongoing production during line replacements or network enhancements.

Placing technical centers in the basement offers significant benefits, including effective noise and vibration insulation, while the weight of heavy equipment is directly supported by the ground, allowing for a more cost-efficient structural design However, challenges arise with high ceilings, extended distances, and reduced floor space on the ground level, which can hinder main routing Fortunately, the integration of simple lifting equipment can streamline the exchange of systems.

Avoid locating centers on the ground floor, as they create fixed points in the floor plan that limit future building extension options Modern advancements now allow for the installation of electrical and transformer systems on upper floors.

Locating a center on a mezzanine floor offers the benefit of smaller channel cross-sections, but it is essential to implement measures such as shielding and shock absorbers to prevent the transmission of noise and vibration throughout the building.

Structurally independent and weather-resistant technical components, placed on the roof or building periphery, enhance adaptability, particularly in low-rise structures A well-designed load-bearing frame should support additional technical modules for future modifications, accounting for anticipated loads Recent innovations focus on "ship and plug-in" modules, which are mobile construction units comprising fully equipped technical containers that can be easily connected on-site to create ready-to-use supply and disposal systems.

The structural framework zone features expansive halls that are typically a floor high, accommodating technical centers effectively The lower joist supports transverse beams, ideal for equipment platforms or maintenance catwalks Additionally, the roof layout allows for the seamless integration of technical building systems Utilizing a 3D computer model is recommended to ensure precise coordination between the structural framework design and the media layout.

Housing technical centers within building structures offers significant advantages over standalone facilities, as they allow for flexible re-arrangement and facilitate easy access to main routings and supply grids for ongoing monitoring, maintenance, and repairs in a protective environment However, it is essential to incorporate special encasings for sound or fire protection when necessary Various configurations for housing these technical centers include a modular penthouse atop a multi-storied engine plant, a container-type “ship and plug-in” center on the roof of a cooling system assembly plant, and a gallery integrated into the framework of a tire factory, with transformer systems incorporated in the penthouses of both the engine and assembly plants.

Grated platforms designed for equipment landing areas can support individual loads of up to 40 kN, with access facilitated through lifting equipment or mobile cranes Each solution's advantages and disadvantages are evaluated based on criteria such as load capacity, fire protection, noise reduction, potential for expansion, and accessibility.

Determining the spatial requirements for technical centers during the early planning stages is crucial, as these factors significantly impact the building's design and structure Additionally, incorporating sound dampening requirements at this stage is essential, as they greatly affect the overall spatial needs of the facility.

Underestimating ceiling clearance, particularly in basements with low floor-to-ceiling heights, can lead to disorganized media routing and restrict future adaptability in technical centers When planning a factory, it is essential to consider long-term solutions that facilitate control and maintenance Integrating these considerations into the planning of future spatial requirements is crucial for ensuring operational efficiency and flexibility.

To optimize the lifecycle of technical systems, which typically range from 5 to 15 years, it is essential to design and construct machinery components as modular units that can be easily replaced and expanded Implementing 3D modeling for technical centers within a synergistic factory planning framework is recommended, alongside a comprehensive facility management system that facilitates the documentation and maintenance of these components.

Main Routings

The main vertical and horizontal manifolds connect technical centers to distribution systems, with vertical lines typically located in building core shafts and horizontal lines running through or beneath hall roofs or ceiling slabs Careful consideration of the main routing's positioning is crucial for accommodating future vertical or horizontal extensions Poorly planned media packages can hinder the ability to reroute systems, obstructing the growth of building facilities and stifling further development.

- limited loads + fire protection + noise protection

In the assembly plant for engines, noise protection is a key feature, ensuring a quieter work environment The facility is designed for extendibility, allowing for future expansions as production needs grow Accessibility is prioritized throughout the multi-storied penthouse building, enhancing workflow efficiency Similarly, the assembly plant for cooling systems utilizes a hall penthouse with a "ship and plug-in" design, optimizing space and functionality In tire production, the gallery within the framework is strategically designed to support operations, complemented by a load hook that facilitates material handling.

Fig 11.21 Trouble-free locations for technical centers © Reichardt 15.200_JR_B

When planning shafts and canals for main routings, it is essential to ensure they meet structural stability, fire safety, dampness protection, thermal insulation, and hygiene standards Additionally, these structures should be designed for easy access to facilitate maintenance and cleaning, whether from the outside or inside Shafts that house control valves and systems requiring regular upkeep must be spacious enough to allow comfortable human movement.

When selecting systems and planning the details of the building structure the layout of the main routings plays a special role The following points should be taken into account:

• With multi-storied buildings, the connection between the horizontal trays and the vertical shafts are critical points.

• The static reinforcement that should be pro- vided by the core can be negatively impacted when the layout of building services and other media is not designed well.

• The connection openings have to be wide enough to accommodate retrofitting the main routings.

• Horizontal main routings frequently traverse the zone of building structure’s static beams.

Moreover, the choice of materials and the overall form of the building structure are decisive for flexible routing of media, especially with regards to their capacities for future retrofitting.

During the planning phase, potential conflicts between building structures and routing may go unnoticed, which can result in reduced clearances during construction when unplanned routing is placed beneath load-bearing frames Utilizing a 3D model allows for early detection of these conflicts, ensuring adequate ceiling clearance and preventing issues with joints, extensions, and retrofitting.

In many factories, the design of electrical power supply layouts for production facilities and the IT connectivity between production areas and offices is frequently overlooked It is essential to adhere to the guidelines set forth in the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) documents, specifically IEC 60374-5-51 to IEC 60364-5-54, to ensure optimal functionality and safety in electrical installations.

(Electrical Installations of a Building [IEC11]) provide necessary guidelines in this regard and have been introduced as national standards in

Line Nets

After planning the main routings, it's essential to develop an efficient distribution network for outlets, ensuring that branched media runs mirror the main pathways within the building The building's modular structure must support a coordinated system plan for all proposed line paths while considering the density of supply and disposal networks in relation to building services and processes Access to all pathways should be straightforward and modifiable to avoid disrupting production Key horizontal and vertical installation points for cables, wires, and pipes must be identified based on standard assembly systems and overall dimensions Additionally, implementing a factory-wide color coding and labeling system for media flow direction enhances the quick identification of distribution networks.

The 3D media routing plan illustrated in Figure 11.22 outlines the integration of fresh air, ventilation, lighting, and sprinkler systems for a meeting room in an assembly plant The distribution networks were meticulously coordinated using a 1.25 m (4 ft) grid system, ensuring that the modular ceilings, equipped with perforated boards for acoustic enhancement, were properly aligned within the design.

Inlets and Outlets

Many work processes create dust, gases or vapors Unwanted or disturbing particles are best

Ducts play a crucial role in the creation and management of airflow within spaces, serving as the entry points for air supply and the exit points for exhaust It is essential that these ducts are meticulously designed and constructed to avoid issues such as drafts, contamination, and workplace soiling, which can lead to disruptions and breakdowns Properly dimensioned ducts ensure efficient air transfer and maintain a clean and safe environment.

Media intakes and outlets should be easy to locate so as to not interfere with re-arrangement of machinery or installation of new equipment with different requirements.

Creating a 3D model is essential for effectively planning the locations and sizes of inlets and outlets, preventing media collisions It's crucial to carefully assess the placement of lights, data lines, and air ducts to ensure flexibility Adequate illumination should not only cover the floor area but also be distributed in a way that maintains high quality for various uses of the hall Additionally, data lines should be strategically placed throughout halls and multi-story buildings to allow for easy reconfiguration of equipment and offices.

An adaptable fabric air supply duct, illustrated in Figure 11.23, is designed for large bakeries, effectively filtering air through micro-fine pores to ensure even distribution without noticeable drafts These ducts are not only machine washable for easy cleaning but also offer quick adaptability in terms of both location and length, making them a practical solution for maintaining optimal air quality in bakery environments.

Building Services

The industrial manufacturing landscape is experiencing shorter development cycles alongside a growing demand for economic efficiency This shift necessitates innovative approaches to streamline processes and enhance productivity.

1 This section was made kindly available to the authors by Gerhard Hoffmann, Managing Shareholder of ifes GmbH Cologne We would like to express our sincere gratitude to him.

In modern manufacturing, the demand for highly flexible production equipment and shorter innovation cycles necessitates equally adaptable technical systems within factory spaces These essential components are commonly known as building services or facility systems.

When analyzing the total costs of constructing a factory, it's important to note that building construction and interior finishing typically account for 30-40% of expenses, while the facade comprises about 12-30% Additionally, building services represent the remaining 30-40% of the overall costs.

DIN 276 subdivides the construction costs of a building into 7 main groups [DIN08] Building services is further broken down under DIN 276

Cost Group 400 with the heading “Building—

Technical Equipment includes the expenses associated with all technical systems or components integrated into or securely attached to a building While Section 16.7 focuses on the calculation and management of building costs, Figure 11.24 illustrates the relevant sub-groups of Cost Group 400 for our discussion Each sub-group is briefly explained to provide clarity on their significance.

Media supply for industrial buildings encompasses essential services such as water, various gases, and fire extinguishing systems that protect both the structure and technical equipment Due to the specialized nature of manufacturing halls, fire protection concepts must be developed by qualified experts, who also determine the necessary technical fire protection systems; for instance, while a sprinkler system may not always be required, systems for heat and smoke removal are typically mandatory Heating systems involve all equipment related to heat generation, distribution, and utilization, while air conditioning and ventilation systems manage temperature, humidity, and air circulation, with air conditioning further categorized into various types.

Electric power plants (cost group 440) supply the factory with energy for electrical drives and processes In view of increased flexibility, the cables for supplying electricity to systems in

An adaptable air supply system, as shown in Fig 11.23, should ideally be routed above ground in industrial halls to facilitate quick process-related conversions Additionally, proper lighting is essential for employee performance, making it crucial to supply both processing equipment and adequate illumination Standards such as DIN EN 12464-1 outline the principles and conditions necessary for work-appropriate lighting, ensuring a productive workplace environment.

Telephone and IT systems (cost group 450) ensure internal and external communication Due to specific security and environmental require- ments, special rooms may be required for the server clusters.

Conveyor systems (cost group 460) are essential for transporting parts and finished goods within a facility, requiring secure installation at elevated levels above production areas These systems are predominantly utilized in automobile manufacturing plants, while specialized facilities employing such systems are less common.

Building automation (cost group 480) refers to all equipment which is required to monitor, control, regulate and optimize the building sys- tems and is thus an important part of Facility

The primary objective of management is to automate operational sequences across the plant based on specified settings, all while reducing energy consumption and streamlining both operation and monitoring processes.

The layout and facilities of a factory significantly influence the indoor climate, making it essential to examine the heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) systems in detail.

11.3.6.2 Requirements Building services have to meet the production requirements as well as ensure the health of personnel working in the hall The key comfort factors relevant to the workers’health (incl room temperature, humidity, air circulation and air purity) are clarified in Fig 11.25 These are discussed in more detail in Sect.10.4.

While flexibility and adaptability are important, the primary factors influencing technical systems remain the economic efficiency of investments and future operating costs Companies typically anticipate a Return on Investment (ROI) ranging from 2% to a maximum of 10%.

Capital investments typically have a five-year horizon, but with increasing emphasis on environmental protection and sustainable energy-efficient production, known as the "Green Factory" concept, the return on investment (ROI) can be extended to a maximum of ten years in certain cases.

The following criteria should be taken into account in order to comprehensively design the technical systems for heating, cooling, aeration, ventilation, electricity and compressed air:

• the products’demands on the hall climate and the production processes’,

• demands on theflexibility and changeability of the building services health and safety requirements,

• dissipation of thermal loads and contaminants for improving the quality of the workplace,

• the location and local climate.

The checklist outlined in Fig 11.26 serves as an essential guide for analyzing and planning building services It encompasses the building's physical properties, energy production and consumption, thermal and pollutant loads from production processes, and the characteristics of air movement, including airflow, temperature, and humidity.

When considering production processes such as foundry work, painting, mechanical manufacturing, metal forming, or assembly, it is essential to account for the concentration and thresholds of various substances For comprehensive guidance, readers should consult the relevant regulations, standards, and guidelines outlined in Section 8.4.

The planning and costing of building services are completed in accordance with DIN 276

Table 2 outlines the costs associated with Technical Equipment in Cost Group 400 Section 16.7 provides a comprehensive discussion on estimating and controlling these costs This framework enables objective comparisons of individual planning and construction expenses against alternative plans, in alignment with HOAI guidelines.

[HO13], these costs are also used as a basis for calculating the planning fees and determining the lifecycle costs for a comprehensive feasibility study.

Interior Finishing

Floors

Figure 11.37 highlights the key structural features influencing floor changeability, along with their associated parameters Users interact with the surfaces, while the structural specifications are determined by process and environmental needs For optimal changeability, it is essential that floors are sustainably robust, easy to install, and simple to modify.

The surface of industrial floors is primarily influenced by the load they must support, necessitating the use of construction materials that are both durable and resistant Additionally, these materials should provide an even surface that is easy to maintain, while also being constructed in a manner that is efficient and cost-effective.

Concrete surfaces, whether monolithic or multi-layered, have demonstrated exceptional durability over the centuries They are highly resistant to soiling, mechanical impacts, water, and frost, making them a robust choice for various applications Additionally, concrete floors are easy to clean and maintain, resulting in very low upkeep costs.

Old concrete floors can be recycled to produce new concrete, while monolithic floor plates made from steel-fiber reinforced concrete can eliminate the need for traditional on-site steel reinforcement.

Multi-layered constructions typically require a hard surface course or wearing coat for completion The durability and flatness of the overall structure are determined by the specific needs of the processes and logistics involved.

Since it is quite impossible to change the level and durability criteria at a later date the present requirements should be coordinated with possi- ble future needs.

DIN 51130 outlines the requirements for non-slip and easy-to-clean surfaces, emphasizing the importance of keeping hall floors clear of media routings and ducts to enhance process and logistics flexibility In multi-storied buildings, it's advisable to integrate systems like electrical, IT, ventilation, cooling, and heating together, but these should not be directly attached to the static ceiling structure Instead, utilizing separate layers such as double floors or floor plenums allows for greater flexibility in adding media routings and ducts in the future.

Thestructural specificationsof thefloors are derived from the project’s guidelines and floors walls ceilings cores stairs changeability

Fig 11.36 Overview of structural elements in a building ’ s interior fi nishing © Reichardt 15.203_JR_B surface media modularization structural specifications

Fig 11.37 Structural features of fl oors relevant for changeability © Reichardt 15.204_JR_B

300 11 Building Design requirements particularly with regards to protec- tion against heat, noise andfire as well as water.

In cold climates, utilizing a 3D energy simulation can effectively assess a floor's ability to maintain adequate warmth in work areas while preventing overheating Enhanced insulation values lead to higher surface temperatures, allowing for greater flexibility in workplace arrangements within the hall To safeguard against potential water ingress from the surrounding sub-soil, impervious hall floors are essential In extreme conditions, epoxy resin coatings can provide additional protection, and these coatings are most effective when applied during the construction phase to ensure optimal adhesion between layers.

When designing floors and ceilings for buildings, it is essential to prioritize fire protection, noise reduction, and conductivity Utilizing non-flammable materials is ideal, while PVC surface treatments, despite their initial cost-effectiveness, should be avoided due to the toxic fumes they emit during fires and their complicated disposal requirements Proper detailing can mitigate noise from foot traffic, and as the use of computers increases, floor properties must be designed to effectively dissipate higher levels of electrostatic energy Additionally, floor systems should be installed for easy retrofitting and replacement to enhance adaptability.

The level of modularization greatly influences the effort needed to modify floors, necessitating uniformly dimensioned components for easy extension, dismantling, or exchange For industrial floors that need to support significant weight, offer durability, and be recyclable, options like Stelcon large plates or hexagon elements are ideal These large plates, made from DIN C 35/45 concrete, come in a standard size of 200×400 cm (6.6 × 13.2 ft), providing a robust solution for industrial flooring needs.

Large surface plates, measuring 14–16 cm (5.5–6.3 in) thick and protected by mild steel angle sections, are utilized in various applications such as finished floors in industrial plants and storage halls, as well as anchors for port facilities and rail systems These plates also serve as transshipment sites in the chemical industry, access roads, and gas stations When planning structural joints, it is crucial to account for potential discontinuities, such as induction loops and transponder points, to ensure efficient processes and logistics.

Walls

Figure 11.38 illustrates the fundamental structural elements that influence wall adaptability While surfaces serve multiple functions, structural specifications define their technical characteristics The demand for easily installable and changeable walls is on the rise Ultimately, the goal is to establish a cohesive and modular system that aligns seamlessly with the building's grid.

Modern work environments are evolving away from traditional labs and offices, favoring adaptable spatial boundaries that can be customized based on team size and project needs Unlike rigid structures, prefabrication allows for flexible wall placements, privacy options, and strategic door positioning to enhance circulation Transparent walls that visually link different areas play a crucial role in fostering communication among staff, promoting a sense of teamwork and collaboration.

There are two primary systems for lightweight wall constructions: drywall made from gypsum boards and wall panels made from materials like wood, plastic, or metal Gypsum board drywalls are attached to aluminum or wood stud frames and can be finished with paint or wallpaper In contrast, wall panels come as pre-finished elements with integrated joint systems for easy connection Additionally, glass panels and doors complement the wall surfaces without disrupting their aesthetic, acting as balanced design elements.

Construction kits such as these can be unin- stalled in a few days and re-built in another combination at another location in the factory.

Integrating electricity, IT, and heating and cooling systems at the skirting level or below the window sill can enhance office design Additionally, office furniture like closets and bookshelves can be seamlessly incorporated into the system's joints for improved functionality and aesthetics.

Insulation materials placed between gypsum boards or wall panels effectively address specific physical requirements for noise, heat, and fire protection When equipped with appropriate paneling and insulation, drywall can withstand fire for up to 3 hours and meet F 180 fire ratings when necessary.

Modularized wall panels can resistfire up to 2 h

In precision industrial manufacturing, wall panels are ideal for enclosing clean rooms due to their ability to achieve impermeability through sealants post-installation They offer the advantage of easy reinstallation, minimizing the dust and dirt typically associated with traditional drywall removal, thus enhancing adaptability in sensitive processing and logistics environments A consistent dimensional system for all closed surfaces, including glass paneling and doors, is essential for effective modularization Ideally, floor plans should be designed using grid measurements of 1.00, 1.20, 1.25, or 1.5 meters (3.3, 3.9, 4.1, or 4.9 feet).

Ceilings

Ceilings exhibit changeability characteristics akin to those of floors and walls An overview of the structural features that influence ceiling changeability is illustrated in Figure 11.39.

Modern work environments necessitate adaptable ceiling systems that align with diverse spatial needs, much like wall systems The concept of ‘house in house construction’ provides the advantage of harmonized wall and ceiling components This approach leverages the accuracy of industrial prefabrication, ensuring compliance with structural requirements and facilitating meticulous installation.

5 clean room surface structural specifications

Fig 11.38 Structural features of walls relevant to changeability © Reichardt 15.205_JR_B

One of the basic features of changeability is the overhead clearance Rooms larger than 50 m 2

(538 ft 2 ) should have at least 2.75 m (9 ft) headway, whereas rooms larger than 100 m 2

(1,076 ft 2 ) should have at least 3.00 m (9.8 ft).

When creating a floor plan, it's essential to ensure that smaller rooms have adequate clearance for future developments A key design principle for modular ceilings is to install panels beneath a supporting metal framework, which creates a cavity ideal for media routing Additionally, ceiling panels can be crafted from various materials to enhance the design.

Surfaces should be durable and easy to clean, with system grids typically available in sizes of 0.50, 0.60, 0.625, or 1.00 meters (1.6, 2.0, 2.05, or 3.3 feet) To facilitate maintenance or retrofitting of media routing installations above ceiling panels, removable panels can be utilized for access Additionally, the clearance above the ceiling construction is a crucial factor in ensuring adaptability.

When replacing air ducts to accommodate higher ventilation demands, it is essential to ensure that there is sufficient space available for the installation of larger cross-section ducts.

The routing of electrical supply, EDP/telephone, ventilation, cooling, and heating systems should be modular and adaptable to ensure they do not interfere with one another Effective planning of mounting plates and the space beneath the structural slab is essential to meet requirements for soundproofing, fire protection, thermal insulation, and clean-room specifications Utilizing perforated plates enhances spatial acoustics by promoting sound diffusion, while insulating layers made from non-flammable materials like mineral wool or fire-proof plates bolster the fire resistance of ceiling structures and media lines In clean rooms, applying appropriate sealants can render joints between walls impervious, ensuring optimal conditions.

When designing modular elements, it is crucial to adhere to standard dimensions and limit customization to ensure a seamless layout A disruption-free grid allows for the effective interchange of media and elements throughout the floor plan Utilizing ceiling plates and routing systems with pre-finished surfaces, along with clip-on and plug-in connections, significantly reduces reconfiguration time and minimizes contamination risks.

5 installation space surface structural specifications

Fig 11.39 Structural features relevant for the changeability of ceilings © Reichardt 15.206_JR_B

Cores

Cores are essential structural elements designed to dissipate concentrated static loads while also serving various additional functions Economically, it is often beneficial to direct the vertical and horizontal loads of a building's structure through concrete or steel walls, allowing the freed-up space to be utilized for elevators, emergency staircases, or installation shafts Therefore, the positioning and spatial layout of core areas should be carefully planned in conjunction with factory design, as these elements become largely fixed once constructed The placement, along with the necessary widths and depths of the cores, is typically determined by the load-bearing frame's design.

Cores should be positioned with an eye to the future, so that possible options for changes in processes and logistics are in no way impeded.

The clearance space allowances for theinstalla- tion shafts needs to be checked to ensure that there are enough allowances for future purposes.

Changes in processes or logistics often require additional media and thus the requirement of additional space inside the shafts.

A crucial aspect of shaft design involves the separation of vertical pipes and wires, which must be routed horizontally Additionally, the openings to the shafts play a vital role in fire protection and should facilitate maintenance, repair, retrofitting, or replacement of the routing systems A significant factor in adaptability is the meticulous design of passenger and freight elevators, as elevator technology typically requires replacement every 15 to 25 years Therefore, it is essential to plan elevator clearances, along with the height and width of the elevator doors, to accommodate the potential for transporting larger volumes in the future.

The potential for modularization and modification of cores is significantly limited when using monolithic (in situ) concrete due to various constraints However, cores can be constructed with precast concrete elements or steel frameworks accompanied by infill wall panels, which allows for greater flexibility The assembly of these components enables adjustments to the core's width and depth An overview of the structural characteristics that influence the changeability of cores is illustrated in Fig 11.40.

Fig 11.40 Structural characteristics relevant for the changeability of building cores © Reichardt 15.207_JR_B

Stairs

Escape stairways are typically designed within fire-resistant cores, but they can also be situated in other areas of a building Building regulations generally mandate that these stairways possess a fire resistance rating of 1.5 hours (F 90), which can be achieved using assembly kits made from dry or fully vitrified materials It is essential to plan the location of evacuation stairwells with future modifications in mind, as any changes will necessitate reconstructing the stairways, reassessing escape routes, and securing re-approvals from relevant authorities.

When designing stairwells and doors, it's essential to consider the maximum number of people that may need to evacuate, factoring in potential office expansions Unlike evacuation stairs, maintenance stairs prioritize functional needs and are not bound by the same regulations Compliance with workplace safety and accident prevention guidelines is crucial for stair width, pitch, and design Open stairways can be added in foyers or galleries without strict fire regulation compliance, and their dimensions should accommodate future user capacity Modular stair construction is preferred over fixed concrete designs, allowing for flexible alterations in materials and configurations An overview of the structural characteristics relevant to stairway adaptability is illustrated in Fig 11.41.

Examples of Changeable Buildings

Figure 11.42 depicts two factories that were actually built with focus on changeability when designing the structural frame, shell, interior

3 stair pitch modularization maintenance escape route representation

Fig 11.41 Structural characteristics relevant for the changeability of stairs © Reichardt 15.208_JR_B

In both cases, the building concept was implemented according to modular design principles with separate building components for the structure, shell, media and interiorfinishings.

In the case of the large bakery, the project requirements necessitated a timber skeleton construction for the load-bearing frame, a metal and glass faỗade for the building shell

The baking hall was successfully extended by one grid field, approximately, by implementing independent modular air circulation devices within the structural frame zone, enhancing the ventilation technology through strict system separation.

6 m×22 m (19.7×72.2 ft))‘over the weekend’ without causing any disruptions.

In pharmaceutical production, it is crucial to design facilities that allow for easy expansion and minimal disruption Additionally, the interior layout should be adaptable to accommodate changing needs.

An example of a modular and versatile assembly factory for car coolers shows

The design aims for seamless scalability of processes, systems, and buildings, emphasizing reusability Hall spans are available in dimensions of 18 meters (59 feet) and 36 meters (118 feet), ensuring flexibility for various applications For further insights, refer to Fig 11.43 and the accompanying video animation in Appendix D3.

8 m (26 ft) building height enable easily movable work places.

Grace and Aesthetics

Structural Order

The principle of structural order fosters a sense of harmony by establishing a consistent relationship between individual components and the whole, akin to a living organism with internal coherence Clearly articulated structural shapes and architectural forms, combined with an understanding of the functions of elements such as the structural frame, shell, and interior finishes, are crucial for achieving this order This structural coherence is guided by its own grammar, which includes the floor plan and sectional and vertical projections.

Understanding the structure of the building is straightforward, as the relationships between its components are clear A prime example of this organized construction style is a modular plant designed using hall segments.

Simplicity

With industrial buildings there is no need for

Filling, cladding, or laminating in building projects reflects a rational design approach reminiscent of medieval cities, proving that aesthetics can be achieved without excessive costs This simplicity should not be confused with banality or a lack of creativity often seen in commercial construction Instead, the pursuit of economic efficiency complements minimalism, avoiding the need for elaborate and complex facades.

Many global enterprises project a misleading image through extravagant and unnecessary façade treatments In contrast, a thoughtful simplification of forms, materials, and colors can create striking aesthetic impacts.

Liberated from unnecessary coverings, the qual- ity impacts the viewer directly and is more sus- tainable than attempts to present a deceptive package withflashy gimmickry.

Balance Between Unity and Diversity

Achieving a balance between monotony and chaos in visual information is essential for aesthetic comfort in architecture Unity and diversity, while seemingly opposing forces, are interdependent and must be carefully adjusted for each project Viewers often lose interest in architecture that is overly uniform, while excessive complexity can lead to confusion Trends in design can quickly become outdated and even embarrassing in hindsight The optimal approach lies in creating urban and architecturally sustainable designs, utilizing fixed building heights and a consistent material canon that allows for diverse design options, fostering innovative solutions for the future.

Distinctiveness

Distinctive design is crucial for standing out in a sea of forgettable visual experiences, as many industrial projects often aim for anonymity This lack of notable design can lead some enterprises to resort to unnecessary detailing for attention, which rarely proves sustainable or meaningful In contrast, a truly distinctive design emerges from a creative blend of specific agreements, unique local contexts, and thoughtful selection of construction components This "value-added" architecture not only leaves a stronger visual impact but also requires significantly less investment than extensive advertising campaigns, effectively embodying the project's mission through the innovative efforts of the planning team.

Emotional Quality, Atmosphere

Graceful buildings touch an inner chord and a positive relationship develops between the observer and the building According to [Bửh06], this emotional quality influences the deeper

Building design significantly influences the perception of spaces, materials, color, and light, extending beyond mere organizational and functional aspects By intentionally considering the orientation of buildings and the internal and external views, we enhance the understanding of architectural structures and improve their functionality Furthermore, the choice and assembly of materials can express a range of qualities, from precise industrial craftsmanship to spontaneous artistic expression.

The quality of manufactured industrial products can be closely related to structural parallels, highlighting the importance of emotional quality in building design When setting project objectives, it is essential to prioritize this emotional aspect To facilitate this process, examples and suggestions can be shared and refined during goal planning workshops.

In short, the exterior of a building should reflect the company’s claims and its interior the product’s claims; or as [Rei05] suggests aes- thetics and efficiency have to be aligned.

Summary

The architectural design of a building encompasses four key components: structure, shell, building services, and grace The overall performance of a building hinges on the effective integration of these elements through appropriate technical, constructive, and aesthetic solutions It is crucial to distinguish between structural components that are constant and difficult to change versus those that are easily modified Often, the initial evaluation phase, which involves a thorough discussion of major building requirements, is overlooked To enhance project transparency and ensure quality assurance, it is essential to document all structural details, assumptions, and findings High adaptability and sustainability in design contribute to a construction project’s potential for reuse in subsequent phases, necessitating careful coordination and planning.

Entwurfsatlas Industriebau (Design Manual Industrial Construction), 1st edn. Birkh ọ user, Basel (2004)

[Ack88] Ackermann, K.: Tragwerke in der konstruktiven Architektur (Structures in constructive architecture) DVA, Stuttgart (1988)

[AS13] ASUE Arbeitsgemeinschaft f ü r sparsamen und umweltfreundlichen Energieverbrauch. Die Erdgas-Strahlenheizung (Work group for saving and environmental friendly energy consumption The natural gas radiator) http://asue.de Kaiserslautern (2013)

[Bac92] Bach, H et al.: Gezielte Bel ü ftung von

Arbeitsbereichen in Fabrikhallen (Targeted ventilation of work areas in factories). Forschungsbericht HLK 1-92 Stuttgart (1992)

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1997 Part 3: Code of practice for imposed roof loads, 1988

[Bửh06] B ử hme, G.: Architektur und Atmosph ọ re

(Architecture and Atmosphere) 1 Au fl Verl Fink (Wilhelm), Paderborn (2006) [Dan96] Daniels, K.: Haustechnik, ein Leitfaden f ü r

Architekten und Ingenieure (Building Services, a Guide for Architects and Engineers) Oldenbourg, M ü nchen (1996) [DIN08] DIN 276: Kosten im Hochbau (Building

Costst) Beuth, Berlin (2008) [DIN11] DIN EN 12664: Licht und Beleuchtung von

Arbeitsst ọ tten (Light and lighting - Lighting of workplaces) Beuth, Berlin (2011) [DIN04] DIN EN 12792:2004-01: L ü ftung von

Geb ọ uden - Symbole, Terminologie und graphische Symbole (Ventilation for buildings - Symbols, terminology and graphical symbols) Beuth, Berlin (2004) [Eng07] Engel, H.: Tragsysteme (Structure

Systems), 3rd edn Hatje Cantz, Ost fi ldern (2007)

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1993-1-1: 1992 Eurocode 3 Design of Steel Structures General Rules and Rules for Buildings (1992)

[ENV1994] British Standards Institution: DD ENV

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Structures General Rules Strengthening and Repair of Buildings (1996)

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[Gri97] Grimm, F.: Hallen aus Stahl (Halls from

[Hat06] Hatz, R.: Auf Spar fl amme Energetische

Optimierung von Industriebauten (On Low

Flame Energy Optimization of Industrial

[Hau07] Hausladen, G., de Saldanha, M., Liedl, P.:

ClimaSkin- Konzepte f ỹ r Geb ọ udeh ỹ llen, die mit weniger Energie mehr leisten

(ClimaSkin - Concepts for building Shells that do more with less Energy), 1st edn.

[Hil74] Hildebrand, G.: Designing for Industry The

Architecture of Albert Kahn The

[HO13] HOAI Honorarordnung f ü r Architekten und

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[ISO08] DIN EN ISO 13790: Energieef fi zienz von

Geb ọ uden - Berechnung des Energiebedarfs f ü r Heizung und K ü hlung (Energy performance of buildings - Calculation of energy use for space heating and cooling)

[Kol02] Kolarik, F et al.: Energieef fi ziente

L ü ftungsanlagen in Betrieben (Energy ef fi cient ventilation systems in enterprises).

[Kra07] Krauss, F., F ü hrer, W., J ü rges, T.: Tabellen zur Tragwerklehre (Tables for Structural

Atlas Geb ọ udetechnik – Grundlagen, Konstruktionen, Details (Atlas Building Services - Fundamentals, Designs, Details) Rudolf M ỹ ller, K ử ln (2008) [Lac84] Lachenmann, G.: Industrialisiertes Bauen

Entwicklung, Konzepte, Strategien (Corporate Architecture - Development, Concepts, Strategies) Av edition, Ludwigsburg (2005)

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(Handbook Building Services), 6th edn. Neuwied, Dessau-Ro ò lau (2007)

[Pol03] Pol ó nyi, S., Walochnik, W.: Architektur und Tragwerk (Architecture and Support Structure) Ernst & Sohn, Berlin (2003) [Pot07] Pottgiesser, U., K ử nig, K.: Baukonstruktion

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Ef fi zienz - Industrie Gewerbe Verwaltungsbauten (Aesthetics Ef fi ciency – Industrial, Commercial Administrative Buildings), 1st edn Nelte, Wiesbaden (2005)

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The master building plan outlines the current and future performance of a factory's urban development, shaped by project requirements that influence building forms and safety criteria This plan serves as a guideline for organizing factory structures, zoning traffic circulation, and designating green landscaped areas, all of which are divided into potential developmental stages.

Choosing the appropriate building typology and their combinations is crucial for maximizing adaptability The design fields and elements relevant to the master plan are illustrated in Figure 12.1 In the upcoming chapter, we will delve into a detailed discussion of each aspect.

Request Program

Required Floor Space and Room List

Fig 8.12 Permissible noise exposure (US Dpt Of

To comply with DIN and ISO 1999 standards, achieving a noise level of 1910.95 dB(A) is essential, focusing on noise reduction at the source through emission control Enhancing damping during transmission and minimizing noise exposure at work areas, particularly in predominantly mental activity zones like break-out spaces, lounges, and restrooms, is crucial Implementing constructive measures, such as selecting quieter machines and processes, can significantly reduce sound propagation and improve overall workplace acoustics.

- sound absorbing ceiling and wall covering

- partition walls reduction of noise transmission

- separating joints of construction elements cabins acoustical barriers

1) at levels > 90 dB (A), in accordance with accident prevention regulations, among other things

- loud areas ( i.e > 85 dB(A) are to be indicated

- noise level reduction programs are to be drawn up and carried out

WPR German Workplace Regulations (Arbeitstọttenverordnung)

Noise protection and reduction are essential for maintaining focus and fine motor skills, as noticeable oscillations can lead to increased strain and decreased performance Furthermore, prolonged exposure to such disturbances may result in damage to the cardiovascular, nervous, and muscular-skeletal systems.

Primary vibration protection focuses on eliminating the sources of vibrations by modifying processes or using different equipment, while secondary vibration protection aims to minimize vibrations experienced by humans through system calibration Effective structural measures to reduce vibration transmission include lowering the natural frequency of machines by placing them on springs or using insulators made of steel, rubber, or cork This approach necessitates flexible connections for media and transport systems Additionally, in multi-storied buildings, attention must be given to harmonics that may arise from the stimulation of the natural frequency of structural slabs and connected systems due to vibrating machinery.

As thermal radiation intensity increases, human reactions vary significantly, ranging from complete destruction of buildings to minor damages such as cracks in light walls or plaster High intensity radiation can cause major structural damage, including cracks in load-bearing walls, while lower intensities may result in minimal or no damage at all Understanding these effects is crucial for assessing safety and building resilience against thermal radiation.

1 2 3 4 5 10 20 30 40 50 100 frequency [Hz] swinging velocity [cm/sec]

Fig 8.14 Damaging effects of vibrations on buildings (acc Lehder)

8.4 Occupational Health and Safety Standards 211

8.4.8 Electrical Safety and Protection from Radiation

Reliable electrical equipment is essential for uninterrupted operation Transformers and rectifiers should be housed in secure electrical service rooms, while switchboards must be safeguarded against contact with live components and intrusion by foreign objects, particularly water Health hazards can occur when electricity passes through the human body due to contact with energized parts.

Along with all measures that provide protection through an automated shutdown, equipotential bonding needs to be implemented in the building.

An equipotential bonding bar joins the switch- board with various metallic building structures, conductive parts from technical systems as well as metallic pipes.

Recent studies suggest that electro-smog in the workplace can be harmful to health Electro-smog is the unwanted electromagnetic radiation generated by electrical, magnetic, and electromagnetic fields To mitigate these risks, it is essential to choose electrical devices with low radiation and electrical load, such as flat-screen monitors This radiation can be classified into electromagnetic radiation and corpuscular radiation.

The most important source of radiation is the sun.

Dangerous effects mainly arise from electro- magnetic radiation with a wavelength under

Radiation types, including x-rays, gamma rays, and radioactive corpuscular rays, typically exhibit intensity that diminishes with the square of the distance from the source It is essential to implement appropriate safety measures tailored to the specific characteristics of each radiation type.

Effective structural protective measures against various types of radiation include thin metal sheets for beta radiation, reflective surfaces for infrared radiation, and metal shields for radio waves and alternating currents For protection against more penetrating forms of radiation like x-rays and gamma rays, thicker materials such as iron shields are utilized.

To ensure employee safety, devices and systems emitting high-intensity radiation should be positioned away from frequently used areas Effective protection can be achieved through the use of fixed shields constructed from concrete or brick, flexible walls made of lead bricks, and mobile shields crafted from iron or textile materials.

In summary, we have explored design considerations at the workplace level from a spatial perspective, which integrates with our insights on functional and organizational workplace design Moving forward, we will examine the design of sections or divisions from both functional and spatial perspectives in the upcoming chapters.

Effective workstation spatial design should be tailored to the specific functions performed and aligned with organizational requirements An ergonomic design approach ensures humane dimensions and promotes comfortable working conditions while prioritizing labor protection It is crucial to mitigate risks associated with falls, hazardous substances, noise, extreme temperatures, vibrations, live electrical components, and radiation Additionally, workplace design is regulated by law in industrialized countries, often involving collaborative decision-making processes.

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[Fit06] Fitting, K., et al (Hrsg.) Betriebsver fassungsgesetz (BetrVG) Handkommentar

(Works Constitution Act, Handbook of commentaries), 23rd edn M ü nchen (2006)

[Gek07] Gekeler, H.: Handbuch der Farbe – Sys- tematik, Ä sthetik, Praxis (Handbook of

Color Systematic, Esthetic, Practice), 6th edn Verl Dumont Buchverlag K ử ln (2007)

[Koe01] Koether, R., Kurz, B., Seidel, U.A., Weber,

Kap 10.3: Arbeitsschutzmanagement S 335 ff., (Worksplace Planning and Ergonomics,

Sect 10.3: workplace protection manage- ment), M ü nchen (2001)

(Small Manual of Practical Work Design),

[Lan06] Lange, W., Windel, A.: Kleine Ergonomi- sche Datensammlung (Small Data Collec- tion of Ergonomics), 11th edn.

Bundesanstalt f ü r Arbeitsschutz und Arbe- itsmedizin (2006)

[Leh05] Lehder, G., Skiba, R.: Taschenbuch Ar- beitssicherheit (Pocket book workplace safety), 11th edn Schmidt (Erich), Berlin

[MCol07] MacCollum, D.: Construction Safety Engi- neering Principles — Designing and

Managing Safer Job Sites McGraw-Hill Construction Series, New York (2007) [OSHA11] OSHA Standards for General Industry as of

01/2011 Washington, DC (2011) [OSP05] Opfermann, R., Streit, W., Pernack, E.F.:

Arbeitsst ọ tten (Workplaces), 7 ed H ỹ thig Jehle Rehm, Heidelberg (2005)

[Poe85] Poeschel, E., K ử hling, A.: Asbestersatzst- offkatalog Band 2: Arbeitsschutz (Asbestos substitute catalog, vol 2 OSH) Hauptver- band der gewerblichen Berufsgenossens- chaften Sankt Augustin (1985)

The "Methodology of Planning and Control" is a comprehensive six-volume work edited by REFA, published in Munich in 1991 In the realm of occupational safety and health, H Rüschenschmidt's book "Ergonomics in OSH – Human-Centered Design of Work," now in its second revised edition, emphasizes the importance of designing work environments that prioritize human well-being, published by Technik und Information in Bochum in 2006 Additionally, Rüschenschmidt, along with Reidt and Rentel, contributes further insights into these critical topics.

Gesundheitsschutz am Arbeitsplatz – mit Ergonomie gestalten (Health at Work — With Ergonomic Design) Technik & Infor- mation Bochum (2007)

[Sal12] Salvendy, G.: Handbook of Human Factors and Ergonomics, 4th edn Wiley, Hoboken (2012)

(Technical Noise Protection) VDI-Verlag.

D ü sseldorf (1996) [Til15] Tillmann, B., et al.: Human Factors and

Ergonomics Design Handbook, 3rd edn. McGraw-Hill, New York (2015)

[UK05] Noise at work Guidance for employers on the Control of Noise at Work Regulations

2005 Published by Health and Safety Executive, UK (2005) Health & Safety Offences Act 2008 Legislation Government

UK http://www.legislation.gov.uk [UK92] The Workplace (Health, Safety & Welfare)

Regulations, no 3004, 1992 Legislation Government UK http://www.legislation. gov.uk

US Dept of Labor, Occupational Safety and Health Administration http://www.osha. gov/

[US07] ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 62.1-2007, Ven- tilation for Acceptable Indoor Air Quality. American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers, (2007). http://www.ashrae.org/

[US08] ASTM E2350-07 Standard Guide for Inte- gration of Ergonomics/Human Factors into New Occupational Systems ASTM Interna- tional (2008) http://www.astm.org/ Standards/E2350.htm

A work area integrates multiple manufacturing and assembly zones, interconnected through storage, transportation, and handling systems, all aimed at facilitating the production of a marketable product The functional design of this work area is influenced by the specific order type.

To effectively design spatial layouts, it is essential to establish key factors such as customer or stock production, procurement methods, production and assembly organization, and production planning and control These elements are crucial for creating a coherent production strategy, which will be elaborated on in Chapter 10.

When planning work areas, it is essential to consider various strategies for responding to both internal and external influences on the factory This includes designing, planning, and controlling production processes with a functional focus Key design aspects relevant to this approach include the purchase, make, and deliver processes, as illustrated in Figure 9.1.

Process and Logistics Elements

Effective factory planning aims to optimize the interaction between process and logistics elements to achieve a streamlined material flow with minimal lead times and inventory levels The size and weight of machinery and equipment necessitate careful consideration of various spatial interfaces In metal-forming processes, essential spatial requirements include soil bearing capacity, ceiling clearance, placement of supports, and provisions for the supply and removal of media, as well as noise protection measures.

In most cases, isolation of engineering facili- ties, process and spatial planning leads to coor- dination problems resulting either in permanent functional inconveniences or structural defects.

In the framework of the Synergetic Factory

In the design development phase, 3D objects representing planning approaches, process facilities, and logistics elements are integrated into the building space model This integration allows for early identification of potential conflicts and facilitates the incorporation of 3D structures for processes and logistics through a horizontal and vertical design module Effective dimensional coordination of processes and space is crucial for subsequent planning stages and for the final selection of building materials, utilities, media, and interior elements.

The implementation of ID cards for process and logistics has significantly enhanced communication between production engineering and space planning, providing the design team with essential information at a glance during factory planning These ID cards facilitate not only process material flow simulation but also the optimization of temperature and energy, as well as the development of color concepts based on the available data For instance, a 3D model and accompanying photo of a cleaning robot designed for composite rubber elements in a new production plant illustrate the overall dimensions, including geometric details, room fitting, utilities, building services, and room area specifications.

153 hall maintenance workshop model shop

7,766.30 7.35 type gate 1.1 gate 1.2 gate 1.3 gate 1.1 industrial screed monolith. reinforced concrete floor plate industry - glazing metal- cassette/ insulation trapezoidal sheet

LED lamp sprinkler ventilation compressed air

135.00 3.85 type gate 1.1 gate1.1 industry - glazing metal- cassette/ insulation

4 double- sockets rj45 for IT industry - glazing metal- cassette/ insulation type gate 1.1 gate 1.1 type gate 1.1 gate 1.1 industry - glazing metal- cassette/ insulation

7.15 135.00 trapezoidal sheet trapezoidal sheet trapezoidal sheet industrial screed monolith. reinforced concrete floor plate industrial screed monolith. reinforced concrete floor plate industrial screed monolith. reinforced concrete floor plate

4 double- sockets rj45 for IT

4 double- sockets rj45 for IT

LED lamp sprinkler ventilation compressed air

LED lamp sprinkler ventilation compressed air

LED lamp sprinkler ventilation compressed air

Fig 12.3 Room list for a factory (example) © Reichardt 15.212_JR_B

The 314 12 Master Building Plan includes essential details such as footprint, working areas, and weight specifications A designated text block can be allocated for site-specific modifications and purchase and delivery information As additional details emerge, the ID card content is updated to encompass supply, delivery, and disposal information These ID cards function as a digital process library and, if organized properly, can significantly aid in documentation for facility management and operational phases.

The degree of spatial adaptability of the pro- cess and logistics elements increases with

To optimize production hall layouts, it is recommended to begin with the simplest equipment arrangements Essential features for spatial adaptability include process and logistics objects, process attachments to structural members, and various supply and disposal types, as illustrated in Figure 12.5 To facilitate future conversions, it is best to avoid permanent installations connected to structural elements like roof slabs and foundations for waste disposal and conveyor systems.

Supply and Removal

Supply and removal systems are crucial elements in spatial planning for workplaces and facilities, despite being considered secondary Their unexpected volume and the challenges associated with adapting them to layout changes present significant obstacles to implementing necessary modifications.

To effectively locate, evaluate, and select detailed solutions, it is essential to compile and document requirements early in a well-structured table that allows for easy updates Additionally, specifications for the supply and removal system should be directly assigned to each division in the room list This integration of spatial and technological requirements helps prevent discrepancies in planning and provides a robust foundation for changeability scenarios, allowing for comprehensive consideration of variants Notably, the aforementioned ID Cards can be utilized in facility planning to capture the 3D layout of all supply and removal connections.

Side view Floor plan Geometry Handling

Length Width Height Area Service Total area Weight

Service Set up Cycle time

Fig 12.4 Example of a 3D ID card (cleaning robot) © Reichardt 15.213_JR_B necessary text data such as required amounts of compressed air, electrical services etc.

Figure 12.6 illustrates the media connections relevant to a degreaser used by a rubber manufacturer By refining the 3D design of this component, all necessary power inputs, media connections, and outputs are taken into account, preventing future issues with the integration of process technology and building services.

As global warming concerns intensify, the importance of minimizing energy consumption becomes increasingly critical It is essential for new production facilities to incorporate an energy cost analysis for all consumption points within their processes By utilizing synergetic factory planning, relevant data for comprehensive energy simulations can be directly accessed from corresponding ID cards For a thorough examination of strategies to reduce energy use in production facilities, refer to [Neu13], specifically parts V “Machineries and Equipments” and VI “Production Processes.”

When determining capacity data, specific usage profiles and especially the so-called

When assessing factory capacity, it is essential to consider the 'simultaneity factor,' which acknowledges that not all consumption points operate simultaneously at their maximum power, even when the factory is at full capacity For machine building factories, this factor typically ranges from 0.25 to 0.4 While evaluating overall factory capacity is crucial, continual productivity improvements and the long-term impact of resources during their service life must also be factored in In this context, the modular principle of power utilities demonstrates its practical value.

A viable solution for the factory's energy needs is to source power from a local supplier that constructs and operates essential infrastructure, such as transformers, pressurized air, and steam generators, directly on the factory premises, charging only for the actual energy consumed.

Figure 12.7 demonstrates energy optimization in an industrial bakery, highlighting the effective integration of fastening methods with supply and disposal conveyor technologies.

- anti vibration pads against vibration

1 no supply and disposal systems in the floor plate

2 no pollutant - / waste piping in the floor plate

- supply and disposal flexible from above

- autonomous equipment with e.g. self control,

- disposal: minimal emission issues e.g. heat, dust and noise, controlled by encapsulation

1 no dependence on special conveyor systems

- autonomous equipment of facilities with local material supply and hydraulic control

- modular system free positioning mobile "furniture" modular design, modular system media supplied from above compact design with local material supply

Fig 12.5 Changeability features related to facilities © Reichardt 15.214_JR_B

The Master Building Plan process engineering and building services have successfully implemented heat recovery technology, resulting in a significant reduction of energy consumption—62% less for heating and 39% less for ventilation compared to conventional methods.

Special Requirements

The planning team encounters various challenges throughout the general planning process, primarily driven by production requirements These challenges encompass specific demands for infrastructure as well as effective supply and disposal systems.

In clean room technologies, it is essential to consider specific manufacturing equipment needs, including the strength requirements for floor slabs to support heavy machinery and roof slabs for gantry crane systems To effectively manage these requirements, it is advisable to create and interconnect "ID cards" for the process and logistics equipment.

Building Typology

Sectional Profile

Building sections can be designed to expand both horizontally and vertically, making them suitable for various structures, including low-rise, shed, and multi-storey buildings Roof forms and internal heights are key characteristics of hall structures and multi-storey designs, and combining different forms may be necessary to meet specific project requirements A common example is the low production or assembly hall with offices, which exemplifies the integration of hall and multi-storey typologies Additionally, specialized structures in large technical facilities, such as scaffolding for refineries and steel supports for high bay automatic warehouses, require careful consideration and detailed planning Optimizing energy balance and addressing annual energy requirements are crucial for managing heat load in these environments.

- dough separation boiling pastries fine bakery various fermenting room sum [kW]

[W/m²] waste heat [%] heat load [kW]

19.54 heating ventilation load [kw] ann demand [kWh/aãm²] ann demand [kWh/aãm²] load [kW ] initial situation optimized situation improvement [%]

22 flow simulation of summer flow simulation of winter

Fig 12.7 Energy optimization of a building (example — industrial bakery) © Reichardt 15.216_JR_B

Figure 12.9 illustrates the structural features of low-rise buildings, multi-storey structures, and halls The evolution of multi-storey factory designs can be traced back to historical industrial buildings, with significant advancements in daylighting and free span originating from 18th-century English textile mills and early 20th-century American automobile factories Today, these building types remain prevalent in sectors such as optical and electronic industries, as well as food and clothing production Multi-storey buildings are particularly suited for the chemical and pharmaceutical industries, which benefit from the vertical transportation of goods utilizing gravity As a result of the mass production process requirements, coherent low-rise hall buildings became increasingly common in the early 20th century.

The implementation of the assembly line principle in American automobile manufacturing facilitated easy expandability at the ground level, allowing for the rapid installation of heavy machinery and the incorporation of natural light through the roof.

Henry Ford's advancements in hall constructions, as detailed in [Buc02], have established a foundation for their exceptional adaptability Modern hall designs continue to provide significant flexibility, particularly when adequate clearance is maintained for future gallery integration and a consistent modular structure is utilized, enabling various external extensions.

Hall constructions are called for when there are additional demands for wider spans, greater ceiling clearance, or heavy conveyor technology.

Designing buildings with a high degree of internal changeability can be achieved by incorporating reserves for future extensions While flat buildings offer the advantage of external adaptability, allowing expansion in multiple directions, hall constructions are typically limited to extension along a single axis Additionally, flat buildings can effectively combine with hall structures to create special-purpose buildings, such as offices, enhancing their functionality and versatility.

- high shelf store expansion directions

When comparing sectional profiles to flat constructions, it is important to note that the structural framework, conveyor technology, and technical installations in halls incur higher expenses.

To create a cohesive building concept that meets both current and future demands, it is essential to leverage diverse building typologies and integrate them effectively This approach ensures adaptability and responsiveness to the evolving needs of the project.

Outline Figure

Choosing the sectional profile as the sole criterion for defining a building's structure is essential, yet often insufficient In addition to the sectional profile, the allocation of functional areas, their orientation, and adaptability are significantly influenced by the outline figure Furthermore, building plans are shaped by processes that can be centralized or decentralized, compact or dispersed, and even dissected, as illustrated in various examples.

Compact, closed layouts consolidate multiple rooms or functional areas into a unified space beneath a single roof, often resulting in large buildings with expansive interiors These homogenous designs typically feature contiguous rooms, with the space defined by independent room-dividing elements rather than the structural framework Factors contributing to the development of such compact buildings include the functional and technological integration of production and ancillary areas, among other characteristics.

• cost-effective building systems with large capacities that can form larger and therefore economic units when extensive in-house technologies are required,

• saving on the cost of land when the price of property is high.

Large spaces are essential for various functions, including processes, logistics, and administration, providing significant flexibility for future changes Key considerations in designing these spaces include the building's floor plan, section profile, and cellar connections, along with operating costs, ceiling heights, and crane payload capacities Effective vertical and horizontal conveyance is crucial, as is the ability to accommodate diverse loads and net area demands Adequate lighting, indoor climate control, and heating/ventilation systems must be integrated into the building's form, while escape routes should not exceed 30 meters to comply with safety regulations Additionally, the connection between manufacturing areas and the main building, as well as the layout of auxiliary rooms, must be carefully planned, considering factors such as window placement, roof pitch, and crane specifications.

3.50 m to 4.00 m up to 11 to elevator, lifting platform forklift restricted by annex expansion

4.50 m to 5.50 m up to 3 to bridge crane, column crane forklift, conveyor belt, crane guaranteed for entire floor plan extension mostly in several directions over 5.00 m up to 100 to crane crane possible on floor ceilings, vibration sensitive beams on cellar floor on foundation or stiff cellar ceiling, vibration sensitive beams on ground on foundation, rarely cellars are planned underneath limited floor plan, many work - places, stairs and elevators easy to medium requirements small to medium requirements lengthways-oriented connected area at ground level large spans and heights, few work places, crane installations easy to medium requirements high no specific direction heavy to very heavy medium to high lengthways oriented low normal to high lateral windows normal to high local radiators, window ventilation overhead lighting strips, top light domes normal to high heating or air conditioning high high lateral windows, roof surface normal heating, roof ventilation medium low to normal cooling off through walls and roof cooling off through the roof good heat retaining capacity extension or side positioning

Fig 12.9 Features of different sectional pro fi les (acc Dangelmaier) © Reichardt 15.218_JR_B

The 320 12 Master Building Plan offers significant energy efficiency benefits, primarily due to its optimal A/V (envelope surface area to volume) ratio, which minimizes heat loss Additionally, the design features shorter pipes and cables for supply and removal systems, enhancing overall energy performance By avoiding constraints like narrow column grids and poorly positioned core areas, the interior spaces can be easily adapted to meet various needs.

In contrast, dissected and open outline buildings are segmented into multiple equal or varied sub-volumes, which can be categorized by methods such as offsetting, stacking, terracing, gearing, or coupling While fully separating these structures can create distinct building elements, such as in a campus setting, these independent buildings are still considered part of a cohesive group, designed according to a comprehensive Master Plan.

Heterogeneous building layouts are marked by smaller, manageable dimensions and a higher exterior wall area relative to floor space This structural diversity arises from specific requirements such as varying loads, different heights, increased humidity, and unique ventilation and air-conditioning needs.

Further reasons for separating areas into different buildings include:

• dangerous or irritating sub-processes that e.g., generate loud noises or vibrations; emit gases, vapors, dust or smells

• areas with a greater risk offires or explosions that thus require their own special safety regulations.

Typically, larger envelopes and building volumes are less energy-efficient and more expensive However, increasing windows and openings can enhance visual connectivity with the outdoors while maintaining proximity to production areas Additionally, decentralized buildings can optimize energy efficiency in spaces like restrooms, canteens, and changing rooms.

Compact outline Structured outline square rectangle atrium combined polymeric campus

1, 2, expansion directionsFig 12.10 Typology of outline fi gures © Reichardt 15.219_JR_B

Linking Principle

In view of maximizing building capabilities towards changeability of designs, in addition to the previously discussed building typologies, a third point requires a considerable thought—the

The campus is designed with interconnected buildings that function like "blood vessels," integrating traffic routes, utility networks, and material flow pathways The strategic positioning and connection of adjacent structures significantly influence their communication dynamics According to [Kar90], the selected combination principle can either promote or hinder "internal" expansion and retrofitting opportunities.

Choosing the right combination principle for building structures is crucial, as it greatly affects the complexity of implementing changes at the interfaces where essential functions overlap This complexity often surpasses that of modifications made to floor plans or the profiles of individual structures, making careful selection vital for effective external expansion or fitting media.

In continuation of principles discussed so far examples for linking principles are shown in

The article discusses long-term arrangements for industrial building structures, emphasizing the importance of planning for future expansions By utilizing a linear arrangement along a central axis, a spine is created to facilitate the movement of people, materials, and utilities, with potential vacant spaces on either side reserved for future development In contrast, courtyard-based designs feature building volumes organized at right angles around an open space, such as a logistics truck area, which may limit connectivity However, with careful planning, these designs can also accommodate ring-like expansions, enhancing access to neighboring buildings Additionally, star-shaped arrangements offer a central open area, though their angular layouts may restrict site planning flexibility.

Utilizing fractal theory, buildings can be strategically arranged on a site in a seemingly chaotic manner, enhancing spatial dynamics The geometry of traffic crossings facilitates the placement of structures perpendicular to movement axes, creating four distinct zones for potential development In contrast, spiral and circular designs enable building volumes to align along imaginary movement lines, reflecting dynamic circuit geometry The grid principle, based on a geometric coordination system, allows for the redefinition of relationships between built and unbuilt areas, adapting to current and future needs.

To effectively address current and future process and logistics needs, it is essential to incorporate figure and linking principles into discussions As illustrated in Figure 12.12, the changeability aspects of the section, outline figure, and linkage principle are crucial for a typical combination of hall and office wing The building arrangement significantly influences expansion possibilities in both plan and section, as well as the linking spaces for staff, visitors, materials, and utility media This analysis clearly defines the characteristics of design changeability.

Property Protection

Burglary, Theft

To enhance security against burglary and theft, it is common to install fencing around the perimeter of a facility Depending on gate placement, ample parking for employees and visitors may be available prior to the plant entrance, subject to regulatory approval However, traditional fences often offer minimal protection against determined trespassers, as they can be easily breached by skilled offenders.

From an urban planning point of view as well as from the perspective of more changeable

1 coupled star grid axial court-yard random cruciform spiral 1, 2, 3 expansion directions

Fig 12.11 Typology of linking principles © Reichardt 15.220_JR_B

- synergy: overlapping of several comprehensive work tasks

- openness: continuation/variation of the combination principle ease the integrate in case of expansion

6 visitor way section profile outline figure

Modern multi-story and hall buildings can enhance security by utilizing motion and door/window sensors, eliminating the need for traditional fencing systems An integrated security concept can adapt to changing usage needs while focusing on specific safety areas Additionally, contemporary alarm systems can automatically relay alerts to service centers, including plant security, police, or personal contacts.

Fire and Explosion Prevention

Measures for preventing fires and explosions should be derived from a comprehensively developedfire prevention concept for the entire factory premises The conceptfirst regulates the safety of people by:

• providing sufficiently short escape routes,

• ensuring the fire resistance quality of the structural support systems, building shells, extension elements, rescue routes and

• extracting smoke when there is afire.

To prevent explosions, it is essential to store hazardous substances in designated rooms that are adaptable to change The fire prevention strategy should be flexible, allowing for short escape routes and effective fume extraction Storage areas for explosive materials must be designed for easy expansion or dismantling when no longer needed Detailed technical specifications are provided in Sect 10.5.1, with additional information available in references [Jon14] and [Int11].

General Development (Master Plan)

Procedure

The general development, also called “Master

Plan”shall generate a synopsis of material-flow, town planning, landscaping, energy and envi- ronmental and laws, in a way that best suits the functional utilization of the given site The

A master plan strategically integrates existing buildings and open spaces while anticipating future development in well-defined phases By coordinating various stages of growth, it aims to prevent potential obstacles, such as poorly positioned structures or outdated utility systems that could hinder expansion and incur high renovation costs This comprehensive approach not only aligns with community regulations regarding building dimensions, floor areas, and parking requirements but also addresses urban planning challenges, including energy efficiency and ecological considerations.

• the functional relationships between sectors of the plant,

• the quality of the spaces,

• the orientation of the buildings according to solar criteria with regards to shading and energy balancing and

• consciously including green spaces and venti- lation corridors.

For more detailed information on urban planning law regarding master plans as well as building regulation codes see [Mar11, Chi12, Kie07].

In master plans, building types can serve as either centralizing or decentralizing factors Centralizing factors focus on grouping similar functions closely together, while decentralizing factors create a structure that divides the company into relatively independent operating units.

The distinction between an ideal plan and a real plan is crucial An ideal plan represents a comprehensive blueprint for a factory, envisioning its full potential without local restrictions This plan is essential for conceptualizing the perfect factory layout and accurately estimating its feasibility.

The 324 12 Master Building Plan has several disadvantages that lead to deviations from the ideal state To create a practical plan from the ideal one, it is essential to verify the characteristics of the eligible grounds.

• access to public infrastructure (incl public transportation and utilities),

A Master Plan flowchart outlines the process of defining site areas based on specific uses, ensuring that building structures and technical infrastructure are seamlessly integrated for coherent development The goal is to meet current needs while also planning for future expansions, typically considering planning horizons of five, ten, or fifteen years Accurate evaluation of requirements and precise coordination of zones, buildings, and infrastructure are crucial for effective planning.

Establishing a cooperative planning process that includes early active participation from authorities is crucial for effective local infrastructure, supply and removal systems, and environmental protection Zoning plays a vital role by providing essential information for various functional areas such as manufacturing, logistics, and administration Additionally, planned routing for supply and removal systems is fundamental to infrastructure development The master plan must clearly outline traffic plans, parking spaces, external green areas, streets, fencing, and building plans, including cadastral maps.

Zoning and Organizational Grid

The zoning foundation is based on the factory concept established during structural planning, emphasizing the importance of identifying options for future extensions The functional areas are then determined from this refined zoning Depending on the project's size, a grid system using square, rectangular, or triangular units is suggested To support site development, employing a consistent dimensional system for construction and interior planning is beneficial, as it enables efficient area management through module counting This approach also facilitates any future additions, conversions, or extensions.

• closely connected areas for material flow

• uniform structural and spatial demands

• avoidance of transportation in the open field

• building of larger and more economic units

• building of larger buildings, more favorable investments, lower heat losses, short supply and disposal pipes

• areas related with respect to infrastructure

• high land price decentralizing factors

• separate organization and management areas

• different areas with respect to infrastructure (e.g fire and explosion hazard)

• distance due to vibration or earthquake

Fig 12.13 Master building plan factors (per Dolezalek, Warnecke) © Reichardt 15.222_JR_B development stages are then embedded into the arrangement of buildings and roads.

To effectively evaluate a site, it is ideal for the modular grid points to align closely with the primary direction of the lot's progression This alignment allows for the construction of buildings featuring straight, continuous external walls, optimizing the overall design Compliance with standards such as DIN 4171 and DIN 4172 further enhances the architectural integrity of the project.

ISO°1791 possible grid systems are standard- ized; grid sizes are selected depending on the objectives of the factory planning, the cut of the land and bank costs.

Figure 12.15 illustrates a project zoning and grid example that emphasizes the importance of protected and vegetation areas to create a scenic nature reserve and planned "vegetation compensation" area The design allows for three construction stages that do not disrupt ongoing production, ensuring a seamless factory expansion This expansion aligns with the modularity of process and logistics elements within a parent grid network for road construction, building, and space expansion.

The extensive zoning grid is divided into smaller systems for precise planning, with common dimensions including 36, 50, and 60 meters For construction purposes, more suitable smaller grids can be established, such as 18 meters for production hall structures and 1.20 meters for office modules.

Infrastructure, Supply and Removal

Infrastructure encompasses the connection of facilities to the public transportation network, while also managing internal material flow, employee and visitor movement, and access for emergency services Aligned with the strategic expansion outlined in the master plan, the access grid establishes area modules for the road system It is essential to define traffic routes in conjunction with the development plan and to thoroughly investigate planning factors.

• building regulations, restrictions development scheme

• design outlines, alternatives coordination development scheme approval internal/external

- land register zone plan draft

• reserves, alternative solutions coordination development plan

The development plan for effective water and heat management requires comprehensive coordination, including environmental approvals and internal zone planning This involves meticulous area planning for functional zones, detailed planning of supply and disposal systems, and thorough investigation of foundational data to ensure sustainable and efficient resource management.

• area, situation plan investigation of planning factors

• infrastructure, development task formulation public supply and disposal service development infrastructure environmental protection authorities location

Fig 12.14 Flowchart for developing a master building plan (acc Aggteleky) © Reichardt 15.223_JR_B

In the 326 12 Master Building Plan, it is essential to consider the integration of access systems and media routes within the property Overlapping these routes can be practical; however, constructing over supply and removal ducts typically violates building regulations.

Effective master planning involves strategically designing and positioning primary traffic and media routes to ensure they remain efficient and future-proof This is particularly crucial for modular concepts, necessitating a forward-thinking approach to infrastructure planning Additionally, when considering supply and removal systems, it's essential to evaluate the benefits of centralized versus decentralized layouts Centralized systems for energy supply, transformers, heating, and ventilation typically offer lower investment and operating costs, while decentralized systems reduce transmission losses due to fewer lines.

In the event of a defect, the entire plant remains operational, allowing for easier adjustments during the retrofitting of individual units This approach favors the use of functionally pre-assembled and tested modules, enabling rapid deployment and operational readiness.

Figure 12.16 showcases exemplary layouts for access, supply, and removal systems, highlighting access routes on the left and vertically depicted variations for media lines on the right To accommodate future changes, it is crucial to design these systems with options for easy expansion and the integration of upgradeable main lines within the cross-sections of ducts, pipes, bridges, or secondary stations.

Buildings and Open Spaces

To achieve the factory design objectives, selecting appropriate building forms and grids is essential Implementing modular building concepts allows for strategic site expansion in multiple phases Additionally, incorporating green areas and parking lots helps seamlessly integrate the facility into both the site and the surrounding urban and natural environments.

Implementing a cohesive green concept throughout the entire plant premises, including boundary areas, is essential for harmonizing the factory with its surroundings This approach should incorporate seepage areas and stormwater retention basins, which act as valuable ecological biotopes Additionally, these green spaces provide recreational areas for employees to enjoy during their breaks.

Parking areas should be shaded using trees or light-weight roofing structures, particularly in warmer climates to avoid being ‘heat islands’. Impermeable parking surfaces should be

The zoning grid depicted in Figure 12.15 exemplifies a general site development plan, emphasizing the importance of utilizing materials like gravel, cobblestones, and paver blocks that facilitate grass growth and enhance rainwater percolation Additionally, Figure 12.17 showcases the spatial layout principles for the modular factory illustrated in Figure 12.15, highlighting effective design strategies for sustainable development.

An analysis of various options for relocating a plant from an urban area to the outskirts of a large city is presented, focusing on two potential locations evaluated against specific criteria The adaptable building design stems from factory planning requirements, utilizing a construction grid of 26 m × 36 m, and will be developed in multiple stages Both locations incorporate a comprehensive green concept that enhances existing vegetation and includes stormwater retention ponds for effective roof drainage Ultimately, Solution B is chosen for further planning due to its superior area development potential and multiple access points to the property.

4 pipe bridges in roof structure

Fig 12.16 Arrangement of traf fi c, supply and disposal systems in a general development plan © Reichardt 15.225_JR_B

1 routing for logistics, fire brigade

Fig 12.17 Spatial arrangement of a general development plan (example) © Reichardt 15.226_JR_B

In conclusion, our discussion on developing a plant site indicates that the factory planning tasks are essentially complete The subsequent phase of planning focuses on the location, which is intricately tied to the company's production strategy.

We will examine it in the next two chapters,first from a spatial view and then from a strategic perspective.

Summary

The foundation of the site master plan is based on the production program specifications, alongside the topographical, infrastructural, climatic, and legal requirements of the site A thorough examination of various concepts will focus on future adaptability, energy efficiency, and sustainability Key decisions will be made regarding sectional profiles and floor plans.

figure and linkage principle between buildings determine the future security of the enterprise and requires a team effort with high creativity of all stakeholders.

[Agg80] Aggteleky, B.: Fabrikplanung – Werksent- wicklung und Fabrikrationalisierung Carl Hanser M ü nchen (Factory Planning — Site Development and Factory Rationalization). Carl Hanser, Munich (1980)

[AGI04] Arbeitsgemeinschaft Industriebau e.V.: Ob- jektschutz und Sicherheitstechnik im Industrie- bau (Property Protection and Safety Technology in Industry) Callwey, Munich (2004)

[BUC02] Bucci, F.: Albert Kahn — Architecture of Ford.

Princeton Architectural Press, New York (2002)

[Chi12] Ching, F.D.K., Winkel, S.R.: Building Codes

Illustrated: A Guide to Understanding the 2012 International Building Code Wiley, Hoboken (2012)

[Dol73] Dolezalek, C.M.: Planung von Fabrikanlagen

(Planning of Factories) Springer, Heidelberg (1973)

1 existing green belt, compensation area

2 tree-lined parking area under a green roof

4 ring circulation system for traffic

1 existing green belt, compensation area

2 tree-lined parking area under a green roof

4 central avenue system for traffic

5 urban development address, identity for each section

6 expansion possibilities for each step

7 pilot project, 1st phase of construction

Fig 12.18 Plant relocation options (example) © Reichardt 15.227_JR_B

[Int11] International Fire Service Training Associa- tion: Fire Detection and Suppression Systems,

[Jon14] Jones Jr., A.M.: Fire Protection Systems, 2nd edn Jones & Bartlett Publishers, Sudbury

[Kar90] Karsten, G.: Fabriken f ü r das 21 Jahrhundert

(Factories for the 21st century) In: Presenta- tion at Symposium Fabrikplanung, Jena, 30/31

[Kie07] Kiepe, F., von Heyl, A.: Baugesetzbuch f ü r

Planer (Building Code for Planners), 3rd edn.

[Neu13] Neugebauer, R (ed.): Resource Orientated

[Mar11] Marshall, S (ed.): Urban Coding and Planning.

Routledge, Abingdon (2011) [Pev98] Pevsner, N.: Funktion und Form, die

Geschichte der Bauwerke des Westens (Function and Form The History of the Buildings of the West) Rogner & Bernhard, Hamburg (1998)

[Rei98] Reichardt, J., Dr ỹ ke, K.: B ọ ckerei mit inno- vativem Gesamtkonzept (Bakery with an Inno- vative Concept) In: industrieBAU 6, p 34 ff (1998)

[Stei07] Steiner, F.R.: Planning and Urban Design

Standards By American Planning Association, Wiley, Hoboken (2007)

Selecting the right location for a new factory is a critical decision that significantly impacts a company's long-term global supply chain strategies and its relationships with customers and suppliers.

On the other hand, basic decisions are to be taken about the long term development of the site.

This article assumes that strategic decisions regarding the role of production have been effectively finalized, despite some uncertainties Additionally, it is presumed that earlier planning stages have narrowed down the potential site options to a select few A detailed discussion of these aspects will be provided in Chapter 14.

Analyzing local sites in terms of space planning is essential, as illustrated in Figure 13.1, which summarizes the key design fields relevant to all elements at the local site level from a spatial perspective.

Site Development

In England's industrial era, textile mills were strategically located near water sources to harness mechanical energy for loom operations before the advent of steam and water power These waterways also played a crucial role in facilitating the distribution of goods to urban markets.

Choosing a site today is influenced by a complex interplay of global, regional, and local factors Globally, site selection is driven by corporate trade in goods and services, while locally, the strategic positioning within the logistics network is crucial Key considerations include the availability and capacity of various transportation options, such as truck, rail, air, and sea.

To optimize the movement of goods, traffic interfaces such as motorways and trunk roads should be located outside congested areas, ensuring connecting roads and bridges remain free from inner-city traffic and restrictions on vehicle dimensions As competition intensifies, convenient access to airports is crucial for export-oriented businesses, while the proximity of existing railway tracks and potential railway sidings can enhance rail transport efficiency Additionally, being near freight distribution centers or container terminals offers significant logistical advantages Utilizing regional waterways for transporting bulky or low-cost raw materials can also be economically beneficial Therefore, a thorough analysis of the traffic and transport systems at a potential location is essential for long-term planning.

H.-P Wiendahl et al., Handbook Factory Planning and Design,

DOI 10.1007/978-3-662-46391-8_13, © Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2015

Utilities Supply and Disposal

A thorough inventory provides clarity on all the media existing within the premises of the property as well as the media entering and leaving the plot.

A thorough evaluation of utility data is essential, focusing on the quality, quantity, reliability, and current and future tariffs of essential services such as electricity, water, gas, and telecommunications Additionally, it is crucial to assess the suitability of existing supply and disposal systems, including stormwater drainage and sewage, for new requirements For revitalizing industrial brownfield projects, inspecting the condition of drainage and sewer networks for leaks using appropriate testing methods is necessary prior to planning Utilizing a 3D CAD model to document and analyze the layout and levels of existing utilities can enhance synergetic factory planning.

Figure 13.2 illustrates key sections of a 3D data model representing the supply and disposal lines within an assembly plant Comprehensive documentation of both existing and planned utilities and media networks on-site is essential to prevent unexpected issues during the construction phase.

To accurately assess energy requirements and load profiles, it's essential for a knowledgeable expert or team to engage with local utility authorities during negotiations The placement and quantity of transformer stations must align with the site's overall development goals Ensuring long-term adaptability throughout all stages of the development plan is crucial, incorporating strategic expansion phases and considering coincidence factors, which measure the ratio of average consumption to installed power This process yields necessary data, such as daily water supply averages and peak consumption during various development phases Additionally, authorities or insurance companies may require compliance with specific regulations regarding firefighting sprinkler systems, utility supply, and environmental assessments.

Fig 13.1 Overview of design fi elds location © Reichardt 15.233_JR_B

Effective site planning from a spatial perspective requires a prompt assessment of water reservoir conditions and the necessary water pressure for sprinkler systems It is often prudent to explore the feasibility of establishing an independent water supply through deep tube-wells, ensuring a sustainable long-term resource This is especially crucial for industries like breweries and food manufacturing, where water quality is paramount Therefore, the analysis of the physical and chemical properties of water samples, including factors like hardness and temperature, should be incorporated into the water supply contract.

For heating building and processes, gas is preferable to petroleum products for reasons of lower environmental impact For smaller demands portable containers may be sufficient.

Proximity to thermal power stations allows sites to access hot water or steam at affordable rates, making it a cost-effective option for district heating Conducting a thorough analysis of energy requirements and potential expenses can provide insights into the long-term profitability compared to ownership costs.

Effective rainwater management is essential, as direct disposal from rooftops, paved roads, and open areas into public stormwater systems can be challenging Installing rainwater harvesting systems on-site is an ideal solution, as it helps recharge sub-soil water tables and aquifers, promoting sustainable water use and conservation.

Conducting a comprehensive geo-technical survey during the initial data evaluation phase is essential for understanding the current soil conditions and the location and depth of the water table This information allows for the strategic placement of rainwater harvesting installations, ensuring that the remaining areas of the site are available for the planned construction of buildings.

Liquid waste from factories often consists of a combination of domestic waste, wastewater from manufacturing processes, and stormwater contaminated with oil and grease from parking lots Proper treatment of these liquid wastes is essential before they can be released into the public disposal system Utilizing 3D utilities, site, and building models can aid in determining whether wastewater can naturally flow out of the property by gravity or if pumping is required due to elevation differences between the building, the plot, and the public disposal network Additionally, the rapid advancement of IT technology necessitates high-speed data cabling and telecommunication networks, making efficient infrastructure increasingly vital.

Plot

Geometric Properties

The usability of a plot is influenced by its size, shape, and topography, which are crucial in defining the overall space requirements at the project's inception This initial assessment informs the master plan's general arrangement for the site A common consideration is whether to acquire land solely for the first phase of development or for the entire project, including potential future expansions Key factors to evaluate include current versus future land prices and associated costs.

3D data model supply and disposal utilities

Fig 13.2 Supply and disposal of an assembly plant ©

Reichardt 15.228_JR_B development, capital annuities and tax, planning and sanctioning risks, maintenance costs, etc.

The dimensions of a plot, including the length-to-width ratio, corner angles, and the positioning of entrance driveways, play a crucial role in assessing the site's suitability for current and future developments, as well as its adaptability for potential conversions.

Compact and square plots are ideal for concentrated production, while longitudinal plots cater to linear production processes The placement of driveways significantly influences future development options, such as the integration of modular plants, which function as "factories within a factory" and require their own entrances and fire escape routes.

Gentle slopes of 2-3% are preferable for site development as they facilitate better material flow and utility distribution, unlike steeper slopes which can hinder these processes Avoiding terracing is crucial, as it significantly increases construction costs and time In certain sloped terrains, innovative engineering solutions can link a two-storey utilities block with a single-storey production building without the need for land leveling To reduce additional expenses and time, optimizing the cutting and filling of the terrain is essential For instance, a 3D topography model can illustrate how excavation and filling can be optimized for an assembly plant, eliminating the need for external soil movement.

Soil Characteristics

The choice of foundation construction techniques is influenced by soil type, its physical and chemical characteristics, load-bearing capacities at different depths, and the groundwater table level Soil permeability affects rainwater infiltration on the property Conducting a comprehensive geotechnical analysis is essential for informed planning or contracting To accurately assess the sub-soil strata, standard penetration tests are typically conducted on a grid layout of 10 m by 10 m.

= topo lines optimization of topo lines in the 3D model filling terracing

Fig 13.3 Topography of an assembly plant location © Reichardt 15.229_JR_B

334 13 Site Planning from Space View

When constructing in areas measuring 32.8×32.8 ft (10 m×10 m) or 20 m×20 m (65.6×65.6 ft), it is crucial to consider the potential presence of archaeological artifacts or unexploded ordnance in the soil In certain regions, this may necessitate detailed aerial photography, historical data analysis, and consultations with local authorities The recovery and safe disposal of these items can pose risks to the overall project, requiring specialized risk management strategies to address potential impacts on cost and timelines.

Obstacles and Edifices

Comprehensive studies of existing and proposed neighborhood developments are essential to assess potential ecological impacts, including noise, smoke, fumes, and fire hazards Special attention must be given to public water bodies near construction sites, necessitating earth and water retaining structures to prevent seepage and contamination The planning team, alongside landscape experts, should consider protecting special animal habitats and valuable plantations during the design of the master plan, buildings, and open spaces In areas with a history of mining, it is crucial to investigate for mine shafts to prevent uneven foundation settlement caused by inconsistent soil strata or sudden voids Additionally, existing structures within the site or adjacent to the boundary should be analyzed and integrated into the master plan where appropriate Lastly, existing buildings must be evaluated for their potential for conversion, as demolition may often be required to achieve a cohesive and aesthetically pleasing factory project.

Laws and Regulations

National, state, and local planning authorities outline suitable areas for industrial development through comprehensive plans and land-use regulations, detailing land use, zoning, building height limits, and pollution emission standards Designations like business parks or industrial zones dictate specific guidelines, including set-back distances, permissible sound levels, and compatibility with surrounding urban areas Advocates emphasize the importance of integrating industrial and commercial spaces within urban environments for effective town planning and environmental sustainability Additionally, existing regulations should not hinder future development potential; therefore, site evaluations must consider various future scenarios It is important to note that special approvals for pollution levels from governmental agencies may prolong the development process, impacting project timelines.

Town planning and architectural goals typically influence the established rules, regulations, and design manuals within a region Specific requirements often pertain to aspects such as roof heights, facade materials, colors, and even rooftop landscaping For instance, legal and aesthetic guidelines are essential for urban development projects, exemplified by a 400,000 m² (988,000 ac) business park.

The project, which created 1,500 jobs, was developed through a public-private partnership model, as noted by [Rei97] Utilizing 3D synergetic factory planning methods, the comprehensive urban planning was continuously refined over a seven-year execution period Legal regulations governed building volumes and landscaping, while aesthetic elements were pre-defined through 3D animations This integrated planning approach ensures that all investors receive clear and mandatory information, including sanctioning parameters, design guidelines, and visual representations.

Besides the aspects discussed above, the national, regional and state authorities may have a vast number of other legislations and regula- tions or specific local statutes depending on the place.

Site Evaluation

When evaluating alternative sites for development, it is crucial to consider factors such as supply and disposal, land availability, environmental impact, potential for expansion, construction codes, purchase price, and municipal taxes and subsidies Case studies [AGI04, Kin09] provide insights into the selection criteria for location decisions A proven procedure for analyzing the "benefit value" scheme begins with the planning team selecting evaluation criteria and assigning weights to each criterion, ensuring a comprehensive assessment of potential sites.

100 % Then variants for each location included in the shortlist are rated from 0 (unsatisfactory) to

The total benefit value is calculated by multiplying individual benefit values by a weighting factor, resulting in a summed overall utility value For instance, an example illustrated in Figure 13.5 shows an overall utility value of 3.25, which represents 81% of the maximum possible value of 4.0 Typically, solutions that achieve a utility value below 80% of the maximum long-term value are deemed non-competitive in the long run.

Figure 13.6 illustrates a site study conducted for the relocation of a rubber products factory, highlighting that the existing inner-city location lacked adequate space for future expansion A total of twelve potential sites were analyzed and assessed within a specified distance to identify more suitable options for development.

Before recommending a specific site, a distance of 20 km from the current location was considered In the left section of Fig 13.6, twelve potential sites are listed along with their benchmarks, while the rating criteria are displayed in the top right corner These sites underwent a detailed analysis through a volumetric study, which adhered to urban-level building code requirements.

Fig 13.4 Urban development concept of a business park © Reichardt 15.230_JR_B

336 13 Site Planning from Space View evaluation criterion

• expandability of the property area

• time for clarification, purchase and regulations

• soil condition assessment : 0 unsatisfactory 1 just still acceptable 2 sufficing 3 good 4 very good (ideal)

100 3.25 selection of evaluation criteria weighting of evaluation criteria assessment of locations comparison and choice assessment steps benefit calculation weight sum assess- ment value

Fig 13.5 Site assessment (example) © IFA15.231SW_B

Location selection criteria assessment according to assessment scale

KH, Reiherstieg, DEA west size in m2 61000 61000 61000 61000 61000 61000 26400 61000 61000 61000 50591

61000 expansion - area in m2 price per m2 price in euro assessm. location 139,000

The data presents a series of numerical values, ranging from 3.25 to 1.25, along with corresponding binary responses of "yes" and "no." These values and responses suggest a trend or pattern that could be analyzed for insights The highest score recorded is 3.25, while the lowest is 1.25, indicating a significant variation in the dataset The presence of affirmative responses predominates, with several instances of "yes" interspersed among the "no" answers, which may reflect differing opinions or outcomes associated with the numerical values This information could be useful for understanding preferences or performance metrics in a given context.

The suitability of space division for PTT 2005 is assessed based on various factors, including a total area of 250 m x 270 m, gas and steam accessibility for staff, and local public transport options Key considerations also include the extendibility of the area, price per square meter with incentives, and traffic connections for transportation Additionally, it is important to estimate the time required to clarify purchase planning and regulations, as well as to evaluate existing residual wastes and contamination, building ground composition, and the location's activity and environmental impact.

Fig 13.6 Results of a site assessment (example) © IFA 15.232SW_B

“knock out” criteria which could be either non compliance or immediate disqualification Fol- lowing further the explained scheme according

The table in Fig 13.5 summarizes the benefit values of individual locations, with the total displayed in the lower right corner By sorting these values in descending order, the preferred location emerges clearly.

Wenzendorf achieved a benefit value of 3.25, representing 81% of the maximum possible value Key factors contributing to its top ranking included the layout of the plot and potential future expansion opportunities.

Environmental Aspects

Evaluating heat gains and losses for the proposed factory building is essential during the initial planning stages through energy simulation It is crucial to explore renewable energy generation opportunities, such as solar, wind, water, and geothermal sources, tailored to the site's climate conditions, including temperature profiles, sunshine hours, rainfall, and prevailing wind directions Implementing an intelligent architectural solution will result in a building design that optimizes construction, building envelope, and necessary utilities, ensuring efficiency and sustainability.

Past meteorological data is very useful when

Finalizing energy performance in preliminary design concepts is crucial, as various climatic zones necessitate tailored spatial designs, building volumes, orientation strategies, and the effective generation and utilization of alternative energy sources.

Air movement is crucial for ensuring a fresh air supply and should be allowed to flow freely between buildings Construction projects often transform natural landscapes into hard surfaces, which can increase local temperatures and disrupt micro-climates through turbulent air flow and altered precipitation patterns To mitigate these effects, new industrial developments should be strategically positioned to avoid blocking prevailing winds, ensuring equitable air distribution Additionally, incorporating ample green spaces, boulevards, and tree planting is essential for maintaining ecological balance and enhancing micro-climatic conditions, while also facilitating rainwater infiltration to recharge groundwater levels.

Opportunities exist to develop new industrial and commercial areas adjacent to existing green spaces, following the landscape planning principles of Anglo-Saxon industrial parks A comprehensive technology park, spanning 2,000,000 m², emphasizes a green center that offers recreational spaces for employees and local residents During the planning phase, it is crucial to enhance the company's image and brand value by incorporating green and sustainable technologies to create a vibrant environment Car parking lots should feature trees, while access roads can be lined with greenery on one or both sides Additionally, landscaping on roofs and facades can significantly improve the ecological quality of the area.

Summary

Choosing the right location is crucial for the successful development of factories, as it significantly impacts long-term growth Factors such as supply chain logistics, utility access, regulatory compliance, and rising environmental concerns play a vital role in shaping a company's adaptability A comprehensive and systematic evaluation of various options is essential to navigate the complexities of these considerations effectively.

338 13 Site Planning from Space View

A collaborative approach to site and master planning is essential for addressing developmental challenges effectively, ensuring long-term success from the outset This topic is further explored in Chapter 14, which focuses on strategic site development.

[AG104] Arbeitsgemeinschaft Industriebau e.V.: Stan- dortplanung im Industriebau — Ein Leitfaden f ü r Architekten, Ingenieure und Unternehmen

(Working Group Industrial Construction: Site

Planning in Industrial Buildings — A Guide for

Architects, Engineers and Companies) Call- wey, Munich (2004)

[Kar88] Karsten, G., Reichardt, J.: Fl ọ chensparendes

Bauen f ü r Industrie und Gewerbe in Berlin.

(Space Saving Construction for Industry in

Berlin) Report commissioned to the Berlin

(Success Factor Location Planning), 2nd edn. Springer, Heidelberg (2009)

[Mat94] Matzig, G.: Neue Mitte — Technology Park

N ü rnberg — F ü rth — Erlangen (New Center Technology Park N ü rnberg — F ü rth — Erlan- gen) City Bauwelt, 36 , S 1912 f (1994) [Rei94a] Reichardt, J.: Multi-story industrial buildings

— new chances for the city development? In: Lecture Manuscript International Congress — New Technology in Town, p 36 f Rotterdam (1994a)

[Rei94b] Reichardt, J.: Arbeiten in der Stadt — neue

Lebensr ọ ume Chancen f ỹ r verdichtete Sta- dtstrukturen (Work in the City — New Habitat Opportunities for Compacted Urban Struc- tures) DAB, 9 , S 1328 ff (1994b)

[Rei97] Reichardt, J.: Entwicklung des Gewerbegebie- tes ô M1 ằ (Development of the industrial area

“ M1 ” ) BAUKULTUR, 2 , S 36 ff (1997) [Sch92] Schulitz, H.C.: Industrie contra St ọ dtebau

(Industry versus urban development) In: Con- structec Price 1990 Industrial Architecture inEurope, pp 8 – 41 Ernst and Sohn, Berlin(1992)

Introduction

While the search for a strategic location primarily falls under the purview of enterprise management, factory planners play a crucial role due to their understanding of key assumptions that influence factory features, particularly the necessary level of changeability It is essential for factory planners to comprehend the decision-making process behind these strategic choices to assess the reliability of assumptions, especially concerning future product offerings This article outlines the fundamental framework and steps involved in identifying a strategic location, with further resources available for those seeking more detailed information.

Location Planning Triggers

Our discussion about change drivers in Chap.1 clearly demonstrates that a plethora of external and internal change drivers impact a factory Not all of them are reason to question the location.

A simultaneous emergence of various factors can lead to a subtle decline in corporate earnings and increased management concerns, prompting a reassessment of a location's viability for sustained economic, ecological, and social success Internal and external drivers, depicted in Figure 14.1, can challenge a location's effectiveness, with external influences from technology, market dynamics, and environmental changes acting as catalysts for transformation Management typically recognizes that simply addressing individual weaknesses in logistics and costs is insufficient when these issues coincide with fluctuating quality and capacity constraints This realization necessitates a comprehensive, long-term competitive strategy that may focus on specific areas such as cost, quality, technology, logistics, or flexibility leadership Ultimately, management must evaluate the international orientation of production, considering internal competitive strategies and motives for internationalization, which may include cost reduction, market expansion, customer relocation, or accessing specialized knowledge from other countries.

In Fig 14.2 we can see that these two per- spectives have to fit together strategically [Kin09] Internationalization is not very useful when for example personnel costs represent only

H.-P Wiendahl et al., Handbook Factory Planning and Design,

DOI 10.1007/978-3-662-46391-8_14, © Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2015

• automation engineering technology strategic targets weak points

Flexibility leadership involves site-specific reactions to change drivers, such as reorganization and expansion, whether in greenfield projects or existing operations Competitive strategies like cost leadership, quality leadership, technological leadership, logistics leadership, and flexibility leadership are crucial for businesses aiming to internationalize The primary motives for internationalization include cost reduction, market expansion, customer proximity, and access to technology and know-how While these motives can align with a company's strategic goals, there are instances where they may not correspond, highlighting the complexity of international business strategies.

1 ) also contains raw material and energy costs besides labor costs as well as cost-intensive legal regulations

Fig 14.2 Strategic fi t between motives for internationalization and competitive strategies (to Kinkel et al.) © IFA15.253_B

Manufacturing costs for a product consist of 20% attributed to production, with a labor cost ratio of 5:1 between German and international locations If material costs remain constant, this could lead to a potential savings of 16% on manufacturing expenses However, additional expenses related to logistics, start-up, and management may significantly diminish these savings.

Opening new markets is a universally beneficial strategy, regardless of competitive approach However, relying on major customers in their sales markets is not a sustainable practice from a cost perspective Additionally, acquiring new technological expertise primarily enhances strategies centered on quality, technology, and flexibility leadership.

The analysis may reveal that reorganizing the current site into a lean production model is sufficient, while in other scenarios, local expansion combined with the consolidation of several locations may be necessary to meet needs effectively.

In some cases, it may be essential to build a new site, either by moving from the existing location or by establishing an additional site that shares functions and capabilities with the current one.

Making decisions about internationalization should not be impulsive or based on a single factor, such as cost pressures or customer proximity Instead, it is essential to engage in thorough strategic planning, as neglecting this can lead to a 25% failure rate in international ventures Companies often face significant losses when they have to revert production back to their home country While some argue that strategic planning is time-consuming and that immediate action is necessary, this perspective overlooks the complexity of the process and the associated risks.

Suitability of the Current Structure

Before beginning the search for a new location, it's essential to ensure that both the current and prospective sites are comparable in terms of critical success factors According to [Jun04], these critical success factors, which we will refer to as 'performance factors,' play a vital role in evaluating potential locations.

• product and production flexibility as well as

It is inappropriate to compare a location that has developed organically over time with a newly optimized site Therefore, it is essential to assess the latent potentials in the existing production processes and their potential impact on key performance factors Various methodologies, such as Lean Production, Total Quality Management, and Business Reengineering, can be employed, often in combination, to create a cohesive and effective production system.

To effectively estimate potential for modernization, it is advisable to concentrate on four key areas: technology, organization, personnel, and product A structured analysis of the existing measures within these domains can provide valuable insights into the overall modernization process.

The exploration of various fields continues to reveal opportunities for enhancement, particularly in optimizing the five key performance factors Current optimizations have demonstrated significant potential, and further improvements can still be achieved through targeted strategies.

Modernizing production technology involves ensuring stability in processes despite internal disruptions and automating entire value chains flexibly Prioritizing the previously discussed flexibility in product and process variants is essential, with the ultimate goal of consistently enhancing overall performance.

Based on the example of optimizing the pro- duction’s performance, Fig 14.5 provides a detailed overview of how to analyze such

Location planning triggers involve the implementation of innovative machine tool concepts and manufacturing processes that can affect productivity, flexibility, quality, and throughput time The primary aim is to enhance productivity, even though throughput time contributes minimally to value addition While higher setup times may negatively impact flexibility, the overall quality can vary based on the control of the processes involved.

Returning to Fig 14.4, the key possibilities for modernizing the organization of an enterprise are found in hierarchical organizational structures and workflows It is precisely here that Lean

Production strategies vary from manufacturing cells to independent business units, emphasizing the importance of integrating product development with production through collaborative development teams A critical aspect of this process is determining vertical integration and spatial distribution of value-added activities, which is essential for location selection Ultimately, the goal is to ensure that supply is proximity to the market while balancing costs, quality, and logistics effectively.

To modernize personnel performance, organizations should adopt new work structures that emphasize task integration and ongoing skill development This approach aims to enhance employees' understanding of the need for continuous change, transforming it from a perceived threat into an opportunity for modernization By conducting a structured analysis of current practices, organizations can identify key areas for improvement, focusing on optimizable performance factors such as manufacturing costs, product quality, flexibility, innovation capability, and lead times Estimating the realistic optimization potential that remains to be exploited will help organizations maximize their effectiveness at the current location.

Fig 14.3 Estimating optimization potentials at current location © IFA

15.254_B modernization fields technology organization personnel product

Fig 14.4 Potentials for modernizing an existing production © IFA

15.255_B challenge and an opportunity The general approach is characterized by increasing the flexibility of work hours and allocating tasks.

Finally, the potential of integrating standard- ization, modularization and platform concepts into the product design should be examined.

Mastering market-specific product adaptations

Understanding country-specific acceptability and safety standards is vital for production and logistics, influencing everything from product structure to packaging design Companies face the ongoing challenge of developing new products and enhancing existing ones, making knowledge of these standards essential in the quest for optimal locations.

In some case, the impact of selected measures on the performance factors should be estimated not only qualitatively but also quantitatively.

According to research conducted by Fraunhofer

Implementing ISI, segmenting production, adopting the pull principle, and utilizing simultaneous engineering, along with task integration and teamwork, significantly enhance production efficiency Preliminary studies emphasize the importance of leveraging existing potential rather than hastily entering a risky international relocation.

Location Factors

When evaluating locations, various recommendations exist that categorize factors into global, regional, and local aspects This chapter will concentrate specifically on the strategic factors at the global and regional levels, while the local factors will be analyzed from a spatial perspective in Chapter 13.

Global location assessments have typically centered on production and market factors; however, research by Kinkel suggests that these evaluations should also encompass manufacturing costs, productivity, lead times, innovation capabilities, product and production flexibility, as well as process quality.

+ improvement is in the key focus of the measure

(+) improvement as a side-effect of the measure possible ± ambivalent effect: both improvements and declines are possible

- negative side effect is possible or probable performance factors examples measure performance optimization

• machine tools with linear drives

• manufacturing methods for new materials

Fig 14.5 Impact of an improvement measure (Example: Optimizing performance in the modernization fi eld

‘ Technology ’ ) acc to Jung [Jun04] © IFA 15.256_B

14.3 Suitability of the Current Structure 345

five performance factors introduced in Fig.14.4.

Furthermore, an additional category that arises is the network requirements—in many cases the related expenditures and benefits are not con- sidered sufficiently [Kin09].

Figure 14.6 illustrates the various location factors, categorized into quantitative and qualitative elements These factors represent general terms encompassing a range of parameters that can be further specified and differentiated.

When making long-term decisions, it's crucial to select a time horizon of at least five years, and in certain circumstances, even ten years or more Accurately estimating the development of quantitative factors during this extended period is essential for effective planning.

The production factors encompass both quantitative and qualitative parameters essential for successful operations Quantitative factors include the costs and availability of personnel, capital investments, materials from suppliers, energy, and various taxes or fees, alongside relevant laws, procedures, and macro-economic indicators In contrast, qualitative factors focus on the quality and long-term stability of these production elements, while also considering political stability and geo-specific as well as socio-cultural influences.

The market perspective is defined by sales potential and trade barriers, including required local content and duties Additionally, qualitative factors such as the long-term appeal of the market and the present and future actions of competitors play a crucial role in shaping this perspective.

Performance factors should be assessed in dependence of the pursued production strategy and can be actively influenced by the enterprise. network requirements

• need of cooperation and networks at the respective location in the areas marketing / sales, service, R&D, education and advanced training, site development

• unexploited potentials of available networks vs costs for the network development quantitative qualitative sales potential market attractiveness trade hindrances competition situation market factors production factors

When evaluating business strategies, it is essential to consider both quantitative and qualitative factors that influence productivity and manufacturing costs Key elements include process efficiency, product quality, lead times, and the ability to innovate Additionally, flexibility in product customization plays a crucial role in meeting customer demands, ensuring high standards of product quality while adapting to market changes.

Fig 14.6 Location assessment factors (Kinkel) © IFA 15.257_B

For businesses aiming for cost leadership, achieving high productivity and stable processes is crucial for success Conversely, companies focused on high-quality products must prioritize product quality, innovation, and the ability to adapt offerings to customer preferences When products are comparable to competitors, factors such as delivery times and reliability become essential for differentiation, making excellent logistics performance a key competitive advantage.

Relatively new factors that need to be con- sidered are those that result from networking.

Effective networking among production sites and seamless collaboration with suppliers are crucial for success This includes strong domestic marketing and sales strategies, reliable equipment services such as IT and maintenance, and focused research and development to tailor products to local needs Additionally, investing in the education and training of both existing and newly hired staff, along with enhancing the surrounding community, can unlock significant potential However, businesses should anticipate considerable costs associated with developing this comprehensive network.

The assessment serves as a vital learning process that must be conducted anew each time by a core team involving management While initial discussions may highlight positive aspects, a deeper examination often uncovers negative factors that need to be addressed.

Depending on the internationalization strategy being pursued, the bundles of factors outlined in

Figure 14.6 needs to be further clarified and detailed, as illustrated in Figure 14.7 While the identified factors are derived from a planned internationalization context, they are also relevant for domestic locations, given that significant variations can exist within a country regarding these individual factors.

Based on a business survey conducted by

Kinkel, Fig.14.7lists the most important factors when developing a new sales market and reducing costs We will only discuss these briefly here; for a more extensive explanation please see [Kin09].

When entering new markets, accurately estimating market potential and analyzing local competition are crucial A comprehensive understanding of the market and access to distribution channels enable the establishment of realistic target prices and profit margins Additionally, adapting products and offering local support may be necessary to succeed in a new market It's essential to address potential obstacles such as trade barriers and product liability concerns Lastly, considering monetary benefits related to procurement is important, as currency fluctuations can be partially mitigated when purchases and sales are conducted in the same currency.

A.T Kearney provides a comprehensive analysis of product families, highlighting their positioning within a product portfolio influenced by product maturity and market complexity This assessment aims to identify the stage of a product's lifecycle, thereby facilitating strategic decision-making.

The ease of remote production for a product is influenced by its maturity; more mature products are generally easier to produce remotely Additionally, market complexity plays a crucial role, as it reflects the degree to which product design is connected to customer needs and local conditions In complex markets, maintaining proximity to customers becomes increasingly important for successful production.

The article outlines four distinct types of plants, each identified by its specific location and function The global lead plant specializes in manufacturing products that necessitate strong local production capabilities and proximity to research and development In contrast, the regional lead plant is situated near its customers, possessing its own production expertise and dedicated research and development capabilities Additionally, the local server plant maintains a close geographical connection to its target market.

14.4 Location Factors 347 customer, however does not require any specific production competence, while the offshore plant is oriented on standard products which exploit local cost advantages.

Procedure for Selecting a Location

The selection of a location is primarily influenced by the production strategy and the rationale behind the planned relocation, as well as its scale Typical scenarios can be identified in this context.

Mid-sized enterprises typically operate within a clearly defined product and process scope, characterized by minimal networking with other locations and suppliers This situation often arises from a focus on reducing costs while simultaneously seeking to expand market reach and leverage technology.

1 existence of local lead market ("technology pull")

2 proximity to innovative clusters and leading R&D centers ("technology push")

3 partner company with an innovative complementary profile

5 possibility for the protection of technologies, patents, licenses, brands

6 staff availability and fluctuation rate

8 language barriers and communication problems

10 evolution capability of the local market vs separation from R&D and production internationalization strategy following a customer

1 relevance of the key customer

2 certainty of promised sales volume or sales forecast

3 customer’s support during production ramp up

4 certification and local content requirements

5 evolution capability of the local market

6 spill-over effects and new cooperation potentials with the customer e.g in the product development

7 costs and tied-up capital due to duplicating plants

8 availability and fluctuation (inclination to change) of appropriately qualified workers

9 coordination and quality assurance costs

10 long-term consequences (e.g dependency on

Fig 14.10 Factors critical for success with strategies: following a customer and opening-up technology acc to Kinkel[Kin09] © IFA 15.261_B

• The enterprise (usually consolidated compa- nies) is active in a large number of business areas, which tend not to overlap as far as the target markets and products are concerned.

The focus then is assessing the portfolio areas in which capital returns and operating expen- ses could be improved the most by a new international location.

In industries such as automobile and mechanical engineering, enterprises that produce serial products with multiple levels face complex challenges due to their globally distributed production networks These companies must navigate significant logistical interactions between plants and manage the flow of goods from numerous suppliers The choice of technology and product design often has far-reaching implications, necessitating a focus on the continuous adaptation of the entire production network to optimize total costs.

Regardless of the variations in these scenarios, a general procedural model can be recommended This model employs a series of gradual restrictions that narrow down numerous potential locations at the national level to a specific local site For a more comprehensive understanding of this process, refer to the detailed description available in [Abe06].

The McKinsey-developed process initiates with a pre-selection of countries deemed suitable for specific products and manufacturing steps, influenced by the established production strategy The attractiveness of these countries relies on critical factors outlined in relevant figures, which provide essential guidance for successful implementation of four typical strategies In straightforward scenarios, this pre-selection is conducted by seasoned decision-makers, potentially aided by external consultants.

The second step is to identify a site at the country level and integrate it into the target market, along with the in-house production and supplier networks A key criterion in this process is the evaluation of total landed costs, which encompass all expenses associated with bringing goods to market.

• restriction to business units / works / products / production steps with the greatest potential

• specification of the fundamental network topology (e.g volume plants for manufactured components and close to the market assembly sites)

• specification of the target countries with lowest total landed costs

• specification of attractive locations within one country based on minimum requirements

• restriction to options with best economy based on estimated land prices, wages etc.

• detailed comparative calculation based on all relevant factors

When evaluating location decisions, it is crucial to assess factors such as land prices and negotiated values This involves a global preselection of countries, products, and production steps, followed by a strategic choice of location that aligns with performance ranges at the country level Additionally, local preselection plays a vital role in optimizing the overall decision-making process.

"long list" local intermediate choice local final choice number of products / processes number of countries / regions possible selection logic and–results:

Fig 14.11 Procedure for selecting a location (acc to Meyer) © IFA 15.262_B

14.5 Procedure for Selecting a Location 351 production costs and all transaction costs for the entire value-adding chain up until it is placed on the market.

The pre-selection process focuses on identifying 10 to 30 appealing locations within a country, which will later be narrowed down to 3 to 5 final options This selection is guided by a set of criteria that increasingly incorporates local factors, enabling effective negotiations with property owners and local authorities in subsequent stages.

When selecting a final location, it is crucial to thoroughly evaluate and compare pre-selected sites, focusing on key indicators such as investment amortization periods and labor cost shares Start-up times and costs are frequently underestimated, leading to overly optimistic projections Additionally, overhead costs related to construction, coordination, and management of the new site are often set too low, resulting in improper calculations Moreover, dynamic fluctuations in prices and labor costs at the new location are often inadequately considered, which can impact overall investment success.

Establishing Production Stages

When exploring new production locations, it's essential to determine which components of a product or product group will be manufactured there This decision serves as the foundation for the entire location planning process and is crucial for strategic planning and factory setup.

Generally the following aspects should be borne in mind:

• Which product components are labor- intensive and which are material- intensive?

• Where is the end product to be completed?

• In view of cost reductions and protecting know-how, which technologies are useful to perform at the original location and which at the new location?

• What are the consequences of a globally divided production on logistic processes and supply chain management?

• How will previous and possibly new suppliers be integrated?

• Does the product structure meet the requirements for a globally distributed production?

The global variant production system (GVP), developed by a consortium of researchers and industrial firms, offers a solution for producing technologically complex products at various international locations, either manually or automatically, in diverse quantities and variants The process begins with identifying core assemblies that are knowledge-intensive and encapsulate the enterprise's key technological competencies This leads to three essential production stages—purchasing, in-house production, and market-adjacent completion—that must be logistically interconnected Detailed descriptions of these steps and supporting checklists can be found in [Nyh08] and an accompanying CD.

Product structuring is designed to concentrate key competencies on essential components produced in-house to safeguard proprietary knowledge Additionally, it aims to reduce internal product diversity while addressing the varied demands of the external market.

A data model generates the product structure from the end product's functional structure and organizes it into a bill of materials (BOM) Each item in the BOM is linked to its respective process structure, which may include manufacturing operations, assembly steps, or procurement procedures This integrated product model is illustrated in Figure 14.13 and is stored within a relational database.

• weaknesses version 3 production stages location techn competences obtaining close to the market komplettierung competence - driven home production logistical verkn ü pfung location production development purchase sales personnel environment version 1 version 2

Strengthening product differentiation through advanced version 3 technology, our focus on international cooperative relationships enhances our competitive edge By leveraging in-house competencies for parts and assembly procurement, we ensure market proximity and completion competence This strategic approach emphasizes in-house production and logistical connections, optimizing both version 1 and version 2 offerings.

A B C D production stages and logistics design

The global variant production system integrates various components such as product models, market production, and customer perceptions to enhance competitive distinction It emphasizes the importance of production knowledge and process sequences, while also considering the complexity of product structures and functional arrangements By strategically managing production stages and locations, businesses can offer a diverse range of variants that cater to specific customer needs and preferences.

Fig 14.13 Integrated product model © IFA 15.264_B

Establishing production stages through a cohesive model enables the integration of functions, product positions, and process steps via data systems, ensuring data consistency Any modifications made to an element in one sub-model are automatically reflected in the corresponding elements of the other two models, maintaining a seamless connection across the system.

The functional structure of a product encompasses the features it offers, categorized by customer perspective, competitive differentiation, and complexity From the customer’s viewpoint, the significance of each function in influencing purchasing decisions is assessed Additionally, competitive differentiation examines whether similar functions are available in rival products.

Finally, the complexity describes whether the diversity of the function variants can be influ- enced more or less by the customer.

The product structurevisualizes the physical structure of the product in a multi-level BOM or

The 'super BOM' encompasses all product variants, structured to reflect varying complexities This organization can extend to the individual part level or focus on first and second level assembly units, which are analyzed separately based on their significance.

The structured document outlines the various process types involved—such as procurement, modification, joining, and testing—along with their provisional locations and whether they are carried out internally or externally Additionally, it classifies production knowledge based on its availability, indicating whether it is exclusive to the company, accessible to a limited number of competitors, widely available among most competitors, or recognized as state-of-the-art.

Analyzing the functional, product, and process structure provides insights for enhancing product construction and production methods Based on relevant literature and practical experiences, nine key design principles have been identified to guide these improvements.

firms participating in the project Available design approaches include: integration, substitu- tion, elimination and embedding of structural elements.

Before finalizing the distribution of value-adding processes across various locations, it is essential to analyze and evaluate the requirements of potential cooperative partners, along with their strengths and weaknesses, within the context of international collaboration.

The initial focus is on identifying potential partners and their geographical locations, which sets the foundation for the collaboration This is followed by outlining the cooperation's objectives, including cost management, market expansion, customer engagement, and technology sharing Additionally, the nature of the collaboration encompasses various aspects such as manufacturing, assembly, development, and supplementary purchases, along with the necessary requirements for successful partnership.

1 concentrate product bound core competences in few components

2 concentrate production bound competences into core components

3 concentrate production competence in the in house-production

4 bring external product variety into line with variety of market demand

5 minimize internal product variety considering the external product variety

6 concentrate internal product variety in few components

7 minimize function overlaps between components

8 create external variants late in production

9 create country-specific variants late in production

Fig 14.14 Design principles for products with regard to reducing complexity and protecting key competences. © IFA 15.265_B the partner’s resources are derived from there

(management, production, procurement, R&D, sales, personnel, capital, reliability etc.) as well as in regard to the local environment (infra- structure, service, suppliers, training centers etc.).

Internal company resources encompass the in-house assets that collaborate with cooperative partners It is essential to evaluate not only the technical resources but also the personnel requirements, particularly focusing on language proficiency and cultural awareness.

Finally the cooperation resources concern the shared management of information, knowledge and conflicts.

The analysis of products and collaborations, as illustrated in Fig 14.12, allows for the differentiation of technologies essential for the process chain across various locations This evaluation is crucial for understanding the competencies and attractiveness of these technologies The technology portfolio, initially developed by Pfeiffer and later refined within the GVP framework, is constructed by comparing processes within a matrix.

Summary

For a factory to achieve long-term success, strategic business location planning is essential, focusing on competitive factors such as cost, quality, technology, logistics, and flexibility The process begins with a global selection at the country level, followed by a detailed search at the local level to identify the final site Local production involves product-level considerations, including procurement, in-house manufacturing, and final assembly strategies.

[Abe08] Abele, E., Meyer, T., N ọ her, U., Strube, G.,

Sykes, R (eds.): Global Production: A Hand- book for Strategy and Implementation. Springer, Berlin (2008)

[Au07] Aurich, J.C., Wolf, N.U., Fuchs, C.H.: Struk- turierte Standortplanung: Konzept zur system- atischen Auswahl von Standorten (Structured location planning Concept for the systematic choice of locations) Industrie Management 23

(3), 43 – 46 (2007) [Eve96] Eversheim, W.: Standortplanung (site location planning) In: Eversheim, W., Schuh, G (eds.) Produktion und Management “ Betriebsh ü tte ” , 7th edn pp 9-40 – 9-57 Springer, Berlin (1996) [Heg08] Heragu, S.: Facilities Design, 3rd edn PWS

In 2008, the Boston Publishing Company reached the completion stage of its market strategy, focusing on competence-driven in-house production This involved manufacturing and assembling products internally while also identifying which assemblies are procured from external sources.

• opening up of economies of scale

• variant reduction at home location

• control of countries specific variants

• fulfillment of local content requirements global choice of site local choice of site

Europe Germany global choice of site

Fig 14.18 Forming production stages in a network © IFA 15.269_B

Jung Ercec (2023) explores the optimization potential at German sites, presenting a comprehensive instrument for assessment This work, featured in Kinkel's edited volume on successful site planning, emphasizes the importance of both domestic and foreign investment strategies The study highlights key factors influencing site optimization, providing valuable insights for businesses seeking to enhance their operational efficiency in Germany.

Standorte richtig bewerten (Success factor location planning Rating domestic and foreign locations correctly), pp 131 – 161 Springer,

[Kin09] Kinkel, S (ed.): Erfolgsfaktor Standortpla- nung In- und ausl ọ ndische Standorte richtig bewerten (Success factor location planning.

Rating domestic and foreign locations cor- rectly), 2nd ed., Springer, Berlin (2009)

[Mey06] Meyer, T.: Investitionen in Auslandsstandorte:

Bewertung und Auswahl (Investments in for- eign locations: evaluation and selection) In:

Abele, E., Kluge, J., N ọ her, U (eds.) Hand- buch Globale Produktion, pp 102 – 142 Hanser

[Nyh08] Nyhuis, P., Nickel, R., Tullius, K (eds.):

Globales Varianten Produktionssystem Glob- alisierung mit System (Global variants produc- tion system Globalization with system) PZH

Produktionstechnisches Zentrum GmbH, Garb- sen (2008)

Grundlagen, Vorgehensweise, EDV-Unt- erst ü tzung (Integrated Factory Planning Prin- ciples, procedures, IT support) Springer,

[Pfe91] Pfeiffer, W., Metze, G., Schneider, W.: Tech- nologie-Portfolio zum Management strategi- scher Zukunftsfelder (Technology portfolio for the management of future strategic fi elds), 6th edn Verlag Vandenhoek und Ruprecht,

In the context of technology differentiation, Schünemann (2008) discusses the GVP module within the framework of global variant production systems, highlighting the impact of globalization on production methodologies Schmidt (2011) examines the design of global production strategies, emphasizing value creation and employment within Germany during an acatech workshop Additionally, Schuh et al (2008) contribute to the conversation with insights on global footprint design, further enriching the discourse on effective production strategies in a globalized economy.

Manufacturing Systems and Technologies for the New Frontier Proc of the 41st CIRP Conference on Manufacturing Systems May

In 2008, Wagner and Gro ò hennig contributed to the book "Globales Varianten Produktionssystem," edited by Nyhuis, Nickel, and Tullius, discussing the design of production stages and logistics Their work, spanning pages 124 to 163, emphasizes the structured approach to globalization in production systems, showcasing the importance of systematic design in enhancing efficiency and adaptability in manufacturing processes The publication was released by PZH Produktionstechnisches Zentrum GmbH in Garbsen.

Every factory planning process is unique due to varying products, processes, and environmental conditions However, certain strategic procedural steps are universally beneficial, whether for new buildings, expansions, or reorganizations Often overlooked due to tight deadlines, these steps are crucial for effective planning Clearly defining initial data is essential, as it serves as the foundation for progressively arranging factory facilities with greater accuracy This article introduces 'synergetic factory planning,' which integrates production planning with construction phases based on VDI Guidelines 5200, highlighting the interconnectedness of these processes.

German fee schedule for architects and engineers

Planning Approach

Traditional factory planning begins by structuring technological and logistical processes, facilities, and layouts based on specific tasks and objectives An architect is then tasked with designing a cost-effective building shell that accommodates necessary facilities However, the interconnection between production systems, material flows, information, personnel, and building services—such as energy, media, and ventilation—highlights the importance of integrating these elements into the architectural design Conventional planning often leads to isolated solutions for locations, buildings, building services, and processes, resulting in various operational challenges.

During planning this practice leads to more than just missed deadlines and overrun budgets.

It also produces unsatisfactory planning out- comes which are reflected in functional and qualitative defects, the buildings poor perfor- mance and insufficient changeability during the operating phase.

The current situation raises important questions about the traditional methods of building planning A thorough examination of standard practices highlights significant discrepancies, especially when compared to more effective approaches.

Advanced industries often rely on "digital" methods, which can lead to a fragmented view of sub-projects In contrast to the simultaneous engineering approach widely adopted in the consumer and investment goods sectors, the planning of location, buildings, building services, and processes is typically conducted in a sequential manner.

This brief characterization of traditional factory and project planning shows that a deeper consid- eration is needed The synergetic factory planning

H.-P Wiendahl et al., Handbook Factory Planning and Design,

DOI 10.1007/978-3-662-46391-8_15, © Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2015

The authors developed the 361 framework over a decade, initiating the planning process with a focus on both goals and spatial perspectives This comprehensive approach extends from the initial planning phase through to the ramp-up stage, ensuring a cohesive strategy throughout the project's lifecycle.

Synergetic planning in factory design involves the integration of various forces and elements to achieve a coordinated performance Key challenges include a lack of changeability, poor performance, budget overruns, functional defects, missed deadlines, and quality issues Additional problems arise from unclear responsibilities, insufficient transparency, late recognition of dependencies, and ambiguous operating costs Other contributing factors are inadequate project structure and control, lack of integrated assessments for new builds or renovations, non-standardized data formats, and poor differentiation between operating and maintenance costs Furthermore, unclear functional specifications, insufficient data management, and misunderstandings related to project specifications and assumptions hinder effective spatial planning and management Addressing these symptoms and root causes is crucial for improving overall project outcomes.

In factory planning, the consequences of partial solutions can significantly impact various critical factors, including productivity, changeability, and quality A comprehensive approach should focus on finding a cohesive vision that integrates technology, ecology, and energy efficiency Additionally, fostering effective communication and networking is essential to enhance synergy and address lifecycle ergonomics By considering both spatial and process views, organizations can optimize time management and reinforce their identity within the industry.

Fig 15.2 Synergetic approach to factory planning © Reichardt 15.458

362 15 The Synergetic Factory Planning Process

Each partner begins by formulating a vision based on their specific process or spatial perspective, gradually refining the detailed requirements relevant to their expertise From a process standpoint, the traditional emphasis on high productivity, quality, and short throughput times, coupled with the emerging need for adaptability, highlights the importance of ergonomic design This adaptability significantly affects the spatial perspective, influencing both the structural design of buildings and the associated building services.

The interactions between factories and a more connected environment create new demands, such as managing product and facility lifecycles and integrating production processes within supply chains and production networks.

Once a vision has been developed the spatial perspective begins with harder factors such as building technology and energy consumption.

Ecological factors are crucial during construction, influencing energy consumption and material selection, as well as throughout various processes involving hazardous substances and waste management Additionally, soft factors, such as effective personal communication and the management of internal and external appearances, significantly contribute to establishing a strong corporate identity.

The project's success relies on a collaborative approach where all team members contribute to a unified solution Beyond just measurable data, the emotional alignment among the team is essential This shared enthusiasm and commitment to the vision are vital for ensuring long-term sustainability.

The innovative approach to cooperative planning emphasizes the early integration of spatially designed sub-projects, including location, buildings, building services, and processes This method enhances both the process and spatial dimensions of planning, leading to improved collaboration and efficiency in project execution.

(Fig.15.3) [Rei07] The actuating variables here are materials, information and communication, capital and people, which are continually moving within an open system.

The primary goal is to develop a three-dimensional model of all objects, facilitating collaboration among planning partners through data systems This integrated method consistently enhances the 3D structure of sub-projects and improves the associated planning data, transitioning from initial rough estimates to precise representations.

fixed specifications and evaluates decision-mak- ing processes by comprehensively discussing alternatives.

The job specifications delineate the objectives of sub-projects, focusing on key performance features such as changeability and investment costs These specifications can be transformed into a spatial model, allowing for a comprehensive examination of the project's overall effects Utilizing a continuously updated 3D data model, which leverages advanced CAD-CAM database technologies, facilitates extensive project optimization and ongoing 3D quality assurance Chapter 16 will elaborate on this approach through the lens of the digital factory process and the spatial aspects of Building Information Modeling (BIM) Additionally, spatial optimization within this synergistic factory enables collision detection and quality control across all facilities, identifying and resolving conflicts related to locations, buildings, services, and processes early in the project lifecycle to prevent cost overruns and delays The clarity provided by 3D modeling enhances understanding of planning outcomes for all stakeholders involved.

This approach should extend beyond the planning phase to encompass the entire lifecycle of a building An integrated facility management data model, ideally based on the BIM standard, offers numerous advantages for effective building management.

During the initial goal projections, target costs are considered in the base investigation The conception phase includes a feasibility study where spatial elements and production facilities are modeled in three dimensions, potentially with animations The planning process encompasses both rough and detailed planning, focusing on synergetic spatial views, changeability, facility profiles, and material flow optimization Additionally, facility management, building services optimization, energy and climate simulations, daylight and artificial light simulations, topography and land register optimization, and aesthetic comparisons of investment costs are integral to the planning process.

3D modelling interactivity real time communication structure check and optimization layout design and optimization information flow check and optimization employee training

Fig 15.3 Merging the sub-projects of a factory object © Reichardt 15.459 synergetic planning project cycle targets: function, costs, qualities, due dates

Process Model

Factory planning projects vary significantly based on their triggers, required precision, organizational conditions, and the intended use of the planning results The objectives of these projects differ whether they involve new constructions, extensions, or reorganizations, necessitating distinct approaches Despite these differences, fundamental phases of the planning process can be identified, as highlighted by various authors and outlined in a VDI guideline In the context of future factories, new considerations arise from their integration into global production networks and the increasing unpredictability of market behavior Consequently, modern factory planning focuses on creating adaptable spaces that can accommodate diverse production scenarios rather than merely establishing fixed production facilities aimed at cost minimization.

Synergetic factory planning aims to achieve optimal planning outcomes in the shortest time by leveraging interconnected resources This approach shifts from isolated work package processing to a collaborative interdisciplinary dialogue, transforming an initial rough factory vision into a concrete solution The effectiveness of this planning is enhanced through modern media and techniques, such as digital factory applications, building information modeling, and facility management tools Additionally, the use of collaborative platforms like SharePoint Server and communication technologies, including video conferencing, facilitates improved teamwork Advanced simulation tools for material flow, communication, energy, airflow, and light distribution further enhance the quality of the planning results.

The introduced process model offers a structured and adaptable framework for planning situations, featuring a modular design that clearly outlines dependencies and facilitates easy comprehension of the connections between individual processes This descriptive model also includes valuable information on relevant methods and tools, as well as guidance for analyzing the quality of the results.

The process model for a synergetic factory planning is depicted in Fig.15.5.

The initial stages of production planning encompass analysis, structural design, layout design, and project implementation This sub-model progressively details the design of technological and logistic processes, along with the organization of production facilities, focusing on the management of material, energy, and communication flows.

The production planning stages occur simultaneously with the object planning stages, which focus on designing the internal and external areas of a production plant from an architectural viewpoint According to the German fee schedule for architects and engineers (HOAI), there are nine stages that range from base analysis to object support and documentation HOAI outlines the content of these phases, establishes the criteria for determining fees for architectural and engineering services, and specifies the minimum and maximum rates for these services within the schedule.

Synergetic factory planning integrates two key processes into six distinct stages that encompass the entire factory lifecycle This comprehensive approach begins with preparation and extends through to the realization of synergetic factory planning It includes essential sub-processes such as production planning, object planning, and project management Effective project management involves defining objectives, meticulous planning, realization, completion, and the provision of necessary planning tools to ensure successful outcomes.

& base analysis concept planning detailed planning preparation for realization monitoring of realization ramp-up support

2 base analysis preliminary design technical design planning planning application execution drawings preparation of contract placement assisting with contract award project supervision project management and documentation object planning stages

7 8 layout design analysis structural design production planning stages implemen- tation A2

L1: rough layout planning L2: fine layout planning

1 ) acc to HOAI German fee schedule for architects and engineers

Fig 15.5 Process model of the synergetic factory planning © IFA 15.461

The Synergetic Factory Planning Process is initiated at Milestone M0, progressing through milestones M1 to M6, which signify the completion of each planning stage This process is supported by comprehensive project management that encompasses project definition, planning, execution, and completion, along with the selection of appropriate tools and communication standards These phases are aligned with the VDI Guideline 5200.

The synergetic process initiates with the Milestone project resolution (M0), marking the formal commencement of the project This decision often arises from a strategic repositioning driven by significant catalysts for change, which may be informed by preliminary studies, such as those discussed in Chapter 14 on Strategic Location Planning.

Management establishes key foundations that encompass the production program, site selection, the balance between in-house manufacturing and procurement, collaboration with other locations, targeted completion timelines, and potential capital investment plans.

The initial phase of factory planning begins with defining objectives and conducting a foundational analysis Building on Milestone 0, the project management and production planning team formulates a vision, mission, and strategic objectives for the new factory Concurrently, a base analysis is performed to assess the project's context In the subsequent phase, the project conditions are analyzed in two steps, focusing on production planning perspectives.

Object analysis (A1) focuses on the examination of products, their derivatives, and variants, as well as the organization of the bill of materials, which includes in-house manufactured parts, purchased components, and other elements Additionally, it necessitates a comprehensive inventory of both new and existing operating facilities, detailing the necessary space and personnel This analysis also encompasses the staffing and office requirements for various functions, including marketing, distribution, research and development, work preparation, production control, and other supportive roles.

(human resources,finance, supervision etc.).

Process analysis step (A2) focuses on evaluating production processes through a technological lens, taking into account work plans and organizational structure It also involves a thorough examination of logistics, including suppliers' delivery strategies, production control mechanisms, finished goods shipping methods, and the necessary storage and transportation facilities.

In individual cases further objects and processes have to be included e.g., testing facilities or a school for training customers.

In the object planning phase, the building planning task is clearly defined according to HOAI standards However, for complex industrial projects, analyzing initial data can be challenging due to the combination of rigid specifications, such as column grids and ceiling heights, alongside more subjective factors, like employee and customer communication, which often vary significantly among stakeholders.

Consequently, at Milestone M1 the following results are available:

• the factory vision and mission,

• factory strategies and targets as well as the

• building specifications according to HOAI,

• a list of machinery with spatial attributes and

Along with the corresponding documentation these points form the agenda for the milestone meeting with the steering committee.

During the concept stage, structural design and detailed dimensional planning are carried out with a focus on production planning This process involves utilizing either established production technologies or innovative techniques from related projects.

The structural design stage (S1) is crucial for identifying structural alternatives, illustrating the connections between manufacturing, assembly, and logistics to shape the factory concept This stage is guided by specific structural relationships, including technologies and product groups Following this, the structure dimensioning stage (S2) focuses on specifying the necessary production equipment and their spatial needs, calculating workforce requirements, and coordinating building grids and construction areas with object planning.

Goal Setting

Main Steps

To effectively adapt business strategies to market demands, it is crucial for factories to possess the capability to meet these requirements, such as variant flexibility and high logistics performance This potential is established at the outset of each planning project through a project definition and goal-setting workshop The workshop is grounded in existing business strategies or specialized strategic location planning, as outlined in Chapter 14 The process involves three key steps, as illustrated in Figure 15.10.

A workshop involves not only the planning team but also management personnel overseeing the process and those in charge of core and support functions This collaborative team is tasked with establishing clear project goals aligned with the strategic guidelines set forth by management.

finding a common understanding of the task The

The initial step involves defining the location in relation to other enterprise sites through a logistic profile Subsequently, an analysis of the location and its surroundings is conducted to develop potential future scenarios This examination identifies the strengths and opportunities of the location, which are then organized into specific sub-goals The workshop culminates in a project definition that outlines the next steps and assigns responsibilities Depending on the project's complexity, this workshop typically spans one to two days and includes focused analyses alongside goal setting.

So that participants can be suitably prepared for these analyses, the problems to be addressed are provided to participants in advance.

Site Logistic Profile

To effectively outline the necessary location and planning tasks, it is essential to acquire a comprehensive understanding of the enterprise's product offerings and value-adding processes at the site This involves analyzing product groups, defining goals and strategies, and identifying key action areas through enterprise and environmental assessments Additionally, considerations must include market and customer insights, competitor dynamics, supplier relations, product success factors, production change drivers, and the overall vision for the enterprise A clear delineation of core and support processes, project organization, and the logistics profile of the location is crucial for successful planning.

Fig 15.10 Steps in a project de fi nition and goal setting workshop © IFA 15.465

80 turnover of all product groups at all sites site S1 site S2 site S3 value-adding processes at site S2 local content PG: production group share

Fig 15.11 Production program analysis for a site © IFA 15.466

The Synergetic Factory Planning Process outlines projected sales turnover as a percentage of the overall value Based on strategic location planning, the distribution of product groups across various locations is established, along with the anticipated volumes for purchasing, manufacturing, assembly, and delivery Additionally, the procurement strategy identifies both the volume and sources—whether external or internal—for different article groups.

Manufacturing encompasses the in-house production of parts categorized by article groups and associated production hours, while assembly often involves components sourced from customers and various locations, typically resulting in finished products.

Depending on the delivery concept, deliveries are made to a sister plant, a logistic provider or directly to an end customer.

Visualizing the topographical flow of goods in and out of a site is crucial for understanding the volume and distances involved, as well as the connections with customers, sister plants, and suppliers A simplified diagram, like the one in Figure 15.12, illustrates a fictional production network with three sites; however, real-world logistics are typically more complex, involving numerous products, suppliers, and customers These intricate networks are often organized into multiple layers, categorized by product groups and stakeholders to enhance clarity and efficiency.

The logistics profile derived from the production network is crucial for effective factory planning It categorizes product groups into customer and market segments, aligning specific products with targeted customers in distinct markets for production at the site The matrixes in the diagram illustrate how functional workplace design influences the procurement, production, and delivery strategies tailored for each segment.

Despite the perception that factory planners face no remaining design challenges, it is crucial to recognize that strategic decisions are made with a focus on market demands and customer needs Different products tailored for diverse customers may converge at a single production site, creating the challenge of integrating conflicting requirements into a flexible and appealing local solution that considers economic, ecological, and social factors Therefore, it is essential to conduct a thorough analysis of the enterprise and its environment before establishing contractual goals and planning strategies.

Environment Analysis

The enterprise and environment analysis aims to provide a comprehensive overview of the market, production, and competitive landscape of a business, focusing on the specific site in question It not only assesses the current status of the enterprise but also considers planned developments and emerging trends over the next 5 to 10 years, which inform the requirements for a new factory For instance, if a company intends to launch a new product, it must account for the necessary production space in its current planning Additionally, anticipated changes in regulations or environmental protection measures should be incorporated into the analysis An example of this process is illustrated in Fig 15.14, highlighting the case of a mid-sized supplier of high-quality engineering products, prompted by the need to relocate its production site to meet capacity demands.

The market analysis focuses on sales volume and regional distribution, while product characteristics are detailed through base materials, functional types, dimensions, and production sizes Although there are additional sites, their connections are too weak to warrant further consideration The competitive landscape highlights the positioning relative to the market leader, encompassing aspects such as customer procurement models, market segment dynamics, production methodologies, and delivery frameworks.

C/M-S3.2 legend: C/M-S1.3 = Customer-Market-Segment 3 of Product Group PG1

Fig 15.13 Site logistics pro fi le © IFA 15.468

The supplier analysis within the Synergetic Factory Planning Process reveals the risks associated with relying on a single supplier for essential materials The growth strategy outlined emphasizes the rising demand for customer products in a targeted region, which will be supported by enhancing product functionalities However, this strategy also leads to greater product complexity.

Factors for Success

Identifying product-specific success factors is a crucial component of the analysis phase, as it distinguishes the current situation from future developments to establish requirements for the planned factory For instance, if a product is recognized in the market for its high delivery reliability, this directly influences the factory's logistics concept The results of the distribution and development survey are illustrated in Figure 15.15.

To achieve success, prioritizing high product quality is essential; however, it is equally important to enhance delivery times, improve customer service, and consider partial outsourcing in the future.

Change Drivers

The last step of the analysis is concerned with identifying the internal success factors and the factory’s change drivers Generally, the follow- ing questions need to be answered:

• What were the key drivers that lead to changes in the factory previously? How often did these drivers appear?

• What effects did the change drivers have on the factory and which measures were implemented?

• What are the key drivers that will lead to future changes in the production?

• What is the anticipated frequency of their appearance?

Key factors influencing production and logistics include costs, employee value addition, floor space efficiency, stock turnover rates, and the adaptability of factory concepts Additionally, considerations extend to customer markets, product offerings, competitor dynamics, supplier relationships, and current trends, along with anticipated developments over the next five years.

• strong growth striven for, the greatest growth is expected with product XL,

• in which region growth is expected is known,

55% Germany, 10% outside Europe, 35% Western Europe

- in 5 years x mill sales volume:

45% Germany, growth outside Europe approx 20%,

- power stations, gear box manufacturers, engineering companies, pump manufacturers

- organized according to: material (steel/aluminium), product type / functional principle sizes (outside diameter) production quantities within 5 years: 10,000 average lot size: 4

Over the past five years, there has been significant growth in the production of XL products, with an average lot size of 15,000 units This surge has led to an increase in service repairs specifically for XL products, alongside a heightened focus on manufacturing spare parts as urgent "fire department orders." Consequently, the dimensions of these large products are expected to expand further.

- in own market segment number 2 in Europe; number 1 in Germany, greatest national competitor : AA, number1 in Europe is Co YX (USA, GB)

- number 1 in Europe, growth in Asia (customers are plant engineering firms)

- procurement problems with product XL: customary steel, special aluminium alloy suppliers only two left

- possible suppliers on the market, special metal from only one supplier

- energy demand continues to increase

- increasing complexity, more parts per product due to adjustability when installing

The analysis of the market, product, and competitive landscape is essential for understanding employee qualifications and the spatial proximity between direct and indirect areas Identifying successful strategies from the past and exploring new potential opportunities are vital components of effective planning.

Figure 15.16 illustrates the analysis of change drivers, which were found to be relatively brief The rise in sales volume prompted management to decide to relocate the factory to a nearby location as an independent business unit, while maintaining support functions such as IT, personnel, and finance from the central location.

Creating Scenarios

The chosen case serves as a straightforward example; however, for more intricate situations, implementing scenario management is advisable Initially utilized mainly in product planning, a streamlined version of this approach can effectively enhance workshop settings The primary objective of scenario management is to develop coherent and easily comprehensible visions for the future.

Scenario management is based on two fun- damental principles: (a) the concept of networked today future enterprise competitors (possible also internal)

- high quality (runnability, life time)

- technical support (at present approx 8% of manufacturing cost)

- low life cycle costs (dissipation, bearing capacity, smooth running, consumption rates )

- delivery time currently 18 weeks, standard 12 weeks

- xx % share from manufacturing costs out sourced

- xy % wage share in the manufacturing costs

- outsourced share from manufacturing costs will increase

- compensate for growth by increasing outsourcing

- 2 kinds of competitors: advantages by close to the market production and/or more favorable price position

- larger quantities in selected market segments

- material compound can be carried out by competitor AA

- shift to low wage countries

•products are estimated due to their high reliability and low operating costs

•delivery time and costs must be improved

Fig 15.15 Product success factors (example) © IFA 15.470 change driver / trigger in the past in future to be expected

- legal independence as own business unit with the following exceptions:

- creating a closed spatial and organizational unit

Fig 15.16 Production change drivers (example) © IFA 15.471

The Synergetic Factory Planning Process involves considering the interrelationships among various influential factors and embraces the concept of multiple futures, indicating that each factor can evolve in different directions over time.

The process for creating scenarios has five basic steps, whose sequence is clarified in

To define a design field, such as a factory, it is essential to select and describe it using specific 'design field components.' For instance, the factory's design fields can be illustrated through the components outlined in Fig 2.8.

Key factors influencing the design field are identified through a comprehensive collection of influential elements, followed by a network analysis to determine their significance in relation to the subject matter.

Future possibilities for developing key factors, known as projections, are established by analyzing specific purchased materials, which may exhibit stable, sinking, or rising prices In subsequent investigations, these projections are assessed for consistency; for instance, high energy costs should align with high transportation costs, while low energy costs should correlate with low transportation costs Only those consistent combinations are included in the future visions, termed scenarios, which should not be confused with standard planning variations.

The final stage of scenario transfer transforms the developed scenarios into a cohesive narrative These scenarios outline potential future developments, offering insights into the possible impacts on the design sectors within the factory.

When implementing scenario management in a project definition and goal-finding workshop, it is advisable to adopt a streamlined procedure compared to Gausemeier's approach Hernández's key factors serve as valuable starting points, which are categorized into two groups: those from the extended environment (non-steerable) and those from the immediate factory environment (steerable).

In the workshop, participants will identify 4-5 key factors and develop 2-3 projections for each, focusing on the design of country-specific environmental scenarios This process includes analyzing influences, investigating key factors, and describing potential developments The goal is to create coherent future scenarios that provide a comprehensive analysis of the planning object.

Creating scenarios, as outlined by Gausemeier, emphasizes the importance of leveraging a diverse range of experiences to maintain consistency in projection bundles While the insights gained may not match those from traditional scenario management, they are adequate for effective factory planning.

The results of an exemplary factory planning project, illustrated in Figure 15.19, outline four distinct scenarios for the enterprise, each characterized by unique development paths The 'boom' and 'trend' scenarios project a continuation of current trends, while scenario 3 emphasizes a targeted approach to exhaust technology products Scenario 4 combines various development strategies, including specialization in a specific product range, positioning as a system supplier, and a corresponding reduction in production volume.

The defining feature of these scenarios is their lack of a specific probability of occurrence The realization of any given scenario hinges on the evolution and interplay of key factors Internal business decisions can only influence these scenarios through the management of steerable factors.

By analyzing individual scenarios within factory design fields, we can identify which scenarios have a significant impact and which have a minimal influence Design fields that require diverse solutions for varying scenarios must possess a certain level of changeability, such as mobile assembly facilities or adjustable ventilation systems This evaluation helps determine if a factory concept is adaptable enough to address all potential development paths or just a select few Concepts that cater to only one scenario should be scrutinized for their long-term viability Conversely, if a flexible solution is underutilized, the cost savings from reduced changeover expenses may not justify the associated overhead costs, indicating that the changeability has reached its economic threshold.

(global and enterprise environment) steerable key factors (factory environment)

1 1 market dynamics, laws and development product types and types

3 3 competition structure / new competitors amounts of products

4 4 market structure and segmentation degree of specialization

5 5 competences of the competitors product standardization

7 7 technology development market strategy / business field strategy product life cycles raw materials

8 8 competences of the partners in the network place of the production utilization of the partners in the network material development

9 9 production network organization product technology

10 10 industry-specific standards and norms vertical integration

11 11 price requirements production technology and automation

12 12 innovation speed product size and weight

13 13 globalization of the production investment budget

14 14 market strategy of the competitors current assets and fixed assets

15 15 delivering requirements sales volume and profits

16 16 risk inclination of the capital givers/shareholders building life cycle

18 18 position of power of the suppliers location development

24 financial policy distribution strategy ecological policy service enterprise and meta goals import and export

25 global research and development intensity humane strategies logistics strategy origin and structure of the customers

Fig 15.18 Steerable and non-steerable key factors of a factory (per Hern á ndez) © IFA 15.473

380 15 The Synergetic Factory Planning Process

Finding a Vision

Creating a unified vision for the factory requires extensive discussions among various stakeholders, including owners, management, and employees, each of whom may have differing perspectives To foster greater acceptance of this vision within the project team, it should be collaboratively developed by a team of senior staff rather than imposed by management Key questions must be addressed during this process to ensure a comprehensive and inclusive approach.

• What is our vision of the enterprise (e.g., market leader, fast follower, best partner, leader in innovation)?

The meta-goals of our location encompass various key performance indicators, including sales growth, efficient returns, optimized delivery times, and increased market share Additionally, we aim to enhance product offerings, boost productivity and turnover, minimize stock levels, and improve system capabilities Quality and adaptability are also prioritized, alongside maximizing volume and output, while continuously benchmarking our performance against competitors to ensure sustained success.

• What strategies do we want to use to reach these goals (e.g., cost leadership, pioneering design, cooperation, imitation, niche strategy, technology leadership, zero-defects, CIP, pro- cess orientation)?

• Are emergency strategies required (e.g., through redundancy, expandability in small steps, the ability to re-built)?

Figure 15.20 depicts the results of a vision

finding workshop for our case study.

The vision is encapsulated in a collection of idea cards, with meta-goals and business strategies outlined alongside These meta-goals establish the foundational framework for the factory project, enabling effective success measurement The factory's business strategy emphasizes product quality and adaptability through modular design A crucial requirement is that the project must be completed within a limited timeframe.

GENEering

As already mentioned a factory is also always an expression of the business culture and reflects the

If the current trend persists, there will be a 10% annual increase in quantity Customers are limiting their order quantities to meet daily requirements, reflecting an observable trend The product line, which ranges from simple components to complete systems, is expected to see a slight expansion Additionally, this scenario would allow for the production of exhaust gas products.

As a manufacturer specializing in exhaust gas technology, we have significantly reduced the volume of custom orders to meet the hourly demands of the automobile industry In response to these delivery requirements, our focus will shift towards becoming a system supplier, leading to a substantial reduction in our product line.

Focusing on a specific product range and emphasizing the role of a systems supplier, while not prioritizing exhaust technology, is likely to lead to a significant decline in overall volume Consequently, customer orders are expected to align more closely with hourly requirements.

The projected scenario anticipates a 20% annual increase in total production volume, supported by a diverse range of customer orders, which can vary from thousands of units to individual weekly requests This expansion will significantly broaden the product line, enabling the manufacturing of products specifically for exhaust gas technology, positioning the company as a key player in this booming market as a reliable system supplier.

Fig 15.19 Rough scenarios for an automotive supplier © IFA 15.474 enterprise’s demands on itself and its products.

Thus, if a company primarily serves the market for regenerative energy, the technology found there should also be used in the factory.

Accordingly, the enterprise’s overall vision has to be transformed not only out of the production perspective but also the spatial perspective into a factory vision.

A proven method for achieving this is

GENEering, a term that merges 'gene' and 'engineering', focuses on creating a 'DNA code' for objects during the planning phase This approach establishes the structural parameters that will influence the future lifecycle of the factory, ensuring that the performance of the object’s design aligns with the principle of "form follows performance."

Figure 15.21 highlights eight key factors that will be illustrated through engaging images in subsequent steps Initially, these factors are not directly linked to factory development but are designed to inspire new ideas among workshop participants In the second phase, the factors will be revisited with a focus on specific examples from the factory building, ensuring a comprehensive understanding of their relevance.

The article analyzes each individual factor by breaking it down into three sub-concepts, considering both internal and external perspectives of the company A detailed discussion on the factor of 'changeability' in a project is illustrated in Fig 15.22, where each sub-concept is assigned an importance value ranging from 1 (not important) to 10 (extremely important) In this analysis, modularity and flexibility received high importance ratings, whereas mobility was deemed less relevant.

The arithmetic mean contributes to a comprehensive understanding of the object's DNA code, as illustrated in Fig 15.23 This process categorizes factors into hard and soft assessment fields Ultimately, the desired features of the complete object are assigned to the relevant design fields, as depicted on the diagram's right side Notably, in this example, soft factors significantly prevail in the areas of site, building, and organization.

Through the ensuing group discussion of the target concepts from a production engineering

3 company strategy for the factory

• sales volume: increasing from y mill € to x mill € within 5 years

• delivery time: from 12 to 8 weeks delivery reliability: currently 77% (difference between promised and attained date, exact to the week, delivery ex works); target: 85% in 1st year, 90% within 2 years

• increase in productivity: within two years 6%, as of then 3% p.a. inventory: stock turnover frequency from 2.2 to 3 within 2 years

• changeability: with regard to increasingly larger product dimensions, arranging all facilities to be as mobile as possible

• establish a service centre in the factory

• modularity (grid e.g 3 x 3 m also advantageous for the move)

• max move duration: 3 weeks, plan 50% production volume during move

• move must be completed within 6 months to not endanger other projects

• machine information available for the complete plant that is to be shifted

1 vision of the factory in this project

Our products are reliable precise and economical through our competence, quality and efficiency For us this means claim and obligation

2 meta goals of the enterprise for the factory

3 company strategy for the factory

Fig 15.20 Vision, meta-goals and factory strategies (example) © IFA 15.475

The Synergetic Factory Planning Process fosters innovative ideas that are crucial for developing solutions, especially in the structural planning of production and construction This approach emphasizes an object-related perspective, which enhances creativity and effectiveness in planning processes.

GENEering plays a crucial role in promoting sustainability within industrial construction In their influential 2002 book "Cradle to Cradle," Braungart and McDonough highlighted the often-overlooked consequences of industrial societies, including product contaminants, waste disposal challenges, and the depletion of irreplaceable resources They emphasized that energy efficiency is just one facet of a broader approach to sustainability, particularly in factory planning.

Subsequently, the results are transformed into guidelines for designing the object and can for example look like this:

• Maximize changeability through mobility, modularity, employee qualifications and work- hours’model.

• Use new technology for construction, fire protection and heat recovery.

• Increase efficiency by taking into account limiting values (minimum throughout times, minimum inventories etc.).

• Secure ecological off-set spaces; take into consideration local rainwater seepage.

• Create aesthetics through order, color concept and media routings.

• Promote communication by locating support functions such as work-prep and order pro- cessing close to the production.

• Provide a corporate identity through exhibi- tions, individuality, tradition and myth in a foyer.

Fields of Action

Based on the preceding results, the ensuing

The definition of fields of action refers to specific sub-projects that come with assigned responsibilities and deadlines These projects focus on optimizing communication and energy efficiency while ensuring ecological sustainability By integrating technology and aesthetics, they aim to create a unique identity and enhance performance, adhering to the principle that form follows performance This approach promotes adaptability and continuous improvement in various initiatives.

The organization of a manufacturing company can be structured around its core and support processes For instance, Figure 15.24 illustrates a framework focused on the key processes of factory planning, specifically 'product development' and 'order processing' (refer to Fig 2.7 and [Wie14]).

Marketing and sales identify and define new product ideas, which are subsequently developed into tangible products by the research and development team The order is processed through a coordinated effort involving production, including manufacturing and assembly, as well as logistics, which encompasses procurement, production, and distribution.

Support processes are essential as they deliver services that enhance core operations In the context of factory planning, each process is evaluated against the company's vision, guidelines, and location strategy to optimize performance in specific activity areas.

Each process must have clearly defined economic goals and timelines, requiring consensus among all workshop participants on the identified areas of activity to ensure a unified approach Furthermore, the steering committee, endowed with the necessary authority, must oversee adherence to these established objectives.

After defining the goals, the foundation for effective factory planning, focusing on both process and spatial organization, is established The subsequent phase, known as base analysis, will be elaborated on in the following section.

Base Analysis

Object Data

The production program serves as the foundation for analyzing object data, summarizing the products to be manufactured at a specific location and their respective production volumes for the upcoming period, as illustrated in Fig 15.11.

In a 3–5 year analysis, the ABC method identifies best-selling, steady-selling, and slow-selling products, which is crucial for organizing production segments based on volume For instance, a pump manufacturer offers seven standard pumps with a five-day delivery time and a special program featuring seven types with a three-week delivery time This data is essential for effective production planning, as it allows for the creation of a Bill of Materials (BOM) for each product type, distinguishing between in-house manufactured parts and other components.

3.5 contact person logo of the enterprise company structure sales volume number of employees business calendar shift model organization chart master plan current rough layout current fine layout target rough layout target fine layout area balance sheets

The 3D files for the fixed points production program outline the forecasted product lineup, including product names, item numbers, and variant numbers for effective presentation The organizational structure features a comprehensive group structure, legal form, and financial integration, ensuring a clear distribution among sections and indirect employees, while also accounting for open days and holidays The layout includes a detailed hierarchy with over three levels, covering the size of all areas, including unused spaces Additionally, the program highlights fixed points, such as movies, and tracks the volume development of all variants alongside any changes.

Fig 15.25 Data requirements list © IFA 15.480

The Synergetic Factory Planning Process involves documenting work plans for internally manufactured parts, detailing individual operations, manufacturing methods, setup times, and production times per piece, which are essential for calculating capacities In contrast, job productions characterized by a wide variety of products utilize load data from invoiced orders to create a representative production program For a more in-depth exploration of structural dimensioning, refer to Section 15.6.2.

Operating facilities constitute the second largest group of objects, requiring a comprehensive overview of the site, including building location, infrastructure, expansion possibilities, and available open spaces This information is documented in the site ground plan, exemplified in Fig 15.27 Additionally, the plan can be enhanced with data on the condition of roads, buildings, and equipment such as cranes Such detailed information is essential for evaluating locations and planning areas for future expansions.

To optimize factory planning, it is essential to gather relevant data about resources within the building, including machine specification sheets maintained by the work-prep section Key information such as required floor space, height, weight, energy needs, and media connections is critical for factory planners Additional considerations include ventilation, exhaust vents, and noise from vibration emissions, which may necessitate encapsulation or vibration-absorbing foundations Before applying floor space data for planning, it must be adjusted to reflect a normal operational state, as the current conditions often do not meet the requirements for efficient process flow This adjustment should account for local material buffers, service and maintenance areas, and tools and fixtures, which can significantly increase the initially stated floor space A systematic division of the hall floor space into storage, buffer, functional, production, and transportation areas will lead to a comprehensive area balance, ultimately supporting an effective operational strategy.

Type Q pY50 special program time time

The production program of a pump manufacturer can be analyzed by comparing the results with standard industry area ratios, which allows for conclusions to be drawn regarding the optimal distribution of various operational areas within the plant.

Frequently an area balance sheet such as this leads to reducing stores and buffers in order to minimize waste.

Figure 15.29 provides a comprehensive overview of an object analysis, illustrating the trends in sales volume, total area, designated office space, and the projected number of employees for a sample factory plan In this analysis, the actual values for the planning year are established at 100%.

P roads in good condition roads in bad condition passages often blocked

Fig 15.27 Site ground plan (example) © IFA 15.482 main productive area transportation areas empty areas area types store

10 m hall 3 hall 2 hall 1 offices side productive area

12,000 store production offices social other

Fig 15.28 Area balance sheet for an automotive supplier © IFA 15.483

The Synergetic Factory Planning Process indicates that while the sales volume is projected to increase by 250% over the next decade, the growth in total area through rationalization and restructuring is expected to be around 140% Consequently, the number of employees related to sales activities, along with the necessary office space, is anticipated to rise by approximately 170%.

Process Analysis

Analyzing business processes aims to outline the flow of materials, communication, and value within an organization Various methods and tools have been created to visualize these processes, with many stemming from corporate information technology, such as the ARIS system.

[Sche01, Sche02] For business applications

REFA Association [Bin11] developed some recommendations, whereas process descriptions focused on logistics are particularly well suited for analyzing factory processes.

Figure 15.30depicts an example of such the latter, theProcess Chain Analysis, developed by

Kuhn at the Fraunhofer Institute for Material Flow and Logistics in Dortmund utilizes specific symbols to illustrate the individual process steps and their interconnections for various products or product groups Connectors create either physical or temporal links between multiple process elements, such as assembling several parts into a single component As shown in the process chains for two article groups, Article Group 1 can be delivered within 24 hours, while Article Group 2 follows a standard service timeframe of approximately one week, featuring two additional process elements.

Each process element is characterized by four groups of features, as illustrated in Fig 15.31 A process chain element is responsible for transforming an object physically or spatially through actions such as forming, painting, transporting, and storing The processes are defined by their sources and sinks, along with an inner structure, which is represented in Fig 15.30 as a sub-model This sub-model outlines the topology, or layout, of the elements and their integration within the hierarchical organization and communication structure of the network.

The elements’ resources are classified according to the material and immaterial features, while steering characterizes the planning and control on the normative level (corporate culture within

300 [%] sales volume total area office space employees within

Fig 15.29 Planning framework for a factory project (example) © IFA

15.484 process chain 1: 24 hour service (article group 1) sub -model process chain 2: standard service (article group 2) main model source / sink process chain element connector time connector

The process chain model, as outlined by Kuhn, encompasses various elements essential for effective operations, including areas such as stock, work facilities, and auxiliary facilities It highlights the significance of personnel organization, financial resources, and a hierarchical communication structure The model operates at multiple levels—normative, administrative, dispositive, network, and control—integrating resources and processes within a defined topology Ultimately, it emphasizes the transformation of objects through structured steering mechanisms.

Fig 15.31 Features of a process chain element (per

390 15 The Synergetic Factory Planning Process and rules, administrative, disposition, control and links within the network).

Analyzing a process chain aims to enhance transparency and identify weak points for resolution It distinguishes between utility processes, which create value and should be increased, and support processes, which are necessary but do not add value and should be maintained Faulty processes, characterized by uncertain designs, need continual reduction, while blind processes represent pure waste that should be eliminated.

Value stream analysis complements traditional business process modeling by effectively illustrating and examining the value stream of a product family, along with its information and material flows Utilizing standardized symbols, this analysis records the entire value stream in reverse order of material flow, from shipping to receipt of goods For a comprehensive introduction to value stream analysis, refer to [Roth03] The fundamental steps of this process are summarized in Figure 15.33.

Analyzing the value stream aims to pinpoint waste related to stock, floor space, and waiting times in product throughput, ultimately laying the groundwork for a flow-oriented production system This user-friendly method typically takes just a few days, including preparation and follow-up, making it particularly effective for gaining a quick overview of production processes during the analysis phase The findings serve as crucial input data for the subsequent phase of factory planning—structural design—allowing for further refinement as necessary.

The analysis shown in Figure 15.34 illustrates the existing conditions of a production process Subsequently, the investigation team establishes a target state aimed at significantly reducing the throughput time from 15.1 days to just 2.9 days, as depicted in Figure 15.35 This improvement is achieved by eliminating interim operations and associated buffers.

Both business process analysis and value stream analysis are essential for optimizing planned and unplanned processes in manufacturing These analyses focus on improving utility processes such as assembling, transporting, and storing, while also addressing issues like faulty processes, buffering, and searching for parts By identifying and eliminating errors and scrap, organizations can promote efficiency and manifest better operational outcomes.

To enhance the process chain effectively, it is essential to focus on a single product or product group However, when multiple products or product families are considered, a comprehensive analysis for each must be conducted to ensure optimal improvements.

In a factory, multiple product groups, typically ranging from three to five, are produced in varying volumes to meet the needs of different buyers Additionally, components for other selected product families are manufactured, allowing for a representative product family to be identified based on specific criteria.

• required production steps • required production facilities

• variants • sales volume strength develop understanding of factory’s current operation:

• compile & evaluate data in-house – do not use standard values for information

• proceed from shipping of finished goods to input of purchased goods avoidance of waste:

• holistic approach (system kaizen instead of point kaizen)

• follow value stream analysis guidelines loops:

• formation of value stream loops (pace setters, suppliers, processes)

• start with the pace setters' loop realizing by project sketch target condition sketch actual state procedure:

• use value stream analysis symbolism

• possibly take a fast tour to record processes (sequence)

• detailed tour around he processes with pencil and paper

Fig 15.33 Procedural steps in a value stream analysis © IFA 15.488

2.3 min customer stahl kg week

60 days preview weekly fax every

1 per lead time 15.1 days value adding time 459 sec

150 pcs orders orders daily delivery plan production control

TSU=5 min TSU=0 min TSU=0 min

A availability TPU operation time per unit TSU set up time TT takt time pcs pieces

Fig 15.34 Value stream analysis example — current state © IFA 15.489

The Synergetic Factory Planning Process addresses the production of both plants and replacement parts, optimizing resources to counteract the common issue of machine underutilization This approach eliminates the need for separate production lines for each product group, enhancing efficiency and productivity.

Therefore all of the products in the entire order stream compete for capacities.

To effectively analyze material and information flows from a resource perspective, utilizing a Sankey diagram is beneficial This tool visually represents the connections and flows between various organizational units, such as materials or information, without accounting for the physical space or distances between these units.

The width of flow channels directly correlates with the volume of material transported over time, such as tons per month Additionally, these flow relationships can be represented in a 'to and from' matrix, commonly known as a material flow matrix.

The matrix displays the relationship between transmitting stations (rows) and receiving stations (columns), with numerical values indicating the flow of weight, volume, or quantity transported over a specified time period Discrepancies may occur between the total inputs and outputs if certain sections are not recorded within the matrix.

Concept Planning

Structural Design

Structural units are created by aligning production with strategic structuring principles, beginning with the logistical profile of a location The analysis phase identifies the market, products, and processes that are crucial for the location's focus, ensuring that all elements work cohesively to enhance operational efficiency.

A: area main diagonal no info high middle communication Intensity: low P plant manager

A1 A3 intensity in the area of A3 intensity between employees A1.3 and A1.8 intensity between employees A1.6 and A1.5

The A5 intensity reflects the interactions between the A2 and A4 areas, managed by the plant manager and section managers across five distinct sections Each section comprises a team of employees, with section manager area 1 overseeing employees 1.1 to 1.10, section manager area 2 managing employees 2.1 to 2.11, section manager area 3 responsible for employees 3.1 to 3.7, section manager area 4 in charge of employees 4.1 to 4.5, and section manager area 5 supervising employee 5.1 This structured hierarchy ensures efficient management and collaboration among all personnel involved.

Efficiency and transparency are essential prerequisites for effective information flow Figure 15.38 elaborates on these concepts by outlining specific features that guide the concrete structuring of projects based on their unique conditions.

Finding a single consistent structuring principle for an entire factory is generally impractical Instead, it is beneficial to focus on the factory levels, as illustrated in Figure 5.18 In this framework, the highest level represents the factory structure, which is primarily influenced by individual product groups These structural units are also mirrored in the organization of the enterprise, commonly referred to as business units (BUs) Typically, each business unit encompasses not only the manufacturing section but also includes marketing, distribution, and product development functions.

In a factory setting, specific customer groups within each product category are organized into segments, which can be further classified based on production volume: runners (high volume), sprinters (average volume), and rarities (low volume) Each category necessitates distinct procurement, manufacturing, assembly, and supply strategies Unlike traditional logistics, this approach emphasizes the spatial structure of manufacturing and assembly For high-demand runners and sprinters, a cell or flow manufacturing principle is effective, while rarities benefit from a workshop principle The selection of appropriate structural characteristics is exemplified in a factory specializing in plastic injection molded parts.

In the factory layout, the sequence begins with a raw material store, followed by raw material preparation, and then production, which includes an integrated store for necessary purchased parts for assembly Key factors influencing efficiency and capacity include transparency in product material types, product format, packing, and quantity, as well as personnel flow and communication Responsibilities are clearly defined within designated areas to enhance operational efficiency Additionally, considerations such as investment strategies, economic factors, technology requirements, processing steps, manufacturing principles, purchase concepts, and control mechanisms are essential The overall structure encompasses material and information flow, transportation concepts, and is tailored to market demands, product groups, regional markets, customer segments, and various purchase models.

Fig 15.38 Factors in fl uencing the factory structure (acc to Harms) © IFA 15.493

396 15 The Synergetic Factory Planning Process

Finished goods undergo inspection, packaging, and are then moved to a finished parts store, where they are prepared and shipped according to order requirements The project outlines ten potential structural options for production, illustrated in the lower section of the diagram, which are categorized based on process, customer focus, technology, or product groups.

By adopting a process-oriented approach, similar technologies are integrated into a cohesive structural unit, such as an assembly or manufacturing area This workshop principle enhances the utilization of both equipment and personnel, leading to increased efficiency in operations.

Personnel gain specialized expertise in specific technologies, allowing for seamless implementation of changes in the production program The structural unit's capacities are highly adaptable; however, this flexibility can lead to disadvantages such as elevated stock levels and extended throughput times In cases where sections are large, workshops can be subdivided into machinery size classes for better efficiency.

With a process chain orientation (principle

10) all of the production steps of a product or product family are combined locally One of the advantages here is the unit’s complete responsi- bility for a product and the related sub or com- plete process chains There is thus a concentration of product related process know- how The throughput times and stock levels in comparison to principle 1 are clearly faster/lower and the production control is comparatively easy.

In return though, not all of the production units can be fully utilized and the technological know- how of individual operations is distributed among several segments.

Nowadays, the process orientation is pre- dominantly oriented on the customer (principle

4), with larger customers on their plants (princi- ple 7), on the products of each of the customers (principle 6) or on the delivery model (principle

8) If the delivery volume is too small for indi- vidual segments, the orientation can also be on product families (principle 2).

Each project requires a tailored selection of structural characteristics to address its specific conditions Typically, these characteristics span from process orientation to various segments of a process chain, encompassing different levels of detail and structural forms This includes considerations for product groups and the configuration of entrance and exit points within the system.

Fig 15.39 Levels of the structural planning © IFA

The process illustrated in Fig 15.41 involves a combination of orientation methods, specifically featuring three segments that are process chain-oriented In this design, both the input and output situations are strategically aligned with a functional orientation.

The synergetic approach emphasizes the active involvement of the object planning in shaping its structure It is essential to evaluate and select variants according to the criteria established during the goal definition workshop After the structure is finalized, the necessary resources can be allocated effectively.

RMS: raw material storage, PIS: purchased item storage, FGS: finished goods storage, IM injection molding, weld.: welding, ass.: assembly, Pro.: process step, C: component

FGS PIS recycling production inspection packaging commissio- ning, shipment process

6 product group 2 customer’s plant 7 material 3 call-off order 8 customer 4 component 9 technology 5 process chain

420t IM 300t process step storage segments expansion segments

Fig 15.40 Possible orientations for the structure of a factory (example) © IFA 15.495

FGS dispatch process orientation raw material preparation injection molding assembly welding

RMS raw material store FGS finished goods store IM injection molding weld welding ass assembly, processing step store segment

RMS dispatch raw material preparation

FGS FGS FGS dispatch dispatch process chain orientation

Fig 15.41 Possible orientation of a factory structure (example) © IFA 15.496

398 15 The Synergetic Factory Planning Process are then dimensioned before the conceptualiza- tion is completed with the rough layout planning.

Dimensioning of the Structure

Structural dimensioning plays a crucial role in assessing the required machinery, floor space, and workforce for operational efficiency Key input parameters include the production program, product specifications, current and future production equipment, and the qualifications and adaptability of the personnel involved.

The production program is established alongside the logistics profile, detailing the types and quantities of products, which is essential for resource calculation It incorporates data on current production volumes and includes insights from the analysis phase regarding future production levels, product lifecycles—such as new, growing, and discontinuing products—and upcoming product introductions.

The basic procedure for dimensioning resources is depicted in Fig.15.43[Wie72] The production program typically projected over a

The five-year horizon is the main input variable, while product properties are derived from the structure of individual components documented in the Bill of Material (BOM) The operations sequence, including setup and operation times, is detailed in the work plans To determine the annual production of end products, components, and individual parts, multiply the production program's product volume by the BOM quantities Subsequently, yearly demand is divided into economic lots, allowing for the calculation of work content per product by multiplying the number of lots by setup times and the number of individual parts by operation times This process is further illustrated in an industry analysis example.

The annual production plan requires 80 machines, organized into 8 lots of 10 machines each The capacities are allocated based on the facility classification outlined in the operational work plan Each individual part contributes to the overall production volume, with many parts being integrated multiple times within the production facilities.

• operation times production facilities properties

Fig 15.42 Input variables for dimensioning resources. © IFA 15.497 no capacity group name quantity setup time operation time work content machines

[pcs/year] [hrs/year] [hrs/year] [hrs/year] [%] [pcs]

This article explores a variety of machining equipment essential for manufacturing processes, including 34 types of lathes such as center, facing, vertical, and turret lathes It also covers external and internal cylindrical grinders, various milling machines including large milling machines, groove cutters, and specialized machines for inside curve milling Additionally, the article highlights surface grinding machines, horizontal and vertical drilling machines, jig drilling machines, shaping and planing machines, as well as broaching and grooving machines, slotting machines, and gear milling machines.

Product PG1 quantity number of orders lot size per order capacity per machine

80 8 10 1600 pcs/year pcs/year pcs hrs/year setup time

Fig 15.44 Capacity requirements of a product group (example) © IFA 15.499 information base type quantity time technology working space performance precision machines

- avail- ability production program product properties production facility properties production facility potential

A U V product B C x x x x x machines requirement profile hours/year time technology available facility profile technology hours/year time routings op mg s op

The efficient management of production facilities involves the strategic planning and control of technological resources, including machines, tools, and equipment Effective organizational structures are essential for optimizing workflow across various operations such as manufacturing, assembly, transport, and storage By aligning employee roles with production goals, companies can enhance setup times and operational efficiency, ultimately leading to improved results in manufacturing processes.

The Synergetic Factory Planning Process outlines the essential components for effective production management It includes a detailed listing of the product in the first column, followed by critical data such as setup times, operation times, and work contents in the subsequent columns Notably, the work content reflects the annual capacity requirements, quantified in standard hours, ensuring optimal resource allocation and efficiency in manufacturing.

Sixteen hundred standard hours was accepted as the yearly available capacity per machine.

A single shift operation accounts for breaks, maintenance, and disruptions, incorporating setup time to assess the impact of lot sizes, particularly when transitioning to smaller lots The ratio of work content to capacity determines the number of machines needed for this operation, often resulting in a non-integer value By aggregating all product groups from the production program, one can derive the necessary capacity profile, as illustrated in Fig 15.43.

In single-piece productions, deriving a requirement profile from individual order BOMs and work plans is impractical due to high costs and the absence of available work plans Instead, the load values from invoiced orders in accounting are utilized A representative product mix is established and then extrapolated to estimate the total required capacities based on target sales.

The second essential step in dimensional planning involves assessing the available facilities profile, which includes details on the types and quantities of production equipment, their capacities, and availability This step also takes into account planned investments for equipment replacements or new acquisitions.

In the third step, the alignment of the two profiles occurs in three key ways First, technological alignment assesses the suitability of existing manufacturing technology and machinery for future use Additionally, new technologies that offer significantly higher output rates are frequently being evaluated.

Many enterprises aim for an annual productivity increase of 3-6%, which can lead to a reduction in required capacities by 15-30% over five years This necessitates careful consideration of shift models, determining whether to implement one, two, or three shifts and whether to operate facilities on weekends Additionally, the organizational alignment involves allocating machinery to designated sections as outlined in structural designs This raises the challenge of balancing economic efficiency with flexibility, as not all machinery in a segment is fully utilized To address this, companies often purchase used machinery for technologies outside their core competencies.

The availability of additional resources, including storage and internal conveyor technology, is influenced by the number of production facilities and their interconnected flows This article will delve deeper into the necessary space requirements in the following section.

The operational personnel and necessary qualifications are ultimately influenced by the quantity of machines, facilities, and the shift model employed This includes the capability to operate multiple machines, as seen in fully automated plastic injection molding factories Additionally, the structural principle of the organization affects managerial roles, such as group leaders and segment supervisors, as well as production-related services like NC programming.

Figure 15.45 illustrates the comparison between required and available capacities, highlighting the growing uncertainty in future capacity needs While forecasted value ranges may have appeared exaggerated until the 1990s, they are now regarded as standard in new factory planning This underscores the importance of flexibility and adaptability in factory design and facilities.

• Required Floor Space for Facilities

Rough Layout Planning

15.5.3.1 Types of Layouts The spatial positioning of structural units is referred to as the layout (or allocation plan). Depending on the level of the factory, there are different types of layouts with increasing detail, as clarified in Fig.15.50according to [Gru00]. Thesite layoutis a macro representation that provides a complete overview of all the structural units on a factory site In the object planning this corresponds to the master building plan (see Sect.12.4) It shows how the buildings stand in relation to one another on the site and are joined with roadways A rough layout presents the individual production areas within a factory building The main focus is on the internal logistics, which is why it includes the main transportation and material flow routes It is important here to take changeability into account. defined area modules procedure for defining modules document dimensions of individual units, e.g machines, working places coordinate with technology planning, since current and future units have to fit into modules consider building constraints (column grid) and logistics

When defining the smallest base module for transportation containers, it is essential to choose module sizes that are multiples of each other This modular layout should consider future procurements and include additional functions and space for tools and setup parts The goal is to create each module to be as self-sufficient as possible.

Module S (5 x4) results of area analysis example of area module

Fig 15.49 De fi ning area modules (with example) © IFA 15.504

The layout should thus clearly indicate expansion directions and have material flows which run perpendicular to the expansion direction.

Thedetailed layoutpresents the exact position and allocation of facilities within an area including building services and media supplies.

The workstation layout offers the most intricate details, showcasing the exact placement of machinery, tools, and materials, along with their energy and media connections.

A layout is fundamentally derived from an ideal functional scheme, shaped by the outcomes of structural design This scheme illustrates the area units and the intensity of material flows, as depicted in Fig 15.51 The area values are based on resource dimensioning, while the material flow intensities are measured in transport units per time unit.

200 m ² material flow intensity pre assembly

Fig 15.51 Ideal functional scheme © IFA

The article discusses the importance of detailed layout planning in factory design, highlighting the need for both rough and macro representations of building functions and areas It emphasizes the focus on production and logistics areas, along with the representation of main transportation and material routes A high level of detail is crucial for the positioning of facilities and the definition of building technology and media supply Additionally, it addresses the micro representation, which involves the precise positioning of machinery and resources at individual workstations, ensuring optimal site layout characteristics.

Fig 15.50 Types of layouts (acc to Grundig). © IFA 15.505

406 15 The Synergetic Factory Planning Process the value stream analysis or a materialflow cal- culation based on work plans In afirst step, the functional units are allocated oriented on the materialflow.

In the next phase, the functional units are represented to scale, ensuring that the material flow relationships are preserved (Fig 15.52) Due to significant variations in area, initial dimensional distortions arise compared to the ideal arrangement shown in Fig 5.51.

In a third step, the aim is to set the areas in relation to one another according to the target criteria and to obtain a predominantly closed external contour.

During the structural planning phase, the object planning has established the initial building framework characterized by the span width and columns grid Currently, these two planning streams are being integrated in a creative process to create the optimal scaled 2D layout.

450 m ² material flow intensity pre assembly

The IFA 15.507 service segment encompasses various aspects of incoming goods, including storage, manufacturing, and assembly Key components such as shafts, rotors, and steel and stainless steel carriers, covers, and housings are involved in the production process Additionally, the segment emphasizes rigorous testing and quality assurance, ensuring that all products meet industry standards before shipping.

Fig 15.53 2D Ideal rough layout (example) © IFA

An ideal layout is characterized as a flow-oriented, area-related spatial arrangement of structural units, as defined by [Sch10] In the provided diagram, manufacturing segments are organized based on the production volume of different product groups, including sprinters, runners, and rarities, while a shared interim store and assembly area is utilized across all segments Within the runners manufacturing segment, the production of workpieces is categorized into two types: those made from normal steel and those made from stainless steel.

To mitigate the risk of flash rust and facilitate effective swarf removal, it is essential that materials are not processed on the same machine.

In a 3D-oriented synergetic factory planning approach, 2D layouts can be transformed into 3D layouts, taking into account ceiling clearance for individual segments This spatial planning allows for the derivation of room modules from area modules and highlights the need for overhead cranes in assembly and test areas Initial building concepts also emerge, incorporating structural units and essential employee areas, such as offices, workplaces, and social spaces, which play a crucial role in internal communication and require strategic placement and development.

When designing layouts, it is essential to focus on the flow of materials, personnel, information, and communication Emphasizing flexibility allows for easy adjustments to structural units without disrupting factory performance Additionally, positioning indirect segments close to production enhances personal communication, improving responsiveness and bridging gaps between different roles Ideal layout planning should be unrestricted, enabling planners to envision optimal designs that serve as benchmarks for future phases This approach is beneficial for both new constructions and the re-planning of existing factories.

Fig 15.54 3D ideal rough layout © Reichardt 15.509

408 15 The Synergetic Factory Planning Process

It is advisable to explore innovative solutions, as this approach can reveal not only original ideas but also the potential necessity of abandoning a site or existing building that lacks future viability.

In the next step, the ideal layout is transformed into a rough real layout by adjusting it to the specific operating conditions and restrictions.

The term "real layout" refers to a practical arrangement of structural units that can be feasibly implemented, considering various factors such as flow, floor space, business needs, and regulatory requirements that impact the layout.

In developing the real layout the various restrictions that originated from the object and process oriented base analyses also require attention (Fig.15.55) [Sch10] Local restrictions

first pertain to the property and its topography as well as to access rights and contaminated sites.

The ideal factory size may need to be adjusted to accommodate specific requirements, and structural modifications could be necessary to address significant elevation differences.

Detailed Planning

Transportation Route System

Effective transportation organization is crucial in factory planning, as it governs the internal flow of materials and personnel This system allows for various material flow configurations based on specific planning needs, enabling the strategic allocation of routes at different detail levels To optimize efficiency, it is essential to separate empty and loaded transports, minimizing their interactions to enhance operational effectiveness.

Transportation routes should be arranged so that:

• it is easy to deliver and pick-up goods from structural units,

• the available floor space is used well,

Adhering to legal regulations concerning evacuation and rescue paths is crucial, as it significantly influences building design and necessitates careful coordination with project planning Additionally, the layout's logistic quality within the factory is largely determined by the symmetry of the transportation system, among other essential factors.

Fine Layout

The precise placement of facilities within a range of ±2 to 4 inches can be determined in the fine layout, ensuring the fixed location of indirect segments, in-house offices, and transportation routes Collaboration with architects allows for the establishment of connections between facilities and the energy and media supply/removal systems, as well as identifying necessary access points Additionally, the requirements for air supply and exhaust systems for specific production areas are clearly defined.

To solve this task many attempts have been made to apply mathematical optimization time [periods] payments [€ ]

The article discusses various financial concepts, including payments and deposits, and their transformation into different assessment variants It highlights the significance of payment course changes on capital value, outlining several assessment methods: enlarged variant A, enlarged variant B, direct assessment variant A, and direct assessment variant C Understanding these variants is crucial for effective financial management and evaluation.

Fig 15.62 Extended capital value for non-monetary targets (per Brieke) © IFA 15.517 methods A brief survey is provided, for exam- ple, by Tompkins et al in [Tom10] Chap 6:

“Layout planning Models and Design Algo- rithms” In Chap 7 “Models/Simulation” of

[Han04], the authors present 5 programs for the

“layout of multiple items” They begin their discussion by noting that “although specialized layout programs are rarely utilized in contem- porary design, a brief discussion is presented for historical purposes”.

Most layout optimization algorithms focus solely on one criterion, such as minimizing material flow or maximizing space utilization, which oversimplifies the complexities of modern factory targets This narrow approach often leads to disappointing results, as it neglects essential soft targets like changeability and communication Over three decades and numerous projects, the authors have not successfully implemented a single layout program, and a survey of leading consulting firms revealed that none utilize these programs, instead opting for a structural concept that progresses from structure to rough layout.

Creating an effective fine layout often involves collaborative workshops with shop floor foremen As illustrated in Figure 15.64, these workshops yield tangible results, where individual machines are represented as scaled cardboard models and strategically placed within the hall's grid.

Event-driven simulations within the digital factory framework have yielded significant results, demonstrating that while simulations do not generate solutions, they effectively verify solutions against key performance indicators Further details will be explored in Section 16.8.

Based on thefine layout and the building grid, the facilities with their actual dimensions are now adjusted in the area In doing so a plethora of s m e t s y s y a w c i f f a r t f o s e l p m a x e s e l p i c n i r p

+ short routes, + good space use

- an area is served from two sides

+ for every area only one way one way traffic direct traffic

+ area savings through narrower walks + low risk of accident

+ shorter routes middle area requirement

- increased risk of accident due to two way traffic ways empty run loaded tour

Fig 15.63 Planning the transportation route system © IFA 15.518

Fig 15.64 Workshop result fi ne layout (example)

The Synergetic Factory Planning Process must consider various small objects, including waste containers and impact protection around columns, as well as essential building services like distribution cabinets for media, electricity, and data These elements can pose challenges due to their often unexpected sizes and fixed location requirements Additionally, the overall layout must accommodate the need for adaptability, support lean production principles, and fulfill aesthetic standards.

Figure 15.65 depicts an exemplary excerpt of such a plan in 2D.

The fine layout forms the basis for thetech- nical design planning According to HOAI Phase

The essence of this process lies in the meticulous planning of all technical building systems, which includes obtaining approval for the structural framework plan Typically, a specific milestone is established to facilitate the adoption of the technical design.

For property developers, the technical design is crucial for the approval of the entire project, highlighting the importance of quality structural planning As the project takes shape, clients often request changes, and a well-crafted structural plan can effectively accommodate these adjustments.

According to HOAI Phase 4, the planning and approval process involves submitting applications for necessary permits from relevant authorities A building application includes not only a detailed description of the project but also numerous permit requests Notably, the coordination of external systems, such as drainage and green spaces, demands considerable effort to align with the requirements of the authorities.

Fig 15.65 Excerpt from a 2D fi ne layout © Reichardt 15.519 possibly with neighbors (e.g., adjusting bound- aries, rights of way).

The technical design proposal is refined by HOAI until it is sufficiently developed for implementation, encompassing the necessary facilities and their connections It often includes detailed samples of furnishings for walls, ceilings, windows, and facades to clarify both functional and aesthetic impacts Client approval is essential for this proposal to proceed.

The exact content of these 3 planning stages

The design, approval, and execution phases, as outlined in HOAI, involve extensive architectural and technical design services that are tailored to each project through negotiations with clients These stages require significantly more effort than basic layout planning, as numerous details must be discussed with the user For instance, when planning a loading bridge, critical factors such as loading area dimensions, load-bearing capacity, gate clearance, weather protection, sealant specifications, gate speed, and control mechanisms must be established prior to issuing a bid invitation.

In this example, with changeability in mind, there is also an optional position planned, which possibly requires constructive precautions, which the call for bids has to indicate.

The essential fundamentals for production planners are thoroughly examined across various factory levels in Chapters 8 through 13, covering topics such as spatial workplace design, building design, master building plans, and location planning from a spatial perspective An illustrative example in Figure 15.67 showcases the integration of process and spatial sub-plans into a 3D model, highlighting the facility layout on the ground floor as blocks Additionally, the main material flow is depicted, originating from two input areas, indicated by orange rolling gates, and distributed throughout the manufacturing area.

To obtain water rights permissions, several key documents are required, including a building application and a detailed description of the building and its operations, particularly for commercial plants Additionally, a statistical evaluation sheet must be submitted, which includes a system description of both the building construction and the technical equipment Essential proofs such as stability (statics), energy compliance per the Energy Saving Act, noise protection, fire prevention assessments, and parking space verification are also necessary Furthermore, accurate calculations must be provided for enclosed space, gross and net ground floor areas, the highest situated common room above the surface, and the raw building costs.

• extract from the cadastrial map

A qualified site plan includes a graphical representation of ground plans, cross sections, and views, as well as an illustration of the outer plants It also addresses the management of water, detailing the discharge of dirt water and rainwater into the public drainage system and the introduction of rainwater into the underground.

Fig 15.66 Contents of a building application © Reichardt 15.520

418 15 The Synergetic Factory Planning Process flows over the connecting bridge into the neighboring building to be used further.

The placement of incoming and outgoing air vents on various building levels was determined by the layout, while the architects had already positioned the supply and fresh air centrals during the design phase.

Supply and Removal Systems) The 3D design of the building services equipment for the building pictured in Fig 15.67 is depicted in

Energy Efficiency

Overview

Since the mid-1990s, the industry has undergone a significant mindset shift driven by radical environmental changes and soaring energy prices Technological leaders are now focusing on energy efficiency programs to manage costs while simultaneously addressing their social responsibility to combat global warming by significantly reducing CO2 emissions Key areas for enhancing energy efficiency and lowering CO2 include industrial production processes, transportation logistics within supply chains, the energy quality of buildings, and the overall efficiency of building services These evolving requirements necessitate new considerations in factory planning, with foundational principles established during the base analysis phase of project development.

The industrial sector has significant potential for energy savings through various technologies, including lighting, compressed air generation, pumping systems, cooling, heating supply, and ventilation systems However, only a limited number of measures have been implemented to effectively harness this potential.

Pet14] A proposal for codes to design energy saving buildings and power systems is published with the International Energy Conservation Code

In order to clarify the subject, Fig 15.69 depicts a typical energy flow within a factory

The core factory processes, including storage, production, transportation, and commissioning, are central to operations, with material flows linked to external deliveries A substantial portion of the energy balance is dedicated to auxiliary processes, which involve the transformation and distribution of electrical energy, generation of process heat, cooling, and ventilation These energy needs are met through various sources, including solar energy, primary energy sources like oil, gas, and coal, as well as district heating systems.

In light of rising energy costs and growing legal requirements for resource efficiency, it is essential to evaluate processes more thoroughly from both economic and ecological viewpoints This includes analyzing operating and lifecycle costs, as well as considering factors such as space utilization, recycling potential, adaptability, and CO2 emissions.

Fig 15.68 Excerpt from a detailed plan of a factory ’ s building services © Reichardt 15.522

420 15 The Synergetic Factory Planning Process

Currently, enterprises still focus mainly on increasing the efficiency of individual systems.

Figure 15.70 illustrates a typical analysis used to identify the primary consumers within a factory, specifically a car body manufacturer The analysis reveals that the laser welding system, along with its cooling requirements, accounts for 30% of the total electricity consumption However, it is crucial to recognize that each system is part of the factory's overall infrastructure, meaning that the operation of the laser system also necessitates additional resources, such as a cooling system This interconnectedness highlights the importance of considering all energy inputs and outputs, including waste heat, electrical energy, and various auxiliary processes, when assessing a factory's energy consumption.

Fig 15.69 Typical energy fl ow of a factory (per

The manufacturing system consists of 1,000 main processes, which include auxiliary processes that depend on them, as well as independent processes that function autonomously Key components of the system include a laser with a radiator, a robot for gelling, a hardening furnace, a welding supply network, a gluing system, a folding unit, a control unit, and an exhaust air system Additionally, the facility features lighting, hall ventilation, a recreation room, maintenance services, a heat station, and a dry ice cabin to support efficient operations.

Fig 15.70 Energy consumption analysis of a car body manufacturer (per

17.613_B not separately indicated as well as a dry ice treatment Moreover, we cannot identify, within this analysis, how implementing this technology impacts the conditioning of the hall’s air.

Interactions within a factory, often overlooked when evaluating individual systems, represent significant opportunities for enhancing energy efficiency and reducing resource consumption.

When planning a new factory or reorganizing an existing one, layout planning often prioritizes material flow over building profiles that impact natural daylight and energy efficiency This oversight can result in processes with high heat emissions being optimally arranged for material flow but suffering from inadequate ceiling clearance or excessive sunlight exposure, leading to increased cooling requirements Consequently, this can elevate CO2 emissions, negatively affecting the environment.

Müller et al published a systematic approach to planning and operating an energy efficient factory in the piece goods industry with a focus on mechanical and automotive engineering [Mül08].

The energy relevant functions developed there are summarized in abbreviated form in Fig 15.71.

They refer to a factory building and its building services as well as the production systems The outside facilities are not considered here.

As fundamental courses of action for increasing energy efficiency the authors mention:

• substituting the energy resources used,

• reducing the required net energy e.g., through: – energetically-optimized product-design, – energy-saving modes for operating systems, – increasing efficiency,

Reducing waste energy is crucial for enhancing energy efficiency, while recovering energy plays a vital role in sustainable practices Reusing waste energy, defined as the total waste heat generated by people, electrical equipment, process heat systems, and water heaters, can significantly contribute to the overall heat balance of an area By effectively managing incurred energy, we can optimize resource use and minimize environmental impact.

In addition to the energy consumed through gas, oil, electricity etc., further environmentally relevant factors such as water consumption and emissions need to be considered, especially the

The use of fossil fuels leads to CO2 emissions, necessitating early consideration of production technology and facilities during planning This analysis is integrated into a synergetic planning process that impacts the design decisions of contractors across four factory levels: workplaces, work areas, buildings, and location.

1 transmission and use of electrical energy

• layout and orientation of buildings

Fig 15.71 Energy relevant processes and systems in a factory (per

422 15 The Synergetic Factory Planning Process

Certification Systems

Section 3.9 highlights global initiatives aimed at managing energy consumption while prioritizing environmental protection and establishing guidelines for responsible resource use.

ISO 14000 is a key set of international standards focused on energy management, providing organizations of all sizes with a valuable management tool to enhance their environmental performance.

• to identify and control the environmental impact of their activities, products and services,

• to continually improve their environmental performance and

• to introduce a systematic approach to setting and achieving environmental objectives, to attain them and to show that they have been attained.”

ISO is working on a new standard for the carbon footprint of products, for quantifying and communicating greenhouse gas emissions

A carbon footprint refers to the total greenhouse gas emissions generated by individuals, organizations, events, or products, highlighting the environmental impact of goods and services production This concept is increasingly aligned with ISO 14040/44 standards, which provide a framework for assessing and managing these emissions effectively.

Since the 1990s, global systems have been developed to certify the sustainability quality of building projects, initially focused on large complexes but now expanding to industrial buildings This transition involves establishing evaluation methods and benchmarks to assess these structures In this article, we will provide an overview of the key global certification systems available for industrial building sustainability.

The Environmental Assessment Method, established in Great Britain in 1990, utilizes a point system to evaluate project quality across eight categories: management processes, energy, water use, ecology, health, transportation, materials, and pollution With over 200,000 buildings certified globally, BREEAM assessments range from excellent to average, highlighting its significant impact on sustainable building practices For more information, visit http://www.breeam.org/.

LEED (Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design), developed by the US Green Building Council in 1998, is based on the BREEAM framework It evaluates various categories, including site sustainability, water efficiency, energy and atmosphere, materials and resources, indoor environmental quality, and innovation in design processes Projects that undergo this assessment can achieve certification, demonstrating their commitment to sustainable building practices.

fied as silver, gold or platinum.

The India Green Building Council (IGBC), established in 2006, is inspired by LEED and tailored for industrial projects in India, focusing on energy efficiency and sustainability suited for the country's hot climate According to IGBC, a green building is defined as one that utilizes less water, optimizes energy efficiency, conserves natural resources, minimizes waste, and offers healthier environments for occupants compared to traditional buildings In 2009, IGBC released a pilot version aimed at assessing factory buildings.

• DGNB: The German Sustainable Building Council (DGNB) was introduced in Germany in 2007 and has now spread internationally (www.dgbn.de) Its aim is to provide a certi-

The evaluation system is designed to be flexible enough to adapt to local conditions while allowing for direct comparisons of buildings across different countries This system encompasses six categories: ecological, economic, socio-cultural, functional, technical, and process/site quality, each of which is assessed with project-specific weighting.

Figure 15.73 illustrates the division of six main categories into 13 categories, encompassing a total of 51 sub-criteria In this framework, "process" pertains to aspects such as the transparency of documentation rather than a functional sequence Notably, the current DGNB certification lacks measurable criteria for site quality; further details on this topic can be found in Section 13.5.

An auditing system evaluates the progress of points throughout the project's planning and execution phases Based on the criteria fulfilled, projects can receive ratings of bronze, silver, or gold.

Based on the following case studies we will explain how these evaluation systems functions.

Case Studies

Case Study 1 Expansion of a Baked Goods

Modern bakeries utilize advanced heating and cooling systems, emphasizing energy efficiency and sustainability In 1998, the initial construction phase focused on integrating building design, technology, and energy use through 3D simulation The interdisciplinary planning team employed simultaneous engineering to create an efficient production facility, optimizing bakery-specific processes, workplace design, building structure, and supply systems for a holistic approach to new construction.

Traditionally, heating and cooling loads are determined using static models, but this project utilized the TAS building and system simulation program to analyze thermal currents and temperature distributions TAS is a dynamic simulation tool that allows for the examination of climate, energy, and facade concepts This integrated approach to energy and production planning resulted in a comprehensive assessment of the annual energy requirements.

31 kWh/m 2 for heating and approximately

The building structure, designed as a highly adaptable skeleton, features a modular roof and wall construction made from renewable wood, emphasizing recyclability By integrating advanced process and air conditioning technologies and achieving passive house standards with 30 cm (11.8 in) insulation, the indoor climate can primarily be maintained using waste heat generated from processes This innovative approach significantly enhances energy efficiency, targeting a cooling requirement of 450 kWh/m².

Figure15.74 depicts the location with Phase

Phase 2 of the new project showcases an existing hall, highlighting its spatial structure with the roof removed The assessment reveals a balanced distribution of quality attributes: economical quality at 22.5%, socio-cultural and functional quality at 22.5%, ecological site quality at 22.5%, technical quality at 22.5%, and process quality at 10%.

Fig 15.72 Structure and organization of a DGNB certi fi cate for sustainable building (DGBN) © IFA

424 15 The Synergetic Factory Planning Process

The article emphasizes the importance of various criteria groups in assessing ecological quality and sustainability in construction projects Key factors include life cycle analysis, global warming potential, and ease of dismantling and recycling, which contribute to minimizing environmental impact Visual comfort, user control possibilities, and quality of outdoor spaces enhance functionality and social integration The planning process must prioritize safety, risk management, and optimization to ensure efficient resource use while addressing acidification and eutrophication potential Furthermore, the quality of contractors and public access are crucial for successful project execution Ultimately, the focus on renewable energy demand and sustainable resource management supports both local and global environmental health.

Design quality Assurance of design and urban development quality in a competition

Effective management quality encompasses various aspects, including the systematic inspection and maintenance of building services to ensure technical and performance quality It is crucial to assess the economic viability through life cycle costs and the quality of the building envelope concerning heat and humidity Additionally, factors such as sound insulation, fire prevention, and the qualifications of operating staff significantly contribute to the overall safety and functionality of the site The micro-environment's conditions, including thermal comfort, interior air hygiene, and acoustic comfort, play a vital role in user satisfaction and healthiness Accessibility to transportation and proximity to specific facilities enhance the sociocultural and functional quality of the building Furthermore, the resilience of the structure against natural elements like hail and flooding, along with extension options, is essential for long-term durability A positive public image and the condition of the site and neighborhood are critical for marketability, while ease of cleaning and maintenance ensures ongoing operational efficiency.

To enhance energy and climate strategies from Phase 1, the GENEering process was integrated into the expansion project, focusing on client demands to further decrease CO2 emissions in the supply chain while improving overall energy efficiency.

1500 m 2 (16,150 ft 2 ) hall, heat recovery tech- nology from baking steam and room air is comprehensively used.

For the first time in the baking industry, the high global warming potential (GWP) associated with conventional refrigerant R 4404a has been eliminated by implementing a two-stage cascaded compression refrigeration system This innovative system utilizes separate refrigerant circuits, significantly lowering the evaporator temperature at each stage As a result, it achieves an impressive energy savings of 45%.

Phase 1 was achieved with double the space to cool (i.e cooling volume) In a future expansion stage, warm water is supplied to the washing machines from the systems’ thermal discharge.

For the first time in a bakery, a high-efficiency LED high bay lighting system has been developed, offering innovative advantages over conventional lighting This system features specially designed prism plates and heat sinks, making it ideal for the flour-laden environment of bakeries Additionally, it is networked with a daylight-dependent control, enhancing its sensitivity and performance.

In the final stage, a total of 2,200 m² (23,700 ft²) of roof area has been equipped with photovoltaic panels, with Phase 2 contributing approximately 1,100 m² This setup generates 12,300 kWh of solar energy, which is utilized in the bun baking process and powers the company’s zero-emission delivery fleet, consisting of 5-ton trucks with solar-powered electric motors By servicing retail outlets in urban areas, the fleet saves around 100 tons of CO2 annually, having previously consumed approximately 36,000 liters of diesel fuel over 300,000 km/year After accounting for the 54,000 kWh/year needed for the delivery fleet, around 69,000 kWh/year of solar energy is available for the bakery’s lighting and electrical processes The 50 retail outlets throughout Essen serve as “ambassadors” for an innovative supply chain strategy The entire project was supported by DGNB certification, enhancing the planning of layout, logistics, and building services.

Fig 15.74 Expansion phases of an energetically and ecologically optimized bakery © Reichardt

426 15 The Synergetic Factory Planning Process

The evaluation of ecological quality in this case study is based on a structured criteria system, which includes three sub-groups and a total of 12 individual criteria, each worth a maximum of 10 points The points achieved for each criterion are adjusted by a weighting factor, resulting in a performance index that reflects the overall ecological quality, which stands at 81% This group performance indicator contributes 22.5% to the overall evaluation Additionally, the project was awarded a 'gold' certification during the planning phase, achieving 85.2 out of a possible 100 points, as illustrated in the performance profile shown in Figure 15.76.

A comprehensive analysis of energy potential necessitates examining the interconnections among various criteria, including technical, socio-cultural, functional, economic, and ecological qualities Notably, some criteria were excluded from the evaluation process in this case study, resulting in a total performance score of 85.2%.

Fig 15.76 Overall evaluation of a bakery project according to DGBN

The article discusses the concept of self-sufficiency in factory operations, emphasizing the ability to function independently of external energy sources for heating and cooling It highlights the importance of analyzing the energy consumption of various building services within different plant segments, enabling precise optimization of energy flows in alignment with building and process demands.

Figure 15.77 shows the energy consumption of the utility areas for the baked goods project.

Case Study 2 Construction of a New Distri- bution and Assembly Center in India.

This project was aimed at configuring a new factory building of approximately 12,500 m 2

(134,500 ft 2 ) in Chennai, South India for a global manufacturer and distributor of components for metalfittings for windows, doors and glass walls.

The master plan illustrated in Figure 15.78 outlines various development stages and expansion possibilities for assembly, storage, and research and development facilities This intricate GENEering process led to the client's vision of a "green building factory," emphasizing sustainability in a climatically diverse environment.

Chennai temperatures range between 30 and

35°C (86–95°F) year round with a humidity of

To achieve optimal room comfort while minimizing operating costs and CO2 emissions, it is crucial to implement an intelligent building structure A thorough analysis of processes, location, climate, buildings, and services was conducted, utilizing 3D modeling to assess layout, energy flows, daylight utilization, and thermal comfort at workspaces This approach enables the evaluation of overall energy efficiency across various alternative configurations.

Preparations for Realization

The next phase of the synergetic factory planning is thepreparation for contract placement stage.

Phase 6 of the HOAI focuses on the concretization of planning from both production and object perspectives This stage involves preparing bid requests for specific projects and is essential for quantifying and developing project outcome specifications in collaboration with expert planners It specifically pertains to the building, its technical equipment, and external systems.

When planning a factory, a significant portion of the production equipment is often sourced from existing facilities Large-scale systems, such as paper machinery, rolling mills, print shops, press shops, paint shops, and automotive assembly lines, typically dominate these factories due to their complexity and value In these instances, the building serves primarily as a protective envelope rather than a flexible structure, as the products and production facilities within tend to change less frequently.

In the context of production planning, bids for operational facilities outlined in both rough and detailed plans are issued and awarded The design of storage and commissioning facilities, integral to production logistics, must align with new manufacturing and assembly segments, and these facilities are also tendered and procured For automated structures like high bay warehouses, specialized providers are engaged Additionally, the building's design incorporates solar draft principles, utilizing soil ducts for the infiltration of preconditioned fresh air and skydomes in the roof structure for the exhaust of hot, used air.

430 15 The Synergetic Factory Planning Process

The collaboration in awarding contracts during HOAI Phase 7 concludes the project preparations by evaluating bids for compliance with tender specifications, creating a price sheet comparison for subservices, and aiding in negotiations with the selected firms This phase is significantly influenced by the detailed award form.

Supervising the Realization

In the realization phase, production planning plays a crucial role in overseeing future production and logistics processes Throughout the construction of the building, various specific questions arise that require clarification, particularly regarding the accessibility of facilities for maintenance or in the event of disruptions.

Supervising architects oversee construction work, while engineers manage the installation of building services Together with the construction site manager, they ensure that projects are executed in accordance with contracts and prepare for necessary inspections and approvals.

According to HOAI’s Phase 8 (project supervision) numerous control tasks are related from a schedule, cost and legal perspective including identifying and resolving deficiencies.

In complex production systems, separate inspection trials are carried out after the facilities are installed and operational The supervision of the project concludes once both the individual projects and the overall facility receive approval and acceptance from clients and relevant authorities.

The final stage of monitoring in accordance with HOAI’s Phase 9 involves object management, which encompasses the creation of maintenance plans, identification of defects or deficiencies, and the compilation of visual documentation This process ensures that facilities are effectively managed and maintained for optimal performance.

• production release production tests output rate preparation ramp up milestones milestones in accordance with figure 15.5 and figure 15.6 advanced orders production ramp up production development

The ramp-up curve of production, illustrated in Fig 15.81, is a critical aspect of management planning, with relevant documentation established accordingly This process is further elaborated in Chapter 17 on Facility Management, and the oversight of this implementation signifies the achievement of Milestone M5.

Managing the Ramp-up

The final phase of synergetic factory planning prioritizes the user experience, emphasizing the importance of a well-managed transition to a new property To minimize production interruptions, it is crucial to produce stock in advance, ensuring that any disruptions are brief and effectively managed.

After the move, machinery and systems have to be started and ramped-up to the rated capacity.

With complex objects this phase can require a number of weeks Figure15.81provides an idea of a ramp-up curve for a complex production system [Win07].

The stages and milestones clarified in

Figs 15.6 and 15.7 illustrate the more precise milestones in the development process, where the output rate for prototypes is determined by development requirements Test series and production tests play a crucial role in enhancing the system and preparing it for full-scale production Following the pilot lot, market entry typically begins with the processing of initial advance orders To ensure a smooth transition, it is essential to minimize recurring disruptions through systematic ramp-up management.

Upon approval and acceptance of the facilities, Milestone M6 is achieved, leading to the closure of the investment account and the preparation of the final statement This statement serves as the foundation for creating the balance sheet for fixed assets.

In conclusion, we have explored the stages of the synergetic factory planning model from a technical viewpoint As mentioned earlier, project management plays a crucial supportive role, and we will delve into its importance for project success in the next chapter.

Summary

When initiating a systematic project course, it's essential to assess the necessity and strategic significance of either rebuilding a factory or constructing a new one The planning process is structured into six phases, each concluding with a milestone, which integrates production planning and building design in a cohesive manner This approach emphasizes both process and spatial considerations, fostering synergy between the two Effective project management oversees and controls all phases to ensure successful outcomes.

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[Bri09] Brieke, M.: Erweiterte Wirtschaftlichkeitsr- echnung in der Fabrikplanung (Extended economic calculation in factory planning). Ph.D Thesis Leibniz Universit ọ t Hannover

In 2009, PZH GmbH in Garbsen published the 4th edition of the "Handbuch der prozessorientierten Arbeitsorganisation" by H.F Binner, which serves as a comprehensive guide on process-oriented work organization This handbook, released by REFA, outlines essential methods and tools for effective implementation in organizational processes.

M ü nchen, Wien (2011) [Bra09] Braungart, M., McDonough, W.: Cradle to

Cradle, Remaking the Way We Make Things, 2nd edn Vintage Books, London (2009)

[Dan01] Dangelmaier, W.: Fertigungsplanung Pla- nung von Aufbau und Ablauf der Fertigung (Manufacturing Planning Planning the Construction and Operation of Manufactur- ing) Springer, Berlin (2001)

In his 2008 PhD thesis, Engelmann explores various methods and tools for the planning and design of energy-efficient factories, emphasizing the importance of sustainability in industrial settings Additionally, Felix's work from 1998 delves into corporate and factory planning, focusing on planning processes, performance metrics, and interrelationships within organizational structures Together, these studies highlight the critical role of strategic planning in enhancing operational efficiency and environmental responsibility in manufacturing.

432 15 The Synergetic Factory Planning Process

Planning: Planning Processes, Services and

[Gau06] Gausemeier, J., Fink, A., Schlake, O.: Sze- nariomanagement Planen und F ü hren mit

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[Han04] Hanna, S.R., Konz, S.: Facility Design &

Engineering, 3rd edn Holcomb Hathaway,

(Agent based structure planning) Ph.D.

Thesis, University of Hannover 2004 PZH

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Wandlungsf ọ higkeit in der Fabrikplanung

(Systematics of changeability in factory planning) Ph.D Thesis, University of

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[HOAI13] Verordnung ü ber die Honorare f ü r Leistun- gen der Architekten und der Ingenieure.

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(Guide Line of Systematic Factory Plan- ning) Hanser, M ü nchen (1994)

Schuh, G., Winkler, H., et al.: Schneller

(Fast Ramp Up of Series Products) Verlag

[May01] Mayrshofer, D., Kr ử ger, H.A.: Prozes- skompetenz in der Projektarbeit: Ein Hand- buch f ü r Projektleiter, Prozessbegleiter und

Berater (Process Skills in Project Work: A

Handbook for Project Managers, Facilitators and Consultants) Hamburg, Windm ü hle

[Mül09] M ü ller, E et al.: Energieef fi ziente Fabriken planen und betreiben (Planning and operate energy ef fi cient factories) Springer (2009)

[Neu13] Neugebauer, R.: Handbuch Ressourcenori- enterte Produktion (Handbook resource ori- ented manufacturing Hanser M ü nchen (2013)

The article by Nyhuis, Elscher, and colleagues presents a process model for synergetic factory planning, emphasizing the holistic integration of both process and spatial perspectives This comprehensive approach aims to enhance efficiency and effectiveness in factory design, aligning operational processes with the physical layout to optimize performance The findings are detailed in the publication "wt Werkstatts-technick online," highlighting the significance of integrating these elements for successful factory planning.

Grundlagen, Vorgehensweise, EDV-Unt- erst ü tzung (Holistic Factory Planning: Prin- ciples, Procedure, IT Support) Springer, Berlin (2008)

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Fabrikplanung – Montagewerk mit den Planungstechniken aus dem Automobilbau realisiert (Synergetic Factory Planning — Assembly Plant Realized with the Planning Process from the Automotive Industry), S.

52 – 55 industrieBAU, 3/2004 [Rei98] Reichardt, J., Dr ỹ ke, K.: B ọ ckerei mit mit innovativem Gesamtkonzept (Bakery with innovative overall concept) IndustrieBau 6

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Synergetischen Fabrikplanung Stand der Forschung und Praxisbeispiele (Phase model of synergetic factory planning State of research and practice examples) wt online

97 (4), 218 – 225 (2007) [Rop99] Ropohl, G.: Allgemeine Technologie - Eine

Systemtheorie der Technik (General Tech- nology — A Systems Theory of Technology). Hanser, M ü nchen (1999)

[Roth03] Rother, M., Shook, J.: Learning to See:

Value Stream Mapping to Add Value and Eliminate MUDA Lean Enterprise Institute, Cambridge, USA (2003)

The ARIS modeling methods and meta-models, as detailed by A.W Scheer in his works, provide a comprehensive framework for transforming business processes into application systems The fourth editions of these publications, released by Springer in Berlin, highlight the practical applications of ARIS in enhancing organizational efficiency and process optimization.

[Sch10] Schenk, M., Wirth, S., M ü ller, E.: Factory

Planning Manual Situation-Driven Produc- tion Facility Planning Springer, Berlin (2010)

[Son07] Sonntag, K.: Kompetenzmodelle im Human

Resource (HR-) Management (Competence models in human resources planning) In:Sch ọ fer E u a (eds.): Arbeitsleben!

Arbeitsanalyse, Arbeitsgestaltung, Kompe- tenzentwicklung (Working Life! Job Anal- ysis, Job Design, Competency

Development), S 264 – 279 Kassel Univer- sity Press, Kassel (2007)

[Tom10] Tompkins, et al.: Facilities Planning, 4th edn Wiley, Hoboken (2010)

[Uli99] Ulich, E.: Mensch - Technik - Organisation:

European Production Concept) Betonwerk und Fertigteil-Technik 65 (22), 26 – 31 (1999)

[VDI91] VDI - Richtlinie 3644: Analyse und Planung von Betriebs flọ chen Grundlagen, Anwen- dung und Beispiele (Analysis and Planning of Operational Areas Foundations, Appli- cation and Examples) Beuth Verlag, Berlin

[VDI08] VDI-Richtlinie 4499: Digitale Fabrik.

[VDI11] VDI-Richtlinie 5200: Fabrikplanung Plan- ungsvorgehen (Factory Planning Planning

[Wie72] Wiendahl, H.-P.: Technische Struktur- und

Investitionsplanung (Technical Structure and Investment Planning) Girardet Verlag,

[Wie74] Wiendahl, H.-P., Bertram, D.: Die Produk- tionsplanung als Bestandteil der Unterneh- mensplanung (The production planning as part of the corporate planning) Ind Org 43

[Wie96] Wiendahl, H.-P.: Grundlagen der Fabrik- planung (Basics of factory planning) In:

Eversheim, W., Schuh, G (Hrsg.) Bet- riebsh ü tte - Produktion und Management.

[Wie02] Wiendahl, H.-P., Hern á ndez, R.: Fabrikpla- nung im Blickpunkt Herausforderung

Wandlungsf ọ higkeit (Focus Factory Plan- ning Challenge Changeability) wt Werkst- attstechnik online, Jhg, 92 (4), 133 – 138 (2002)

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"Systems Engineering: A Methodology for Multi-Dimensional Evaluation and Selection of Project Alternatives" (4th ed., Springer, Berlin, 1976) presents a comprehensive approach to cost-benefit analysis, facilitating the assessment and comparison of various project alternatives This methodology emphasizes the importance of evaluating multiple dimensions to ensure informed decision-making in project selection.

[Zeug98] Zeugtr ọ ger, K.: Anlaufmanagement von

Gro ò anlagen (Ramp up management of large plants) Ph.D Thesis, Univ Hannover. VDI-Verlag, D ü sseldorf (1998)

434 15 The Synergetic Factory Planning Process

A skilled Project Management Team is crucial for the success of factory planning projects, ensuring functional performance, adherence to timelines, and budget compliance Many managers underestimate the complexity of these projects, mistakenly believing they can manage them alongside their regular duties due to their experiences with smaller construction or remodeling tasks This misjudgment can lead to significant project failures, potentially jeopardizing the entire organization For a structured approach, the recommendations outlined in the next chapter, based on the methodology from Chapter 15 on synergetic factory planning, are highly recommended.

Holistic project management includes skillful organization of a team, processes and planning to manage contract, time, cost and quality using state of the art digital planning tools.

Tasks of Project Management

Stumbling Blocks

The project management of a factory includes planning, steering, coordination and control tasks, aiming at a reasonably accurate, scheduled and within budget implementation of the project

To successfully navigate complex projects like factory design, it is essential to avoid common pitfalls related to professional, organizational, and human skills Drawing from the experiences of Schulte and others, these stumbling blocks can be effectively summarized to enhance project outcomes.

• The project preparation is often the result of hasty decisions, instead of clarifying mutual expectations of the project team at the very onset.

• A methodological approach to concept gener- ation is missing Engineers want to “make” instead of spending time discussing targets, communication and workflow.

• There is a lack of common understanding of the solution; moreover many individual solu- tions are never“optimized”.

• The project decisions are often emotional reactions, by positions of power rather than factual arguments.

• Clients lack awareness and underestimate the complexity of a factory project; resulting in unreasonable targets both in time and costs.

• In many cases, it is assumed that a standard procedure exists which automatically guaran- tees an “optimal” solution However, each project and its site being unique there is no

“right” solution to start with; solutions are usually developed through a conscious team effort and from learning from each other.

• Resistances against certain solutions are not imminently visible creating an imbalance between interests of the planning team and those of the future users of the building.

• Finally in case of conflicts, it is extremely difficult to differentiate between personal

H.-P Wiendahl et al., Handbook Factory Planning and Design,

DOI 10.1007/978-3-662-46391-8_16, © Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2015

435 interests and relationship issues (values and cultures), property issues (professional views and related interests) and apparent miscon- ceptions (with different interpretations of problems, often unclear communication).

Figure 16.1 shows the resulting stress fields between the client, the planners, the contractor and the subcontractors [Schu08].

In general, clients are interested in minimizing investment costs (and/or operational costs); there is also a tendency to minimize risks related to budgeting, delays, change orders, warranties, etc.

Post-contractual issues regarding costs and timelines often stem from unclear requirements, delayed decision-making, or excessive changes Conversely, users see new projects as a chance to address persistent shortcomings However, management may hesitate to coordinate all user requests initially, leading to additional costs often blamed on the planning team.

Building contractors aim to maximize profits while minimizing efforts and expenses on sub-projects Typically, planning teams are reluctant to accept full responsibility for client and user requirements that were unknown at the time of contract agreement It is expected that these teams operate under national or international guidelines, such as HOAI in Germany, which dictate fee structures tied to construction costs, allowing for adjustments based on final project expenses Vendors of building materials and equipment often attempt to recover discounts offered during negotiations by strategically managing claims related to changes and additional work Moreover, contractors generally seek to limit their warranty obligations.

To prevent conflicts among stakeholders, it is essential to establish fundamental project objectives systematically, aligned with the synergetic factory planning process model This approach should consider both process and spatial requirements, applicable to the entire project and its sub-projects.

Task Overview

It appears that an infinite number of solutions are possible guarantying efficient project execution, some of which rely upon the knowledge of

• avoid additional / new items of work

• guaranteed planning, costs, time and liability performance

• minimize expenditures for planning, coordinating and timely delivery

• Additional profits by adding work items, re-planning or new planning

• guarantee for refunding work pay

• minimization of liability minimization of investment maximization of profit customer’s interests areas of conflict contractors’ interests client planner contractor sub-contractors

Fig 16.1 Fields of con fl ict within a factory planning project (acc to Schulte) © IFA 15.234_B

436 16 Project Management systems engineering Based upon available lit- erature, for example, [Rửs94, Die04, Rog08,

Knu08, Mar11] and authors’ experience, the main action areas are identified in Fig 16.2.

The starting point for any project should be based on a project framework whichfirst defines the requirements before Milestone M1 in Fig.15.

5 Here the users’ requirements are developed and used to create a spatial and functional pro- gram, referred to as a‘space schedule’or‘space book’ The space book is the counterpart to the specification catalogue for the production facili- ties and is the basis for successful mediating between the property developers, users and external partners [Rei04].

Space books are created for each building to outline requirements, utility connections, and process facility descriptions An example of a well-structured Excel sheet for the space-function program is provided in Appendix B Additionally, the framework must encompass a fundamental understanding of the project's timeline and budget, informed by the overall strategic considerations.

The second area of focus is project organization, which outlines the roles of participants involved in the planning, execution, and ramp-up of the factory This includes establishing a project structure that comprises specific 'work packages.' Subsequently, the order of completion for these packages is developed and integrated into the project master schedule, complete with key milestones.

Even when much of the work is outsourced, effective project execution necessitates careful internal planning and capacity management It is essential to negotiate contracts with a focus on liability issues and addressing deficiencies Establishing a "frozen period" is crucial, as it sets a deadline for significant changes from the user's side, allowing the project to progress smoothly To maintain a consistent planning state, it is important to coordinate information and participation throughout the project, while documenting outcomes in a comprehensive project manual This manual should outline formats, routines, coordination processes, and result documentation.

The third area of action focuses on costs associated with production facilities and building projects Initial cost estimates often prioritize identifying all cost elements over accuracy It is important to differentiate between one-time initial costs and recurring expenses related to usage, operation, and maintenance This analysis leads to the development of a comprehensive project framework, effective project organization, and efficient cost planning tools.

• estimating, determining and controlling costs

Fig 16.2 Fields of activity in project management © IFA

Effective management of the estimated target costs of 15.235_B for the building project is essential for minimizing the life cycle costs of the factory, including production facilities and buildings Additionally, addressing the growing demands for energy efficiency, sustainability, and environmental consciousness is crucial in the development of a Green Factory.

Buildings, it is recommended that every attempt should be made to recover energy and conserve resources from the very beginning [Rei98] (see

Project management is essential for achieving a balance between "hard" factors, such as functional objectives, cost, and schedule, and "soft" factors, including quality, aesthetics, and ecological considerations.

Project management tasks are increasingly influenced by the ever changing digital planning skills and tools State of the art “Building

Building Information Modeling (BIM) and the Digital Factory are essential tools for accurate planning and engineering of buildings These methodologies enhance Facility Management during the building's operational phase by providing comprehensive digital documentation throughout the planning process This approach will be further detailed in the conclusion.

This article will explore three key areas of project management: organization, cost management, and planning tools, providing insights into the essential responsibilities of a project manager.

Project Organization

Team Building

Once a project is approved by management, it is essential to establish a project team, clearly defining the roles and responsibilities of project management, customers, users, planners, and executors through an organizational chart This chart typically includes a Lead Team, responsible for decision-making and implementation, and a Project Steering Team, which offers advisory support without decision-making authority The coordinated space and function program serve as the foundation for collaboration among all project partners.

Clients often underestimate the management effort needed for their projects, especially regarding the necessary level of professionalism Effective project management involves coordination among various stakeholders, including the project controller, specialized planners, advisers, contractors, suppliers, and relevant authorities A skilled project manager is essential for aligning the spatial and functional program with public interests, ensuring a successful outcome.

Fig 16.3 Integration of project management and control in the project organization © Reichardt 15.236_JR_B

Effective project management requires strong leadership skills and a clear understanding of responsibilities While project risks are often assigned to planning and execution teams, the ultimate responsibility rests with the client, who plays a crucial role in defining and overseeing project goals A proactive client ensures that the project management team receives essential support, both internally and externally, which is vital for effective coordination If the internal management team lacks the necessary skills and experience, the client should not hesitate to seek external expertise for in-house representation By the end of the planning phase, the project structure should be established, breaking the project into smaller, manageable tasks such as construction, utilities, landscaping, power generation, and wastewater treatment, to create a realistic timeline.

Example of a Project Organization

In a large factory planning project, the project team is composed of various actors, including external members such as the client Steering Committee, which typically includes management board members, primary user representatives, and, when applicable, the works Council Chairman An independent external expert may also be involved The project manager, along with the responsible planner or critical equipment suppliers, provides updates to the steering committee at key milestones During the preparation phase, project users collaborate with the planning team to supply essential data, discuss project requirements, and adopt necessary solutions, ultimately influencing the future organizational structure of the project.

The success of an environmental protection project hinges on the performance and quality management of the project team, which includes specialized engineers, civil engineers, and advisors Effective communication with suppliers is crucial to ensure timely delivery and adherence to specifications set by the steering committee Additionally, thorough planning in logistics and organizational structures is essential to meet project costs and due dates, while also navigating the constraints imposed by data authorities and regulatory approvals.

In a complex factory planning project, it is essential to ensure timely recruitment and training of staff while adhering to the requirements set by national and international authorities regarding occupational safety, health administration, and environmental protection The project timeline must incorporate the necessary procedural time for acceptance and licensing before operations can commence Additionally, equipment and service suppliers are accountable for delivering their contractual agreements on schedule.

The core of the project organization is the project team It is led by the Project Leader

The Project Manager is accountable to the Steering Committee for delivering projects on time, within budget, and to the agreed quality standards To achieve this, they must establish a project management framework and critically assess team qualifications for planning tasks By setting rules for interactions, the Project Manager significantly shapes the project environment Key traits of an effective Project Manager include moderation, mediation skills, impartiality, and methodological competence Additionally, maintaining direct contact with an executive-level project sponsor is essential for project success.

The project execution team, as illustrated in Fig 16.4, includes production, logistics, and organizational planners who handle the production-related design aspects discussed earlier Architects, along with various engineers and consultants, ensure the buildings' functionality This core team may be temporarily enhanced by internal or external specialists, such as landscape planners or fire safety experts, to address specific project needs.

Rules for Project Team

The success of a project relies not only on the functional processing of sub-projects and effective coordination by the project manager but also on essential methodological and atmospheric factors that govern team interactions Each team member is accountable for their specific planning object concerning function, quality, costs, and delivery time, with coordination occurring during project meetings These meetings, which may include steering committee sessions, regular core team gatherings, and workshops, are crucial for preparing, verifying, making decisions, and exchanging information about the project's technical aspects Additionally, implementing operational rules based on problem-solving routines is beneficial, such as ensuring clear task descriptions for partial planning, exploring and evaluating alternatives, and conducting overall system assessments based on strategic criteria and general conditions.

Procedural guidelines are essential for ensuring that team members adhere to established rules and effectively communicate differing opinions These guidelines may encompass general specifications, such as weekly plans and internal regulations for the core team, like requiring agreement on any external communications regarding the project's status Additionally, project-specific rules may dictate that any extra costs from a sub-project must be offset by savings from another Furthermore, documentation rules outline how the project's progress and outcomes will be recorded, including meeting results, chronological work advancements, and technical achievements, all of which are preserved in the project manual.

Figure 16.5 outlines the project management tasks derived from process, operational, and environmental viewpoints, illustrated through a working meeting at the concept stage This chart emphasizes the clear distinction between project management and process support, as depicted in Figure 15.9, with tasks allocated separately to distinct groups of actors.

440 16 Project Management teams are experienced both tasks can be inde- pendently performed by professional project managers.

Every meeting begins with clear objectives that stem from the overall project plan's work package To prepare effectively, the project team develops relevant content and suggests professional solutions to address the issues at hand, while a facilitator guides the discussion.

Effective communication using the meta plan technique is essential for enhancing meeting outcomes It ensures that all participants understand the terms of reference, fostering clarity and focus Additionally, the practicality of targets is evaluated from both technical and systems perspectives, ensuring that objectives are achievable and aligned with overall goals.

At the start of the meeting, the facilitator establishes the framework and leads the discussion The technical project manager focuses on assessing the feasibility and compatibility of different solutions Ultimately, the team must reach a consensus on the most viable solution through thorough discussions and debates.

In follow-up, the project manager documents the work results while the process facilitator reviews the documentation for intelligibility.

Depending on the results it can be practical to review the objectives, which also serves as preparation for the next meeting.

To effectively manage conflicts among participants, it is essential to clarify responsibilities on the client side Additionally, considering the personal needs of employees, such as vacation and leisure planning, can significantly reduce stress and enhance overall work performance.

Project Plan Development

Once the team, structure, and rules are established, the project manager's next crucial task is to develop a project time schedule This involves aligning essential activities within gross work packages to a timeline, identifying tasks that can be executed concurrently to reduce the overall project duration By working backward from a desired completion date, the project manager must set realistic time frames for planning, approvals, sub-trade execution, and installation, while also incorporating necessary buffers to account for potential delays A typical time schedule for a building project is illustrated in Figure 16.6, showcasing how it is typically presented in technical project management.

• pre-structuring of technical content

• brain-storming of possible design options methodical

• didactic processing of technical content technical

• clarification of technical content methodical

• supervising content of technical discussions and interactions between the various experts

• identifying logical contradictions within the contents technical

• ensuring the consistency of technical concepts methodical

• suitable presentation of results for the specific groups

• presenting agreements and disagreements about contents process facilitator methodical

• developing goals and selecting suitable work procedures

• drafting the process plan atmospheric

• assessing the relationships and motivations of those involved which are critical for success methodical

• appropriately implementing the process plan (adapting as needed)

• consistent application of moderation methods atmospheric

• supporting work relationships (group dynamics) methodical

• understandable presentation of the plan of action atmospheric

• appropriate interventions (e.g for conflict resolution) tasks post processing preparation execution

Fig 16.5 Management tasks at project meetings (H.-H Wiendahl) © IFA 15.239_B milestone 0 It is based on the work phases of

German HOAI fee regulation and is classified under modules—integrated project concept, integrated design, integrated tender, realization and documentation.

As the planning phase advances, the initial time schedules are refined to enhance accuracy A sample schedule for building construction and interior works is illustrated in Figure 16.7 The Project Master Schedule becomes more detailed based on the timelines provided by building contractors, equipment vendors, and other stakeholders.

In addition to the planning phase, a detailed schedule for the development of production facilities is essential As illustrated in Figure 16.8, this sample schedule is designed for entirely new operating facilities for production, assembly, and internal logistics It is important to modify this schedule as needed to incorporate any existing equipment.

The milestones, described extensively in

Chapter 15 emphasizes the importance of aligning interim results with established principles and reviewing interim goals Milestone reports often include risk evaluations for due diligence procedures, assessing projects at key stages, such as the completion of the building shell, which can trigger payment releases for contractors' approved work packages Progressive milestones are crucial for critical planning phases, including obtaining regulatory approvals (German phase HOAI 4), transferring detailed designs (German phase HOAI 5), and tendering (German phase HOAI 6), as well as releasing assembly plans for machinery positioning Project management support typically diminishes or ceases upon the commissioning of buildings and facilities, potentially leading to conflicts regarding roles and responsibilities during the defect liability period, including issues related to facility disposal, guarantees, and liability rules.

74 documentation, FM [module 5] hand over: FM (Facility Management) project milestone beginning/end activity course of activity oct

1st quarter 2nd quarter 3rd quarter nov dec may

4th quarter 1st quarter 2nd quarter 3rd quarter 4th quarter

Nov 03 jan feb mar apr jun jul aug sept okt nov dec jan feb mar apr may jun jul aug sept okt nov dec

Fig 16.6 Coarse time schedule (example) © Reichardt 15.240_JR_B

The project management process involves key milestones that mark the beginning and end of various activities, including the start of construction, excavation, and foundation work Essential phases include the creation of frost aprons, base elements, and the structural skeleton, leading to the installation of floor plates, ceilings, and reinforced concrete roofing with proper insulation The development also encompasses the installation of linear metal facades, glass facades, and secure gates, ensuring a tight shell Following the installation of technical equipment and dry wall plasterboard, the project progresses to landscaping and media installations The logistics of approvals and fault corrections are crucial before the final handover of the building, sports grounds, and necessary documentation for Facility Management.

[module 5] hand over Facility Management

Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec activity

Fig 16.7 Detailed time schedule (example) © IFA 15.241_JR_B activity

The comprehensive project encompasses a total of 28 specifications, including functional specifications and meticulous planning for manufacturing and assembly equipment Key components involve conveyor technology, presentation planning, and contract award processes, leading to complete approvals for delivery and assembly of new equipment Following the equipment release, test operations will be conducted, along with the relocation of available equipment Employee training will prepare staff for the startup of the entire plant, culminating in a test run and ramp-up phase, followed by final approval and handover.

In the timeline spanning from the 3rd quarter to the 4th quarter, and into the subsequent quarters, key milestones include the collection and processing of critical data Notable deadlines are set for various operations, specifically in September and December, with significant awards and approvals related to manufacturing and assembly equipment Additionally, advancements in conveyor technology are scheduled for review in early February and March, ensuring a streamlined operation throughout the year.

Fig 16.8 Coarse time schedule for production facilities (example) © IFA 13.969_B

Project Capacity Planning

Large projects, such as factory buildings, necessitate collaboration between external partners and various internal departments While some departments will directly utilize the new production facility, others will play crucial roles in indirect functions like process planning.

NC programming, production control, etc.

Effective project management requires delegating support functions such as quality assurance, information management, personnel management, and plant security During the ramp-up phase, operating employees should also be engaged to ensure smooth operations It is crucial to plan and assign project staff strategically to maintain daily business activities without disruption and to establish clear roles and responsibilities for each phase of the project.

The management as decision maker is required particularly in the phase of defining overall project targets and in the ramp-up phase.

During the intermediate planning and implementation phases, management executes scheduled tasks within the Steering Committee framework Mid-level management and experts work together to address production challenges, facility needs, and logistical issues, while operational employees engage in training, testing, and collaboration during the startup process.

It's essential to recognize the extensive nature of these activities and document them separately, including holidays This approach helps prevent overwhelming any single employee, ensuring they can manage their regular responsibilities effectively.

It is also important to quantify the indirect costs of the above efforts.

Contract Drafting

General

Effective project management requires careful preparation and refinement of contracts with all stakeholders These contracts should clearly outline the services provided, establish timelines, and specify documentation guidelines Additionally, it is crucial to define how any service shortcomings will be addressed, whether through reworks, price revisions, or other measures.

Other areas of concern are with reference to defect liability guarantees, claims and identifi- cation of a justifiable basis for additional costs.

The article delves into the complexities of contractual liabilities under German law, as outlined in Section 16.5.4 It emphasizes the importance of goal setting, conceptualization, and meticulous planning during the pre-construction phase Furthermore, it highlights the necessity of effective construction supervision and ramp-up support across various executive and managerial levels The discussion also categorizes factory planning into distinct stages, assessing participation levels as weak, middle, or strong throughout each phase.

Fig 16.9 Work load of enterprise levels in a factory planning project © IFA 16,161 E_B

Award Variants

Factory project clients and their hired consultants, planners, and executing enterprises can adopt various organizational and legal structures This leads to four primary configurations for the planning and execution of factory projects Each configuration has distinct characteristics, along with specific advantages and disadvantages that will be outlined next.

The conventional award form involves awarding contracts based on detailed specifications and construction drawings, allowing clients to maintain maximum control over project schedule, cost, and quality through direct relationships with construction companies However, this approach leads to multiple contractor awards, resulting in various interfaces and coordination efforts between trades, which can introduce related quality, cost, and liability risks.

Logically, these advantages and disadvantages also apply during the selection of professional planners for process, space and organization.

As mentioned, the coordination effort required between planning and contracts are considerable.

Integrating overall planning for building design, including architecture, structural engineering, utilities, and landscaping, significantly minimizes clients' time and financial investments Additionally, reducing contractual interfaces can be accomplished by engaging a turnkey building contractor with a fixed-price contract.

Before engaging in a contract system, it's crucial to have all construction work clearly defined Any changes arising from ongoing process improvements and organizational planning post-award can lead to pricing adjustments that exceed market competition These amendments pose significant risks and can be costly for clients, as they allow contractors to recover discounts offered during final negotiations.

In addition, the award forms single planners/ general contractor exist (rarely) and general planner/single contractors, or general planner/ contractor trades packages (rather often).

To address conflicts of interest in contracting, the U.S introduced the Guaranteed Maximum Price (GMP) model, which promotes partnership building and establishes fixed prices during both the planning and execution phases.

The client outlines the tender documents based on the finalized preliminary planning, while the general contractor assumes responsibility for the missing detailed planning, site execution management, and overall accountability for meeting project targets This includes all necessary services, utilities, landscaping, and construction detailing The agreed-upon lump sum package for the GMP contract encompasses these elements.

The agreement includes a fixed share of fees, risks, and profits, while a variable component is designated for future construction, which will be determined later by external providers This arrangement is contracted in advance to facilitate coordination with the established fixed profits.

“glass pockets”—the client constantly receives

“true”information about the state of current costs and schedules [Eit07].

The degree to which the theoretical transparency of all cost elements is upheld during the project execution, or potentially manipulated by involved parties, ultimately hinges on the level of trust established among them.

To mitigate investment risks or capitalize on tax benefits, factories are often constructed as externally financed assets, which are subsequently leased back to the user through leasing or operator models In the leasing model, a leasing group assumes contractual obligations and project risks, securing financing via loans and independently hiring planners and contractors, while the leasing agreement with the user specifies loan repayment terms, additional costs, and ownership transfer at the lease's conclusion Conversely, the operator model involves granting concessions for the operation of the facility.

Advantages and Disadvantages

Aligning the interests of all stakeholders towards a common goal is crucial for the long-term success of any project In the construction industry, bonus-malus schemes are gaining popularity, where rewards (bonuses) are provided for achieving target values, while penalties (malus) are imposed for failing to meet essential targets.

Reduced responsibilities often lead to limited freedoms in releasing orders, particularly during key phases such as tendering, implementation, acceptance, and commissioning While replacing trade-specific tender descriptions with functional ones can help stabilize costs and timelines early on, this approach may also compromise quality and lead to functional failures.

The strategy to allocate single activities ensures strongest control on the quality of workmanship with best price-performance ratio.

A significant drawback is the necessity for extensive coordination across various interfaces, which raises concerns about potential delays or complete work stoppages stemming from the insolvency of individual companies involved.

Customers typically seek assurance regarding project costs and delivery timelines, favoring a single point of contact for defect liability In this context, opting for a turnkey contractor is often more advantageous than managing multiple agencies across different trades However, these benefits may be counterbalanced by the drawbacks of increased costs and potentially inflated planning changes post-contract award.

Purchasing an entire factory as a package of functional services at a guaranteed maximum price (GMP) is feasible, but it requires careful attention to detail To achieve the desired adaptability, it is essential to define the necessary structures and interfaces through comprehensive planning that goes beyond mere functional requirements, considering both process and spatial aspects.

When selecting a leasing model, clients often forgo their own investment funds to benefit from tax advantages A reputable leasing company should prioritize flexibility in the building's design, allowing for adaptable spaces that can be easily leased to new tenants after the initial lease term Consequently, it is crucial to focus on precise definitions and thorough planning of both the building and its utilities.

To ensure long-term quality and strategic adaptability in construction, it is essential to plan and execute building elements clearly and effectively Aesthetic considerations for interiors, facades, and exteriors must be thoughtfully addressed prior to execution, as these architectural elements significantly enhance the factory's visual identity and create a positive impression for users and visitors.

Liability Issues

Project management encompasses consulting, coordination, and control services, which involve complex legal considerations Key liability issues must be addressed regarding quality, cost, and time for both services and works contracts Under German law (§§631 ff BGB), contractors are obligated to execute projects, such as factory constructions, within agreed timelines and quality standards, while clients must provide the stipulated compensation In contrast, service contracts focus on the delivery of services rather than the project's success, emphasizing that the contract's content is more significant than its title.

In general, planners, such as architects and engineers, are in debt of the overall project

Project management success is increasingly linked to work contract law, as external project managers, serving as temporary employees, typically offer advisory services through service agreements Current trends indicate a preference for work contracts in project steering tasks, associating them with successful outcomes However, this approach should be evaluated on a case-by-case basis, as it is not a universal standard.

The responsibility for project control outcomes hinges on the adequacy and acceptability of the generated documents, proposed controls, and control mechanisms Additionally, ensuring quality, managing costs, and adhering to timelines necessitate a delegation of decision-making authority from the client to external project management.

In Germany, architects play a crucial role in cost control, particularly in accurately estimating quantities during the planning phases Frequent client-driven changes in the size and quality of building structures often lead to cost overruns, making precise quantity estimation essential for all building trades Additionally, when clients request alternative materials, architects must conduct timely cost-benefit analyses to ensure project feasibility and budget adherence.

Failures in warning and advisory responsibilities, such as increased costs stemming from soil analysis results, may later be seen as a breach of duty It is essential to document any references to cost increases in writing and have them countersigned by the client.

Planners' liability for cost estimations is largely determined by their contractual agreements, which can vary significantly based on the complexity of the project While it may be feasible to establish construction cost limits for straightforward tasks like designing a row house, such agreements may not be practical for more intricate projects, such as factory planning Understanding these distinctions is crucial for effective project management and financial accountability in construction.

Claims for damages due to cost overruns by the client may be admissible only after consid- eration of a previous deadline for rectification.

Clients should allow planners the chance to lower costs through rescheduling or re-planning whenever feasible Additionally, it's crucial for clients to recognize the potential rise in their property's market value resulting from increased construction costs.

The German HOAI (fee structure for architects and engineers) permits higher fees in cases where construction project costs rise due to factors beyond the planning team's control For comprehensive information, including case studies and the updated HOAI text from July 2013 detailing the phases and fee structures based on total project costs for various sectors, visit www.HOAI.de Additionally, the site offers access to current legal judgments related to cost and schedule overruns, liability concerns, and more.

Project Manual

A project manual is essential for effective communication within a project, as it includes crucial information such as the contact details of planning team members, data formats, layer coding for drawings, and plan designations An example structure of this project manual can be seen in Figure 16.10, which is organized based on the survey action areas outlined in Figure 16.2.

Costing and Control

Conditions for Determining Costs

The dilemma of meaningful cost estimations may be clarified through an imaginary example of

“cost” of a row house project A telephone enquiry to a fictitious builder might reveal that the construction costs would be around

The quoted amount of €250,000 raises numerous questions regarding its inclusivity It is essential to clarify whether this figure encompasses the cost of the plot, planning expenses, building permit fees, surveying costs, registration fees, civil construction, interior fittings such as a kitchenette and sauna installation, landscaping, and all applicable taxes.

When evaluating construction projects, it's crucial to consider not only the initial construction costs but also the often-overlooked annual recurring expenses, such as property taxes, maintenance, and utility costs This case study highlights the challenges of providing accurate cost estimations early in the project lifecycle, especially for factory projects where standardized data may not apply, and similar structures may be unavailable Each project is unique, influenced by various factors including site conditions, climate, and operational requirements, necessitating tailored solutions that optimize both construction and future maintenance.

Cost estimates are influenced by the project's built volume and the required quality of workmanship Therefore, a reliable cost assessment can be achieved by accurately defining the project space and functional programs.

1 general 2 organization 3 due dates 4 costs 5 quality

Fig 16.10 Abridged content of a project manual (J Reichardt, RMA Architects) © Reichardt 15.237_JR_B

For square meter calculations DIN 277

(industrial norm for Germany, determination of surface areas and volumes of buildings, updated

April 2005) is recommended For square footage

(U.S., Britain, Asia) calculation a similar cost structure is recommended It should be noted that in the construction industry the gross floor area

The Gross Floor Area (GFA) serves as the primary reference for calculating construction costs per unit, rather than the Net Floor Area (NFA) As client-driven user programs typically focus on net surfaces, it is essential to adjust these figures to account for circulation spaces, construction systems, and utilities, ultimately determining an appropriate gross area for construction.

When calculating building volumes, it is essential to determine the gross building volume (BRI) using the outer dimensions of the structure, including the eaves and ridges of the roof as well as the depths of the foundations.

Functional programs associated with building utilities, fire protection, computer networking, and hazardous material storage often conceal significant cost risks that are frequently underestimated due to insufficient knowledge and data In typical factory projects, the costs attributed to utilities and services can constitute 25% to 35% of the total building construction expenses, highlighting the need for careful consideration during the planning phase.

The lack of clear definitions and guidelines for building utilities and related equipment significantly heightens risks, particularly concerning ventilation and extraction systems These systems not only escalate costs but also result in large duct sizes that can detract from the visual appeal of the roof structure.

Uncertainties regarding site selection and approval processes can significantly impact project costs Without comprehensive geotechnical and topographical surveys, as well as a clear understanding of local planning regulations, initial cost estimates may be inaccurate For instance, local regulations may require specific measures to address noise and fire safety, leading to unforeseen expenses if overlooked.

Identifying site-specific challenges and user-specific requirements early in the spatial and functional programs is crucial These needs should be coordinated prior to the planning process and consistently documented in specifications or a space book to ensure a smooth workflow.

Costs in Building Construction

In order to systemize costing of building con- struction the US Standard ASTM UNIFORMAT

Construction costs can be classified into standardized cost groups and elements, as outlined in II 276-1 This classification includes eight major group elements, with further subdivisions into building and utilities cost elements Similar frameworks have been established in Germany (DIN 276-1), Canada, the UK, and across Europe Consistently adhering to this cost structure from basic to detailed versions enhances cost transparency during both planning and construction phases Therefore, it is recommended that all clients utilize this method for estimating costs.

A strong costing framework is essential for the success of international projects involving multicultural or multilingual teams, as misunderstandings regarding building elements and specifications can jeopardize the entire project The project management team must establish clear standards for each project component during the preparation of contract documents Initial cost estimates can be derived from reference values, approximations, or statistical data from similar construction projects, which should be continuously refined throughout the project's lifecycle The German Architects’ Chamber's construction cost information center (BKI) provides an annual survey of costs for completed projects, offering valuable data categorized by DIN 276 for various building types, such as industrial facilities, storage buildings, offices, and workshops Utilizing data from such reputable sources can help formulate accurate initial cost estimates.

DIN 276 and ASTM UNIFORMAT II provide a structured approach to cost estimation, featuring three levels of accuracy In the preliminary design phase, a rough cost estimate can be generated using available drawings and basic quantity assessments The overall cost estimation is calculated by aggregating all cost groups up to the first level of the cost breakdown.

In the design phase, the cost calculation will be refined with detailed drawings and precise quantity estimates The overall cost estimate is obtained by aggregating all cost groups up to the second level of the cost breakdown.

During the tendering phase, a more detailed calculation is possible since all necessary con- struction drawings and documentation are ready in every aspect including the utilities design and detailing.

On completion of the project, the entire team will have to establish theactual costswhich were incurred in the project based upon audited

financial documents, bills, claims and other statements, “as built” planning documents, drawings and building descriptions.

As project planning advances from basic scheme drawings to detailed construction drawings, the tolerance range for cost variances decreases, leading to increased accuracy in quantity estimations.

Usage Costs in Building Construction (According to German DIN 18960)

Construction (According to German DIN 18960)

Planning with occupancy costs, also known as life-cycle costs, represents a comprehensive approach to building construction that emphasizes the entire lifespan of a project rather than just initial expenses This economic planning not only ensures adherence to the construction budget but also promotes cost-effectiveness throughout the project’s functional life To achieve this, it is essential to optimize overall project costs across all development phases by selecting materials and systems that facilitate both construction and maintenance Additionally, considerations regarding the flexibility of spatial and functional programs, as well as the choice of building geometry and materials, play a crucial role in this holistic planning process.

Level 1 Level 2 Level 3 Level 1 Level 2 Level 3

Major Group elements Group elements Individual elements Major Group elements Group elements Individual elements

A SUBSTRUCTURE A10 Foundations A1010 Standard Foundations D50 Electrical D5010 Electrical Service & Distribution

A1020 Special Foundations 05020 Lighting & Branch Wiring

A1030 Slab on Grade D5030 Communication & Security Systems

A20 Basement Construction A2010 Basement Excavation D5040 Special Electrical Systems

E EQUIPMENT & FURNISHINGS E10 Equipment E1010 Commercial equipment

B SHELL B10 Superstructure B1010 Floor Construction E1020 Institutionl Equipment

B20 Exterior Enclosure B2010 Exterior Walls E1040 Other Equipment

B1020 Exterior Windows F SPECIAL CONSTRUCTION F10 Special Construction F1010 Special Structures

B30 Roofing B3010 Roof Coverings & DEMOLITION F1020 Integrated Construction

B3020 Roof Openings F1030 Special Construction Systems

C INTERIORS C10 Interior Construction C1010 Partitions F1040 Special Facilities

C1020 Interior Doors F1050 Special Controls & Intrumenttions

C1030 Specialities G BUILDING SITEWORK G10 Site Preparation G1010 Site Clearing

C20 Stair Cases C2010 Stair Construction G1020 Site Demolition & Relocations

C30 Interior Finishes C3010 Wall Finishes G1040 Hazardous Waste Remediation

C3020 Floor Finishes G20 Site Improvements G2010 roadways

D SERVICES D10 Conveying Systems D1010 Elevators G2030Pedestrian Paving

D1020 Escalators & movong walks G2040 Site Development

D20 Plumbing D2010 Plumbing Fixtures G30 Civil / Mechanical Utilities G3010 Water Supply & Distribution Systems

D 2020 Domestic Water Distribution G3020 Sanitary Sewer Systems

D2030 Sanitary Waste G3030 Storm Sewer Systems

D2040 Rain Water Drainage G3040 Heating Distribution

D2050 Special Plumbing Systems G3050 Cooling Distribution

D30 HVAC D3010 Energy Supply G3060 Fuel Distribution

D3020 Heat Generating Systems G3070 Other Civil / Mechanical Utilities

D3030 Cooling Generating Systems G40 Site Electrical Utilities G4010 Electrical Distribution

D3050 Terminal & Package Units G4030 Exterior Communication & Security

D3060 Contols & Instrumentation G4040 Other Electrical Utilities

D3070 Special HVAC Systems & Equipment G50 Other Site Construction G5010 Service Tunnels

D3080 Systems Testing & Balancing G5020 Other Site Systems & Equipment

D40 Fire Protection D4010 Fire Protection Sprinkler System

D4020 Stand-Pipe & Hose Sstems D4030 Fire Potection Specialities D4040 Special Electric Systems

Fig 16.11 Cost structure in building construction (ASTM UNIFORMAT II) © Reichardt 15.242_JR_B

450 16 Project Management characteristics and system efficiency needs to be answered at an early stage.

A thorough cost analysis is essential for determining the economic viability of enhancing a specific cost element, as it can lead to simplified operations and maintenance throughout the project's usage period.

A holistic financial analysis involves comparing the costs of enhancing a building's insulation against the long-term energy savings it generates Improved insulation not only leads to reduced energy expenses but also enhances the building's sustainability ratings by lowering CO2 emissions Similarly, when considering clear spans and column grids, larger spans provide greater flexibility for future modifications and usage However, these larger spans can significantly impact project costs, necessitating thorough discussions with clients about the advantages and disadvantages during the planning stage.

Figures 11.9 and 11.10 shows relative cost in comparison of different spans, either in wood or steel structural systems.

DIN 18960, last updated in February 2008, defines usage costs as all recurring expenses associated with buildings and their sites from the start of their use until their breakdown With advancements in the planning process outlined in DIN 276, these costs are categorized into rough and fine estimations, calculations, and determinations Accurate usage cost assessments are particularly crucial for sustainability certifications, as mandated by specific certification procedures, such as those detailed in the DGNB certification case studies The structure of cost groups encompasses capital costs, administrative costs, operating costs, and maintenance costs, providing a comprehensive overview of usage costs in accordance with DIN standards.

18960 is shown in Fig.16.12 A similar scheme of the US National Institute of Building Sciences can be found as Life-Cycle Cost Analysis no usage costs 1st and 2nd level

The total capital costs encompass loan and own capital expenses, alongside administrative and personnel expenditures Key operating costs include material expenses, utility supply and disposal, housekeeping, and maintenance of technical facilities Essential activities involve inspections, preventive maintenance of both buildings and technical systems, as well as control and security services Additional financial considerations comprise taxes, contributions, and repairs, which cover major renovations of building construction, restoration of technical and external facilities, and equipment repairs.

Fig 16.12 Usage costs — level 1 and 2 according to

(LCCA) underhttp://www.wbdg.org/ As stated in the discussion of investment costs calculation, the German Chambers of Architects (BKI,www.

Baukosten.de) generates cost data for the purpose of periodical listings, classified according to DIN

18960 for different building typologies For the

US [Mean14] provides similar data.

Strategic planning can significantly lower operating costs for building utilities and services, as well as specific structural elements For instance, optimizing air conditioning systems not only reduces initial equipment investment but also leads to considerable savings in energy and maintenance expenses, making these initiatives both environmentally and ecologically beneficial.

The long-term costs of equipment can far exceed the initial investment, particularly when considering components like floors and roofs Frequent replacements and expensive cleaning or repair work often stem from the use of low-quality, inexpensive materials.

Cost Management

During the initial evaluation phase of a project, it is crucial to establish a clear financial framework A well-structured spatial and functional program serves as the foundation for a realistic framework document It is important to incorporate both functional and qualitative aspects, such as convenience and comfort, in this early stage, as these factors can significantly impact costs later on.

Despite often having incomplete or vague data, the planning team is expected to create a sound budget based on their professional experience It is crucial for the team to meticulously document the available data, as any changes in data or user requirements can impact cost and timelines Conducting a comparative analysis of spatial and functional programs throughout the different phases of the project will ensure clarity and transparency in project establishment.

In the initial planning phase, clients often articulate numerous wishes, such as the inclusion of air conditioning in manufacturing areas or conference rooms Consequently, clients may seek to hold planners accountable for any resulting increases in cost estimates that exceed the original budget.

In contrast to the preliminary plan, the detailed planning phase often requires increased dimensions to accommodate a deeper planning scope and additional user requests, such as extra space for meetings, IT, and copiers These added requirements typically fall on the planners to address Furthermore, the cost calculation that accompanies the layout planning must clearly outline these adjustments, providing a transparent comparison to the previously estimated costs.

In the planning application phase, authorities may request unforeseen changes for enhanced fire safety or noise control, often requiring additional expertise and leading to increased costs and potential delays Ideally, these considerations should be integrated during the initial planning stages in collaboration with local authorities During the tendering process, it's crucial to assess market availability and vendor delivery schedules for construction materials to avoid future bottlenecks or price hikes Engaging in informal discussions with potential construction companies can clarify construction drawings, specifications, and project budgets before the tender documents are released.

During the tendering phase, when the contract placement is prepared, bid offers are received, evaluated on an equivalent techno-commercial

452 16 Project Management platform and compared with the existing cost estimates As already mentioned, apparently

Opting for "cheap" initial solutions may lead to significant long-term expenses when considering maintenance costs and the impact on other building and technical components.

The final contract package must encompass all aspects of the project, including building, utilities, landscaping, and detailed process plans that outline materials, systems, and manufacturer selections Bidders often desire flexibility in choosing subcontractors or suppliers; however, this request requires careful evaluation, as it can result in the use of subpar components, leading to higher maintenance costs Additionally, this approach may compromise cost transparency and heighten the risk of delays due to protracted negotiations.

During the project implementation phase, actual construction begins on-site, necessitating effective project monitoring to ensure quality, time, and cost control in alignment with planned schedules For large or complex projects, it is advisable to engage an independent consultant for this task Progress is typically reported as a percentage of the planned timeline, while actual costs are tracked by individual elements according to the contracted bill of quantities, culminating in an overall cost assessment against the approved budget Ideally, the final cost aligns with the contracted amounts.

It is essential to adhere to the structured cost framework outlined in DIN 276 and DIN 18960 throughout the process, ensuring that payments are updated regularly and the planned cost schedule is continuously refined This approach not only prevents overpayments but also establishes a professional method for settling claims during the implementation phase An overview of the various cost management tasks in architectural planning, aligned with phases 1–8 of the German HOAI, is summarized in Figure 16.13.

Effective project supervision involves clarifying objectives and meticulously calculating and controlling costs for high-rise buildings in accordance with DIN 276 This includes comparing estimates with cost quotes to approximate total costs, as well as managing cost control during plan changes and additions throughout the approval planning process It is essential to accurately determine expected real costs and provide explanations for any deviations Continuous supervision and comparison of planned versus actual costs, along with financial constraints and budget analysis, play a crucial role in maintaining cost control Additionally, verifying invoices from executing enterprises and comparing contract prices with initial quotes ensures thorough oversight and accountability in project finances.

Fig 16.13 Cost management tasks © Reichardt 15.244_JR_B

When conducting cost estimation exercises, it is crucial to be aware of permissible tolerances, particularly regarding claims related to inaccurate estimates The involvement of clients and users in budget increases, often due to changes in space and function requirements, has been emphasized The planning team may face accountability for their lack of experience in tax assessments, failure to anticipate sudden spikes in specific building material costs, and challenges in planning for special deliveries or logistical bottlenecks Additionally, rising fuel costs can lead to increased transportation expenses, and adverse weather conditions may also impact budgets To mitigate these risks, implementing a standardized structure for a transparent system from the outset is essential.

As a rule of thumb, depending upon the spe- cific situation the following tolerance values are generally acceptable in Germany, [Fes05]:

These deviations are significant to the budget and serve as an exclusion criterion for planners The building's cost, in relation to the total investment, is relatively low; typically, production costs, influenced by the amortization period of around 30 years, are much more substantial.

Assuming a production hall rental cost of €20 per m² per month, the cost for an 8-hour workday over 25 days amounts to €0.1 per hour Typical tool machinery occupies approximately 20 m², resulting in a rental cost of €2.00 per hour In contrast, the current hourly rates for medium-sized tool machinery range from €50 to €80, indicating that the rental cost constitutes only 4% to 2.5% of the total hourly rate.

While some jobs, particularly in assembly, may offer lower hourly rates, their contribution to overall building costs remains minimal, typically in the low single-digit percentage range Despite these minor differences in costs, they significantly impact liquidity planning Therefore, a professional cost management team should focus not only on identifying deviations and rejecting unnecessary change requests but also on proactively managing the interplay of all factors influencing the project's financial health.

Effective capacity planning and internal management are crucial for both client and planning teams, as their efforts significantly impact costs By adopting state-of-the-art working methods, leveraging digital planning tools, and enhancing communication systems among all stakeholders, these costs can be substantially reduced While extensive literature covers these topics, two key trends warrant special attention: data integration and technical documentation during the planning stages Section 16.8 introduces the concept of the digital factory for production planning, while Section 16.9 explores Building Information Modeling (BIM) for facilities planning.

Digital Factory

Concept

Since the 1980s, significant advancements in factory planning have led to the creation of three-dimensional digital models for production facilities, enabling accurate predictions of their behavior This innovative approach, seen as an evolution of Computer Integrated Manufacturing (CIM), is commonly referred to as the "Digital Factory" concept, as outlined in the German VDI guideline.

The Digital Factory refers to an integrated network of digital models, methods, and tools, including simulation and 3D visualization, all unified through comprehensive data management Its primary objective is to facilitate holistic planning, assessment, and ongoing enhancement of all critical structures, processes, and resources within a physical factory, aligning them with product development.

Figure 16.14 demonstrates the fundamental concept of continuous digital processing in product development alongside process and factory planning throughout their life stages This integrated approach encompasses the product, process, and factory dynamics, ensuring seamless coordination and efficiency in manufacturing.

Effective project management planning fosters comprehensive production strategies, while simulations enhance the visualization of factory operations across various levels, including time dependencies To optimize factory planning, it is crucial to enhance planning quality, reduce timelines, and establish transparent communication systems.

The static and dynamic models of planned objects are crucial, as illustrated in Fig 16.15 [Küh06] The product description encompasses the bill of materials and 3D models of individual parts and assembly groups Additionally, the production processes are outlined in work plans that detail the manufacturing equipment, further elaborated in Sect 6.3.

Both products and facility equipment can be represented using detailed 2D and 3D models Initially, during the concept stage, production planning is conducted with 2D presentations, which are later transformed into 3D models to establish a comprehensive connection to the overall project.

Static models, such as material flow matrices, provide a snapshot of a system's status, while dynamic models are essential for understanding time- and space-dependent systems Discrete-event models illustrate the sequence of interrelated events over time, such as the movement of transport vehicles within a factory Kinematics aids in analyzing the relative motion between a workpiece and tool in a machine's working area The finite element model (FEM) divides a body into three-dimensional elements based on various factors like forces and temperatures, allowing for the simulation of development and heating processes to identify potential issues.

The Digital Factory employs a variety of methods and tools to enhance efficiency, as illustrated in Bracht's overview These tools facilitate the collection of information and data, which in turn creates a comprehensive database for various process and equipment models The framework is structured around several critical phases, including technology, ramp-up, product, and plant construction Key components encompass process and factory modeling, production concepts, planning tools, and simulation techniques, all aimed at optimizing documentation and managing product, process, and planning data effectively.

The digital factory concept integrates advanced technologies such as automatic laser scanners and motion sensors, alongside effective methods for describing objects and workflows within the manufacturing environment This innovative approach enhances operational efficiency and accuracy in factory settings.

Mathematical planning and analysis techniques are infrequently utilized in factory design, primarily focusing on optimizing large-scale assembly and manufacturing systems, as well as storage and transportation facilities In this context, simulation models play a crucial role in enhancing efficiency and effectiveness.

Achieving an effective balance between effort and results is crucial, especially in dynamic system simulations, which can become outdated with changes in output rates or process sequences Understanding system behavior in response to disturbances is key While artificial intelligence methods are increasingly applied for optimizing complex systems, traditional static models and various dynamic models—such as discrete event models, kinematic models, and finite element models—are still vital for effective planning of resources, processes, and materials.

3D models digital models structure and process- oriented models simulation models

Fig 16.15 Digital factory model classes © IFA

15464 information and data collecting presentation and design mathematical planning and analysis simulation visualization artificial intelligence collaboration

• mathematical optimization • methods based on graph theory • statistics and stochastic

• survey • personal observation • automatic observation (3D-Lasers canning, Motion-Capturing, object identification) • document analysis

• modelling of processes • information and data modeling

• continuous simulation (Finite-Element-method, multi-body simulation, ergonomic simulation)

• static graphical models • dynamic visualization (monitoring, 2D- und 3D-animation)

• technical communication facilities • information space • knowledge management • work-flow management • workgroup computing • project management method class assigned methods

Fig 16.16 Methods of the digital factory (after Bracht) © IFA 15465

456 16 Project Management in factory planning State of the art visualization methods help to clarify factory objects in 2D or

3D views are essential for comprehending complex relationships between processes and spatial objects in a factory setting Collaboration methods are crucial in an IT-enabled environment, facilitating seamless data, information, and knowledge exchange among authorized team members in designated information rooms By adhering to defined processes at regular intervals, a structured set of workflows can be established for managing documents, information, and tasks, ensuring an organized approach for all stakeholders involved.

In factory planning, the interaction of models starts with static scheduling of resources and capacity, transitioning to dynamic planning that focuses on buffer and storage sizing for various production scenarios Operational planning is optimized through dynamic models that address quality and logistical challenges Additionally, 3D animation and VR technology visualize time and space-dependent operations, enabling the creation of a unique and adaptable digital factory that can swiftly adjust to significant changes in processes or spatial requirements.

The automotive and aircraft industries lead the way in implementing the Digital Factory concept, as evidenced by applications outlined in recent studies In contrast, other industrial sectors, often characterized by medium-sized enterprises, face challenges in adopting this model due to significant preparatory work and investment requirements Furthermore, the lack of interoperability among various data models has hindered effective data exchange across different levels The Digital Factory framework encompasses data management systems accessible to multiple users, where essential components such as products, resources, processes, and projects are organized into distinct modules These modules facilitate various functions, including the creation of bar charts, 3D facility models, and material flow simulations Users interact with these tools on their desktops, linking operational tasks to functional and data management levels, which support advanced features like geometric modeling, visualization, and document management.

Fig 16.17 Basic structure of a possible software architecture for the digital factory (VDI 4499) © IFA

15466 derived from the overall process model of factory planning.

Currently, the digital factory focuses on the design and operation of production facilities, with plans for future interaction with adjacent buildings Examples of potential integration between production facilities and surrounding structures are illustrated in [Thi12].

Digital Tools

Despite the holistic strategy of the digital factory, numerous digital tools are effectively utilized on an individual basis These tools offer significant assistance during the planning phases, leveraging the methodologies illustrated in Fig 16.16.

Figure16.18shows some important tool classes and examples.

Microsoft Office programs predominantly handle essential tasks like word processing, spreadsheet calculations, data storage and management, result presentations, and task and staff management.

The internet has become essential for communication, enabling the seamless sharing of text, graphics, videos, and sound files Modern practices include telephone and video conferences, as well as collaborative document editing from various locations For complex projects, establishing a project server with proper backups at the client's site or a mutually agreed location is standard, ensuring the project manual is accessible When team members are spread across different time zones, a "follow the sun" strategy can be utilized, allowing work to be passed to a partner firm at the end of the day, ensuring timely results for the client the following morning.

Simulations are essential to the Digital Factory concept, but they can also be utilized outside of this environment They can be applied across various areas in production planning, from machine-level processes to factory floor operations Additionally, advanced simulation software is available for building design, allowing for the quantification and simulation of airflow, ventilation systems, temperature, and lighting levels.

Various techniques can be employed to visualize planning results, traditionally utilizing CAD-based software for creating 2D and 3D representations These tools allow for the manipulation of objects in space, enabling views from multiple angles Advancements in virtual reality technology, as illustrated in Fig 16.20, offer an enhanced level of realism in these visualizations.

The left side of the figure features a 'cave' that immerses visitors in a virtual reality environment By rendering the 'cave walls' transparent and projecting the external surroundings onto screens, along with the use of specialized 3D glasses, a sensation of floating spatial objects is achieved This technology allows for adjustments in both the object's position and dimensions through specific techniques Its primary applications are in the product development sectors of the automotive and aircraft industries, enabling evaluations of designs from a passenger's viewpoint Simpler alternatives also exist.

• task and time management standard tasks

Fig 16.18 Key classes of digital planning tools © IFA G9352_Wu_B

458 16 Project Management large-scale projections that create just a spatial impression, but can be seen more or less only from the outside.

The "planning table," initially invented at ETH Zurich and further developed by IPA in Stuttgart and TU Chemnitz, is showcased in Figure 16.20 This innovative tool features a 2D layout projected onto a tabletop or large screen, allowing for the manipulation of movable objects like machines, shelves, and transport vehicles Participants finalize the arrangement during planning meetings, adhering to established criteria such as process efficiency, kinematics, ergonomics, and logistics.

• NC programming detail level size of consideration area

Fig 16.19 Exemplary simulation applications in production © IFA 12.360NP_B

• projection of user defined 3D view

6 side cave large projection [Bracht] planning table [ETH Zurich]

Virtual reality planning utilizes advanced software to visualize and analyze various elements, including segmentation and material flow density The system's background database calculates key performance metrics, such as space utilization In addition to 3D representations, a layout is displayed on a separate screen to enhance spatial visualization.

Simulation Example

Discrete-event simulation plays a crucial role in planning complex production systems, particularly in understanding the dynamic behavior of manufacturing and assembly lines A conceptual study of a flexible car body shop exemplifies this application, highlighting the importance of simulation in optimizing production processes.

[Mei07] The starting point of the exercise was that three car body models A, B and C were to be produced on one production line in any order.

The investigation process is summarized in Figure 16.21, highlighting the key steps involved Initially, four structural manufacturing concepts for the vehicle body were developed during a preliminary study Subsequently, four distinct scenarios were simulated, each featuring a different model mix These car variants progressed through the four life cycle phases: start-up, full load, part load, and decline of a vehicle generation This comprehensive approach resulted in a total of 16 simulation runs, providing valuable insights into the output rate behavior across the 16 different constellations.

Figure 16.22 illustrates a scaled layout of Structure Variant 1, featuring the input and output interfaces for models A–C, welding robots, final welding stations, and the associated conveyor technology Additionally, it presents the targeted output data for the analyzed scenario.

The simulation program layout, illustrated in Figure 16.23, aimed to produce 166 completed units daily across two shifts While the backup processes overseeing the production execution, conveyor system performance, and practical experience values of individual components are not depicted, the average key figures from the simulation are presented Although the output marginally surpasses the target, the robots' maximum utilization only achieved approximately 67% of their potential capacity.

The dynamic behavior of the manufacturing system is noteworthy, as illustrated in Figure 16.24, which corresponds to the scenario depicted in Figure 16.23 The individual values within the manufacturing systems exhibit significant variation.

By varying the parameters of the control method (the details of which are beyond the scope of the current discussion) this effect can be reduced.

In the evaluation of various structural concepts, variant 1 demonstrates a slight performance advantage over other models, including versions 2, 3, and 4 This assessment encompasses different scenarios, such as full load, partial load, and ramp-down phases, highlighting the effectiveness of product models A, B, and C The analysis focuses on the results per variant and emphasizes the importance of technology layout in optimizing performance.

Fig 16.21 Simulation concept of structural variants for a body shop

In project management, when dealing with smaller leads, it is common to refine the top two concepts This refinement enhances the accuracy of statements by focusing on key criteria, including ease of maintenance and the availability of necessary items.

The relationship between the efforts invested in simulation and the resulting benefits is evident, particularly when modeling structural variants This process can be executed efficiently when performance data is accessible, especially for components modeled as A and C, with model A serving as the basis for target output data.

100 units of model A, 16 units of model B,

50 units of model C, 2 shifts á 8 hours underside model B underside model C model B

In scenario 4 of the layout structural variant 1 (Meichsner), the IFA model reveals a planned production quantity of 166 units per day, with actual results showing a production output of 172 units per day The mean work-in-progress (WIP) stands at 18.3 units, while the average throughput time is 85.9 minutes Additionally, the mean robot utilization is recorded at 67.8%.

Fig 16.23 Simulation model for structural variant 1, scenario 4 (Meichsner) © IFA 13985 known The programming of the control method is more complex and requires expertise and intensive discussions.

The simulation demonstrates the fundamental feasibility of the concept and highlights its advantages Additionally, the planning scenarios clearly indicate that achieving optimal production output is attainable, even in the face of fluctuating customer demands or shifts in sales.

The simulation aimed to assess compliance with production requirements while minimizing investments Results confirmed that expanding modular facilities based on Meichsner’s migration principle significantly reduces investment costs and enhances efficiency, aligning with established quantitative flexible production concepts.

The implementation of such simulations requires a lot of experience In the absence of appropriate in-house expertise implementation is usually outsourced to specialized consulting companies or research institutes.

Building Information Modeling

Introduction

The digital factory concept in construction is an emerging approach aimed at digitally integrating all components of a building throughout the project's various phases Central to this integration is Building Information Modeling (BIM), which utilizes the standardized 3D-CAD interface known as Industry Foundation Classes (IFC) IFC serves as an open standard for the digital representation of building models and is widely supported by various CAD software manufacturers to enhance interoperability This methodology allows for efficient management of construction outputs, with an average production of 172 units per day across different models.

OO: 08:14 1:02:03 1:19:25 2:12:47 3:06:09 3:23:31 time [ hrs: min: sec ]

Fig 16.24 Simulation results structural variant 1, scenario 4 (Meichsner) © IFA 13986

During the design phase, a detailed three-dimensional building model is developed using a software system, which serves as a central database for Building Information Modeling (BIM) This model not only captures the object's geometry but also connects the project team, storing essential data related to production, analysis, optimization, and ongoing operations All stakeholders in the construction process—including users, architects, structural engineers, building services experts, logistics planners, and construction teams—can access and utilize relevant information from the central BIM According to Eastman et al and Smith and Tardif, this centralized data model offers numerous advantages for owners, managers, architects, engineers, and entrepreneurs Additionally, any changes made during the planning phase are automatically updated in real-time across the entire model.

“classical” planning documents such as floor plans, sections, elevations, 3D isometric drawings and schedules thereby avoiding redundancies.

The following example illustrates the possi- bilities and the interaction of the various pro- fessional planners using the BIM approach in more detail:

The architect collaborates with factory and logistics planners to create a spatial concept for a new building, which is then handed over to the structural engineer for static analysis As the project evolves, the structural engineer continuously refines the analysis model and dimensions of the structure, consulting with the architect for any necessary amendments The building utilities engineering team utilizes the comprehensive 3D model, overseen by the structural engineer, for the installation of technical systems and pipe routing The architect reviews all partial models—structural, building utilities, and process facilities—to identify and resolve potential conflicts, minimizing errors in overall planning and reducing costly adjustments during construction.

Production and logistics planners can utilize the Building Information Model (BIM) in the early project phases for process presentations and monitoring user coordination of space programs As the project progresses, basic layouts, ranging from simple cubes to detailed 3D visualizations, can be linked to building zones or rooms and automatically assigned to the database Specific requirements, such as weight and utility connections for electricity, compressed air, and clean water, can be integrated as necessary Existing process models from software like Autodesk Inventor can be imported into the BIM, allowing for the use of technical circuit values in engineering building utility services Additionally, CAD software providers now offer integrated project-specific library elements, such as those available at www.autodesk.de/suites/factory-design-suite, which include 3D elements for process and conveyor technology to facilitate quick layout development However, each project solution remains unique and cannot be fully derived from standardized library elements, ensuring that interactions among various professional sub-trades are error-free, based on filtered sub-models or an overall central model.

Figure16.25 shows in a realized automotive factory project the superimposition of the partial models “architecture” (gray), “process facilities equipment” (blue) and “utilities service” (orange).

Upon finishing the building project, the integrated planning database can be transferred to a Computer Aided Facility Management (CAFM) system for operational management This seamless transition facilitates future modifications, significantly reducing the time and costs associated with documenting the existing building.

Evaluation of the Building Information

The following discussions gives an example of a realized factory as well as details of a “virtual model factory”to explain some of possibilities of the digital building information model.

In factory planning, preparing and presenting design variants alongside comparative building costs is standard practice However, traditional project workflows often result in costly and time-consuming variant management, leading to redundant plans By utilizing Building Information Modeling (BIM), it becomes feasible to develop and evaluate all relevant design options within a single model, significantly reducing time and improving efficiency.

The model allows for preplanning options ranging from basic to detailed, tailored to the necessary depth of representation, including relevant information about surfaces, materials, and components Any changes impacting ongoing project parts, which are not part of the design options, are implemented only once, ensuring that they are automatically reflected across all planning options This approach significantly saves time and maintains consistency across all project data.

The early planning stages of the fictitious model factory project, illustrated in Figure 16.26, detail the volumetric expansions at various stages and the scheduling options for surfaces and masses This visual model enables the project team to quickly assess potential solutions by simultaneously presenting expansion possibilities and calculating gross floor area, gross volume, and indicative costs.

Fig 16.25 Integration of architecture, building services and process sub-models in a project example (RMA Architekten) © Reichardt 15.245_JR_B

BIM software's modeling tools enable the seamless import of graphical and numerical data regarding a site's topographical features, along with geotechnical analysis reports essential for foundation detailing, facilitating the automatic generation of accurate designs.

For steeply sloped sites, balancing earth levels through techniques like earth mounds and trenches can significantly minimize unnecessary cutting and filling, leading to cost savings during construction This approach not only offers time efficiency through three-dimensional terrain modeling but also delivers greater accuracy compared to traditional manual calculations involving ground sections and interpolations.

Figure 16.27 shows for the phases “inven- tory”, “removal” and “completion” the topo- graphical project based on the three dimensional terrain model as well as calculations of the required earthworks.

The virtual building information model is composed of parametric elements that are enriched with extensive digital information and interconnected with other objects For instance, a wall is defined not just by its height in meters, but also by its connections to the edges of floor slabs If the wall's height is modified, all associated objects automatically adjust to reflect this change Additionally, all relevant documentation, including floor plans, sections, and elevations, is generated automatically, ensuring consistency and efficiency in the design process.

Building information modeling (BIM) enhances project analysis by generating various views from geometric data, allowing for detailed surface and mass analysis It enables the grouping of building elements into specialized schedules, which provide numerical representations in tables and reports alongside traditional planning documents like floor plans For instance, the user volume totals 230.576 m³, with a total area of 15.930 m², and various expansions show differing ratios, such as expansion 01 with a ratio of 0.23 and expansion 02 with a ratio of 0.24.

Fig 16.26 Modeling and analyzing expansion stages of a factory © Reichardt 15.246_JR_B has the option to consider, filter and change individual information as and when required.

Areas and rooms can for example be represented in the form of a clearly ascertainable space book.

Accurate surface and volume investigations are essential for effective cost estimation and control, emphasizing the importance of utilizing the latest 3D design models Proper planning and diligence in these investigations are crucial to avoid unexpected cost increases, particularly during the tendering phase, which can often result from erroneous manual calculations Building Information Modeling (BIM) streamlines this process by automatically generating text attributes such as model surfaces and volumes, along with detailed construction and cost elements like doors, linking them directly to the object's geometry Additionally, users can input supplementary information, such as room numbers and names, in separate tables, enhancing the overall efficiency and accuracy of project management.

The evaluation of listings and schedules incorporates not only the architect’s designs but also the contributions of utilities engineers, structural engineers, and factory and logistics planners, effectively minimizing potential conflicts When process elements are integrated into the BIM model, they are automatically assigned to specific rooms or spaces, allowing for easy identification in combined space books or equipment lists This functionality is crucial for coordinating production equipment with building utilities services.

• Construction processes and virtual con- struction site

After finalizing design variants and obtaining necessary client approvals for the tendering process, the next crucial step is the seamless construction of the factory project, which is often challenged by time and cost pressures To mitigate site-driven conflicts and overlapping schedules, both planners and construction companies must collaborate effectively The construction phase involves developing the original property profile following earth removal and backfilling.

- import surveyor data as ASCII file

- reduce back filling and removal to a minimum removal: - 28,631 m 3 back-filling: +28,627 m 3 difference: 4 m 3 no removal/landfill or acquisition of new soil

Fig 16.27 Topography optimization of a site © Reichardt 15.247_JR_B

Information Modeling enables the assignment of time components to each relevant construction object, facilitating the simulation and three-dimensional visualization of both individual construction phases and complex construction processes prior to the groundbreaking.

• Simulation of daylight and artificial light

The BIM technology also makes it possible to create daylight and artificial light simulation.

From the outset of the design process, it's crucial to simulate light and shade conditions, supported by both qualitative and quantitative data Daylight simulation involves transferring a 3D building model into specialized light simulation software, incorporating site information, surroundings, global positioning, and the sun's location After defining site-specific weather data and required simulation time intervals, evaluations can be conducted, including animated shadow movements and color representations of light distribution Additionally, lighting simulations aid in strategically placing workspaces to minimize direct glare on employee desks Early detection of potential sunlight issues allows for preventive measures, such as optimizing the building's glass values or implementing solar shading devices.

In artificial light simulations, manufacturer-specific lighting data is integrated into the 3D building information model using the IES format, which is an internationally recognized standard for detailing light distribution from luminaries at specific locations IES, or Illuminating Engineering Society, provides essential guidelines for effective lighting design.

Using a "Light Meter," users can create a customizable grid for virtual illuminance measurements, allowing for a comprehensive analysis of the area from multiple perspectives with various lighting concepts tailored to specific lighting needs.

Daylight simulation in factory models allows for efficient planning based on various functional uses and specific areas, eliminating the need for time-consuming physical sampling of lighting fixtures on-site This innovative approach enables necessary engineering decisions to be made virtually, as demonstrated in the interior design of a production hall with optimized artificial lighting levels.

500 lux; the specific hall luminaires were virtu- ally installed directly from the product catalogue of a manufacturer’s internet (e.g ERCO, Zu- mtobel) into the hall ceiling area.

In the past, often low construction investment and the possibility of amortization of the pure construction costs in a few years, were decisive criteria for design selections.

Over the years rising energy prices, the introduction of the Renewable Energy Heat Act 1

Conclusion

Building Information Modeling (BIM) is an innovative technology in the planning and construction industry, significantly enhancing efficiency and quality throughout the planning process By utilizing digital 3D models, BIM effectively integrates crucial information, including usage details, insulation values of building envelopes, solar heat gain, and structural components.

During the model creation process, the sources and consequences of design decisions can be generated and linked to their relevant areas This allows architects to efficiently evaluate the impact of various decisions, such as the effects of modifications.

Fig 16.31 Rendering of a model factory ’ s entry © Reichardt 15.251_JR:B

470 16 Project Management orientation of the building volume on the prop- erty or varying the facade structure in line with the energy balance at an early stage of planning.

Building Information Modeling (BIM) is a comprehensive process that enables users, planners, and construction companies to manage the increasing complexity and volume of information in factory planning projects The numerous synergies gained during planning and execution validate the additional effort required, highlighting the necessity for digital discipline throughout the entire planning process.

In conclusion, the key elements of project management in factory planning highlight the growing significance of efficient management and thorough documentation in building projects, underscoring the relevance of facility management.

Chap.17) will complete this book.

Summary

Effective project management is crucial for the success of factory planning projects, ensuring functional performance while adhering to time and budget constraints The complexity of these projects is often underestimated, leading to significant miscalculations that can have severe economic repercussions A systematic approach, supported by thorough documentation of assumptions and decisions, is essential Current digital planning tools promote an integrated methodology across all subprojects, considering both processes and spatial elements Advanced digital technologies, particularly object-oriented 3D models, facilitate the integration of processes, construction, and dynamic simulations for assessing factors like energy efficiency and lighting.

Information modeling engineering enhances project management by providing essential know-how, discipline, and transparency during the planning process It enables precise evaluations of space and costs throughout various project phases, thereby simplifying functions and improving overall project efficiency.

[Ble00] Blecken, U., Schriek, T.: Konzepte f ü r neue

Wettbewerbs- und Vertragsformen in der Bau- wirtschaft (Concepts for new competition and contract forms in the construction industry). Bautechnik 77(2), 119 – 130 (2000)

[Bot13] Both, P., Koch, V., Kindsvater, A.: BIM —

Potentiale, Hemmnisse und Handlungsplan. (BIM — Potentials, Barriers and Action Plan). Fraunhofer IRB Verlag, Stuttgart (2013) [Bra11] Bracht, U., Geckler, D., Wenzel, S.: Digitale

Fabrik Methoden und Fallbeispiele (Digital Factory Methods and Case Studies) Springer, Heidelberg (2011)

In "Project Management — Guidelines for the Planning, Monitoring and Control of Projects," Burghardt (2006) provides essential frameworks for effective project management The seventh edition emphasizes the importance of structured planning, ongoing monitoring, and strategic control to ensure project success This comprehensive guide serves as a valuable resource for professionals seeking to enhance their project management skills and methodologies.

[Ch99] Charette, R.P., Marshall, H.E.: ASTM Unifor- mat II classi fi cation for building elements (E1557-97) US National Institute of Standards and Technology (1999)

[Die04] Diederich, C.J.: Knowledge Management for

Construction and Real Estate Professionals 1 — Basics, 2nd edn Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg (2004)

[Eas11] Eastman, C., Teichmann, P., Sacks, R., Liston,

K.: BIM Handbook: A Guide to Building Information Modeling for Owners, Managers, Designers, Engineers and Contractors, 2nd edn Wiley, New Jersey (2011)

The article by Eitelhuber (2007) discusses the significance of partnership in the construction industry, emphasizing collaborative project management approaches in industrial construction It highlights the importance of teamwork and cooperation among stakeholders to enhance project efficiency and effectiveness By focusing on cooperative strategies, the study aims to foster better relationships and communication within the construction sector, ultimately leading to successful project outcomes.

[Esc01] Eschenbruch, K.: Bauverzug: Haftet Bau- betreuer/Projektsteuerer? (Construction delays:

Is the project manager legally responsible?). In: IBR 2001, H 1, S 34

In the realm of project management, Eschenbruch's comprehensive guide delves into crucial aspects such as service delivery, fee structures, supplements, liability, award processes, and contract design, offering valuable insights for effective project control (2009) Additionally, Feske explores the concept of tolerance within construction cost limits, highlighting the importance of managing financial boundaries in building projects (2005).

(Tolerance in construction costs limit?) BrBp

2, 60 – 64 (2005) [Kal02] Kalusche, W.: Entscheidung bei der Geb ọ ude- planung mit Hilfe der Nutzungskostenermitt- lung (Decision in buildings planning on base of utility costs) Zeitschrift f ü r Immobi- lien ử konomie 1, 55 – 63 (2002)

[Kym08] Kymmell, W.: Building Information Modeling:

Planning and Managing Construction Projects with 4D CAD and Simulations McGraw-Hill,

[Kry08] Krygiel, E., Nies, B.: Green BIM: Successful

Sustainable Design with Building Information

Modeling Wiley Publishing, Inc., Indianapolis

[Küh06] K ü hn, W.: Digitale Fabrik Fabriksimulation f ü r Produktionsplaner (Digital Factory Factory

Simulation for Production Planners) Hanser,

[Knu08] Knutson, K., et al.: Construction Management

Fundamentals, 2nd edn McGraw-Hill Series in

[Lev09] Levy, S.B.: Legal Project Management: Con- trol Costs, Meet Schedules, Manage Risks, and

[Loos13] Loos, M.N.: Daten- und termingesteuerte

Entscheidungsmethodik der Fabrikplanung un- ter Ber ü cksichtigung der Produktentstehung

(Data and time-driven decision-making meth- odology of factory planning with consideration of product development) Ph.D Thesis, Kar- lsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT) (2013)

[Maa01] Maas, B.: Lecture: Synergetic use of BIM on the example of assembly plant MODINE

Hungary 2 In: BIM Conference 2008, Berlin

[Mar11] De Marco, A.: Project Management for Facil- ity Constructions: A Guide for Engineers and

[Mean14] Means, R.S.: Building Construction Cost Data

2014 Book, 72nd edn Reed Construction Data

Modell- und varianten fl exiblen Karosseriebau

(Migration concept for a model and variant- fl exible white body shop) Ph.D Thesis, Leib- niz University Hannover PZH Publisher,

[Rei98] Reichardt, J.: Planungsmanagement mit P fl ich- tenheft und Energiesimulation (Planning management with speci fi cations and energy simulation) BAUKULTUR 6, 6 – 12 (1998) [Rei04] Reichardt, J., Gottswinter, C.: Synergetische

Fabrikplanung — Montagewerk mit den Plan- ungstechniken aus dem Automobilbau realisi- ert (Synergetic factory planning — assembly site realized with planning techniques of the automotive industry) IndustrieBAU 3, 52 – 55 (2004)

[Rog08] Rogers, L.: Basic Construction Management:

The Superintendent ’ s Job, 5th edn Builders Book, Washington (2008)

Technik, Praxis (Construction Management — Fundamentals, Technology, Practice), 4th edn. Springer, Berlin (1994)

[Schu08] Schulte, H.: Fabrikplanung organisieren und durchf ü hren (Factory planning organize and execute) 8 Deutscher Fabrikplanungskon- gress Verlag moderne industrie Ludwigsburg (2008)

[Sei01] Seifert, A.: BIM in the planning process —

Building information model and Kostenermitt- lung Thesis, Bauhaus University, Weimar, Jan 2008

[Smi09] Smith, D.A., Tardif, M.: Building Information

Modeling: A Strategic Implementation Guide for Architects, Engineers, Constructors, and Real Estate Asset Managers Wiley, New Jersey (2009)

Energy efficiency in manufacturing systems is crucial for optimizing production processes and reducing costs, as discussed in Thiede's 2012 work Wiendahl's 2011 publication emphasizes the importance of effective order management in industrial production, covering its fundamentals, configuration, and implementation For additional insights, the Wikipedia article provides a comprehensive overview of these topics.

“ Werksvertrag ” (contract of work) and

“ Dienstvertrag ” (contract of employment). Read 8 Nov 2014

A systematic approach to factory planning is essential, as outlined in Chapter 16 on Project Management, emphasizing the importance of thorough documentation of assumptions, definitions, and decisions throughout all phases The information processing tools should facilitate an integrated approach, encompassing all current sub-projects from both process and construction perspectives Traditionally, facility management was perceived merely as the administration of "as built" operational data after project completion, but it now requires a more comprehensive understanding.

The analysis in previous chapters clearly demonstrates that synergies exist between initial planning and the various functions of Facility Management throughout the entire project life cycle, encompassing planning, implementation, and operation These synergies are inherently cross-functional, allowing for the integration of diverse professional perspectives, such as production planners, architects, and building services engineers This collaborative approach, which considers both broad and detailed thematic scales, fosters ongoing active collaboration and ensures consistent project transparency.

History and Definition

Facility management (FM) originated in the mid-1950s, a term introduced by the Schnelle brothers from Germany's Quickborner Team The concept gained traction when Herman Miller, a furniture manufacturer, sought to enhance productivity and operational efficiency through innovative office design This idea culminated in a 1978 conference titled "Facility Impact on Productivity," hosted by Herman Miller Corporation in Ann Arbor, Michigan The event contributed to the founding of the Facility Management Institute (FMI) in 1979 Subsequently, in October 1980, the National Facility Management Association was established by 40 professional facility managers, leading to the organization's expansion into Canada and its rebranding as the International Facility Management Association (IFMA).

1982 IFMA currently claims to have over 20,000 corporate members in more than 60 countries around the world In Europe, FM was introduced in the mid 80’s Architect Francis Duffy opened an

In 1985, the concept of facility management gained traction in Britain with the establishment of the Association of Facility Managers (AFM) and the Institute of Administrative Management/Facilities Management Group (IAM/LTC).

Facility management is frequently referenced without a precise definition According to the GEFMA guideline 100, it encompasses the evaluation, analysis, and enhancement of all cost and quality-related processes associated with locations, buildings, technical systems, and other utilities.

A concise definition was proposed by Nọvy [Nọv02]: “Facility management is a strategic

H.-P Wiendahl et al., Handbook Factory Planning and Design,

DOI 10.1007/978-3-662-46391-8_17, © Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2015

473 approach to management, administration and organization of all tangible assets in an enterprise”.

Facilities encompass all non-human resources such as land, infrastructure, buildings, plants, machinery, and equipment—essentially, the tangible assets of a company Facility Management involves overseeing these valuable assets to ensure they operate at optimal levels within a building project This discipline integrates consulting, planning, organization, management, and control of processes, structural measures, and marketing activities throughout the lifespan of a site, including its buildings and facilities.

Facility management plays a crucial role throughout the entire lifecycle of a construction project, from initial planning to usage and eventual decommissioning It is important to recognize that construction costs represent only a fraction of the total life-cycle expenses The annual operation and maintenance costs can significantly impact the overall financial performance of the project, highlighting the need for effective facility management strategies.

(O&M) costs of the infrastructure may vary between 10 and 20 % of the initial investments.

Annual maintenance costs can significantly surpass the initial construction expenses over the lifespan of a project To address this, many service-oriented companies are now providing internet-based programs that facilitate basic maintenance routines and tendering procedures for technical equipment at competitive rates However, these solutions often fall short in delivering a comprehensive perspective on the asset due to the presence of multiple interfaces.

Tasks and Delimitation

Development Phase

During the Development Phase, specific tasks and cost targets for construction and operation are established, directly linked to planning outcomes Although the planning phase is relatively brief compared to the facility's operational lifespan, it is crucial for defining facility management functions that influence factors such as heating and cooling demand, ultimately impacting future operating costs Making corrections later to buildings, utilities, or equipment can lead to costly and disruptive renovations By setting clear targets early in the project, a more comprehensive understanding of facility management can be achieved, fostering the development of more effective solutions.

To successfully construct complex industrial buildings within a specified timeframe, advanced CAD support and digital database applications are essential It is crucial to gather and analyze fundamental project data, which includes evaluating current information on locations, buildings, facilities, space utilization, occupancy planning, operational management, and budgeting assessments.

• utilities systems facilities utilization factor market value

• workplaces physical rules and regulations ergonomically organizational societal

• ecological considerations safety and security

Fig 17.1 Tasks of facility management © IFA 15.272ESW_B therefore be in a digital format, ideally in the form of“standard”graphics and text files (e.g., defined in a project manual with readymade

For effective facility management, it is essential to utilize Excel sheets or facility description cards tailored to various project requirements During the planning phase, data exchanges among project participants should be conducted digitally, utilizing advanced data networks or carriers This phase is intricately linked to the execution phase, as tender documents typically derive their data from the initial planning documents To address time and cost constraints, an integrated approach is recommended; for instance, the tendering process can be streamlined through online platforms, while building planning can be enhanced using 3D modeling techniques.

It is preferable that the structure of tender documents is in line with the cost categories and cost elements of a standard cost matrix systems

(e.g., German DIN 276 or ASTM UNIFORM II).

Such a system offers the advantage of cost transparency The system also helps to establish time, cost and payment schedules German DIN

The 276 cost standard outlines the expenses associated with a building project, organized into seven primary categories as shown in Fig 17.2 Each of these categories is further divided into sub-groups, which are meticulously detailed to encompass all potential components of a typical construction project.

Figure 17.3 illustrates the cost structure of a small industrial project, highlighting the systematic categorization of cost groups and their subdivisions It emphasizes the importance of a holistic digital workflow for planning, tender preparation, and construction contract awards, integrating all relevant documents This digital foundation facilitates straightforward adjustments to the property during the operational phase.

Implementation Phase

Usually during the implementation phase the building contractor, under the professional examples of cost groups 300 and 400 DIN 276

100 plot of land for building

600 exhibition and works of art

439 other cost estimate cost calculation quotation

Fig 17.2 Cost groups for a building acc to DIN 276 © IFA 15.273ESW_B

The DIN Project involves the construction of a new factory that includes a paved outer logistics area and a by-pass, alongside an unsealed outer area Key features of the facility will encompass a production dispatch adapter/ramp, a workshop, a spare parts store, an OS laboratory, a recreation room, and a first aid room The project also includes site work across multiple floors, with a focus on slabs and connections in wet areas Additional infrastructure includes stairs/shafts, head offices, air technology systems, central compressed air, central heating, and optional maintenance footbridges.

500 300 300 400 Sum areas Proj Sum areas Proj Reference value/m2 open area Reference value/m2 GFA Reference value/m2 NFA Total estimated project value

Areas Outside Areas F1 Areas F2 GFA sqm sqm sqm sqm

Reference net values costs per subproject Construction House services Open spaces Sum 2,640.00 1,440.00 0.00

405.00 44.09 2,687,580.00 3,575,580.00 54.97 505.00 Reorganization/extension utility centre (estimate) 50,000.00 225,000.00 25,000.00 300,000.00 add

100 Property 200 Preparation and Development 300 Building- Constructions 400 Building-Utility Systems 500 Site utilities 600 Equipment and Artworks 700 Additional BuildingCosts

Cost Group 300 Cost Group 400 Cot Group 500 Cost Group 3 -500 fork lift room toilet men toilet women

The cost structure for a building, as defined by German DIN 276, emphasizes the importance of supervision by architects and project managers to ensure that all necessary buildings, utilities, and equipment are constructed according to the contract documents It is common for amendments, additions, or deletions to occur during the construction phase, making it essential to regularly track the planning status against actual site data This practice facilitates transparent project management concerning quality, time, and cost.

It is advisable to pay building contractors based on the actual work completed rather than a lump sum During the operational phase of building management, planning documents may be needed for tendering activities, such as calculating areas for cleaning or maintenance of technical equipment If "as-built" drawings and documents are unavailable at project completion, the client may incur additional costs to re-document the building comprehensively.

Facility management is rapidly emerging as a crucial asset for project managers seeking inclusive and responsible project control Upon project completion, essential plans, data, and specifications are typically transferred to the client in predefined digital formats These documents, prepared by contracted construction companies or architectural and engineering consultants, are approved by the project management team and delivered as per the agreed terms.

During the implementation phase, any identified faults are communicated to the planning team, which can result in project delays and increased costs If these issues are not addressed regularly, updates will be necessary upon project realization.

Operating Phase

The operational phase is the most critical stage in a project's life cycle, marked by ongoing usage and cumulative costs During this phase, material resources primarily experience wear and tear, with minimal significant changes, although some industries, like automotive, may update machinery every few years The Facility Management Team plays a vital role in monitoring daily operations, documenting wear and tear, and managing operating conditions Challenges may arise from the initial exclusion of users during planning, and daily responsibilities often require coordination between internal and external operators to ensure smooth operations.

Efficient space utilization during the operation phase is crucial for minimizing operating costs and enhancing profit margins Implementing facility management systems allows for effective tracking of space usage within buildings, enabling the optimization of operating costs through coordinated scheduling and management of available spaces, workstations, and equipment.

Conversion Phase

The conversion phase temporarily halts the operation phase to enhance material resources in response to evolving challenges, such as expanding production programs or integrating new technologies and manufacturing structures The frequency of these changes varies based on the differing economic and technical lifespans of factory components, with organizational shifts potentially occurring every 2-3 years, while IT infrastructure and telecommunications equipment may be updated every 5 years, and furniture changes may follow a different timeline.

10 years, lighting systems and fixtures every

5–20 years and interior furniture, fittings and

fixtures every 5–30 years A building structure could be used as a thumb rule over 50–70 years.

During the conversion phase, the process mirrors that of the development phase, with a key difference being the need to assess the condition of existing buildings and facilities If tender documents from the development phase are accessible, previously established system solutions can be utilized in the re-tendering process.

Essentially similar operations are repeated, as in the original implementation phase.

After extensive conversion projects, the ‘as- built’ drawings and documentation should be updated including in-use procedures and struc- tural changes and released for further monitoring.

For smaller rescheduling this effort may not require detailed planning However, there is a clear risk if substantial changes are made without updating the plans and documenting the process.

Industrial buildings and plants experience daily resource changes, which can render 'as-built' plans outdated if not properly documented Over time, a thorough inventory becomes essential for maintaining information security Establishing a permanent facility database is crucial, as it offers invaluable support throughout the project lifecycle.

Decommissioning Phase

The decommissioning phase marks the end of an object's life cycle when a building can no longer serve its purpose economically, making further renovations impractical The structure may be sold for continued use by a new owner, or dismantled with machinery and equipment scrapped Offering a comprehensive facility management database that includes detailed documentation of the building, its structures, processes, and equipment can enhance the sale's value This information not only benefits the new user but also aids in calculating costs when the building and its components are eventually scrapped.

Facility Management Systems

Functions

The daily operation and maintenance of a site, including its buildings and facilities, is typically handled by various internal departments, either as a secondary or primary function of the estate, construction, and management department While production processes face significant pressure to optimize operations for increased profit margins, the maintenance of buildings is often viewed as a lower priority.

A reevaluation of traditional building management practices is essential in light of the changing dynamics highlighted in chapter one, particularly as maintenance and energy expenses continue to rise.

This ensures facility management to be an economically viable, efficient, strategic and holistic service, with the following main tasks:

• Real estate management as a proactive task, not only as passive response to individual requests

• Significant decrease of the maintenance costs of the property

• Reduce downtime of equipment and increase safety of use by increasing availability

CAFM (Computer Aided Facility Management) is a vital tool that delivers essential information quickly, functioning as a database-supported information system for storing, maintaining, and evaluating digital object data It operates similarly to PLM (Product Lifecycle Management) systems, which encompass all data generated throughout a product's development, production, storage, and distribution By ensuring safe storage, PLM systems facilitate easy management and retrieval of information.

For factory buildings key applications of

CAFM encompasses architectural and engineering building design, project management, documentation, and spatial and land management, including space and occupancy planning and relocation planning Additional functions may include cleaning, maintenance, security, utilities, and waste disposal, particularly for managing extensive real estate holdings and commercial buildings For complex facilities like conference centers, CAFM systems can effectively manage services and support property management for rental properties, addressing various rental aspects Companies may customize these systems to integrate specific functions in coordination with existing commercial systems.

According to studies by Nọvy in 2005 the global market is offering about 44 possible FM systems, out of which 80 % are from Germany,

11 % from the rest of Europe and only 9 % of U.

Facility management systems allow the fol- lowing applications:

• the analysis of space inventory information based upon departments,

• presenting reports for gross floor space, availability of rooms, service areas,

• the creation of test configurations to compare the space usage of various relocation and occupancy scenarios, and

• seamless integration with drawing programs such as the industry standard AutoCAD, Mi- crostation or Nemetschek to quickly and easily linkfloor plans with space data.

Utilizing a holistic facilities management (FM) approach during the planning and construction phases can lead to significant cost savings of approximately 10–30% compared to traditional methods This strategy not only enhances transparency but also improves the systematic management of buildings throughout their lifecycle.

Structure of Data Models

Effective building management encompasses various aspects, including planning, implementation, and operation Key areas include commercial and technical management, project management, and inventory administration Essential tasks involve development and move planning, tendering, and award processes, along with building activity oversight Proper management also includes liability and purchase management, as well as consumption data acquisition for cost control Security facilities, fire protection documentation, and maintenance of infrastructure and utilities are vital for operational safety Additionally, key administration, IT hardware management, network documentation, and the oversight of machines and plant operations contribute to comprehensive environmental and energy management, ensuring work safety throughout the building lifecycle.

Our comprehensive FM service includes property management, helpdesk support, and a range of services such as conference room management, janitorial and cleaning services, gardening, winter road clearance, and security We also offer reservation management, supply and disposal services, logistics, printing, and copying services, as well as travel management and canteen administration Additionally, we handle visitor management, administration of rented units, lease management, and accounting for rentals and additional costs Our expertise extends to property administration, both for buying and selling, project development, and property marketing We emphasize cross-functional strategies, strategic FM controlling, financial accountancy, cost accounting, sales order processing, partner and personnel administration, document management, and contract administration.

Fig 17.4 Possible functions of a facility management system (after N ọ vy) â IFA 15.275BESW_B

Facilities management modification phases consist of a standardized collection of CAD, text, and image data files In CAD drawing systems, graphical information files are typically produced based on the design software utilized.

DWG (AutoCAD), DGN (Microstation) or DXF

file (CAD software drawing exchange file for

Autodesk/AutoCAD); for alphanumeric infor- mation the industry standard MS Office has prevailed with the programs Word and Excel.

Graphics, photos, and videos are typically represented as pixel data, like bitmaps In Computer-Aided Facility Management (CAFM) systems, traditional data storage methods such as drawing cabinets and file boxes are increasingly being replaced by interdisciplinary databases CAFM systems facilitate the streamlined integration of various information types, including areas, surfaces, costs, personnel, and processes, enabling their optimization.

Database systems are essential for storing and managing large volumes of complex structured data One of their key benefits is the ability to generate various levels of information through targeted queries According to Jedlitzke, database models differ based on their task structure, with Computer-Aided Facility Management (CAFM) systems being primarily relational and object-oriented Consequently, object-relational database systems are widely utilized today.

Relational DBS insert data in related tables.

Object-oriented databases (DBS) are characterized by their use of object types with specific attributes, allowing for detailed representations, such as a CAD design of a window that includes additional information like frame material and glass properties In contrast, object-relational DBS merge the benefits of various database models, providing flexible data type extensions and effective management of multimedia content, including documents, images, audio, and video files.

fies according to Fig 17.5inventory data, status data, consumption data and other data.

Inventory data is essential for effective land management and building maintenance, while status data provides insights into current temperatures, energy flows, and disturbances Consumption data can be collected through automated systems or manual recording, utilizing standard building automation and local sensors It’s crucial to prioritize meaningful data collection for evaluation and maintenance rather than attempting to monitor every possible metric By concentrating on key operational information, a robust foundation can be established, allowing for the eventual expansion into an open database system as the project progresses.

17.4.2.2 Layer Classification Information in complex CAD drawings needs to be managed in clearly structured layer systems.

Grouping functions such as bearing walls and furniture allows for a structured presentation of information Layers can be likened to drawers that store drawing files, each containing specific details related to basic inventory, status data, consumption data, performance metrics, catalogs, workflow data, and commercial information.

FM data classes, as illustrated in Fig 17.5, allow for the representation of objects through various attributes like contour, color, and dimension (after GEFMA 400) By utilizing the options to "display" or "hide" layers, users can customize the graphical representation to suit specific applications effectively.

A project specific layering or referencing structure should be previously established when setting up a CAD drawing, so that the same is consistent through all planning and documenta- tion stages.

Layer assignment helps to classify location, buildings, building services, facility and others.

Holistic planning demands integrated drawings featuring predefined properties such as line thickness and color For instance, Figure 17.6 illustrates a layer assignment for a small industrial project, showcasing the documentation of the property's bearing structure and building shell across three main levels, each containing multiple sub-levels numbered 11–37 Each sub-level is linked to an object with a concise description and a corresponding color representation.

The layer layout illustrated in Fig 17.7 highlights the integration of building utilities and operational processes By overlaying the interaction of these processes with relevant utilities, such as compressed air supply systems, the spatial relationships within the building become immediately visible This approach allows for a clear understanding of how various functions and processes are associated with the building and site levels, particularly in areas housing operational process facilities.

No Layer Name Names Text Color

Land register limits Land register / building limits

Streets, perimeter Streets / sidewalks/parking lots/

Fence plants Height development curves Height development curves

Volume control Stock / new building

Water Seas / ponds / rivers / creeks

Tracks local public transport routes

Floor plate foundations Floor plate / foundations

Building structure Head- / side beams

Sky-lights Smoke exhaust domes / glass fixtures

Roof coatings Water barrier, insulation / green roof

Faỗade, solid elements Sandwich elements / cassettes

Tilt / open / sliding window Faỗade, window

Protection from sun Louvers / window shades

Doors Entrance - / escape doors d (documents) Yellow d Yellow d White d Cyanogen

Yellow d Red d White d Yellow d Yellow d Yellow d Yellow

White d White d White d Green d Cyanogen d White d Cyanogen d (documents) d (documents)

Fig 17.6 Layer assignment (example industrial project) © IFA 15.277ESW_B

The layer assignment system is crucial for contractors responsible for implementing and monitoring specialized functions, as it facilitates access to consumption data from all technical centers during subsequent operations, along with a linked database for enhanced efficiency.

2D or 3D CAD object modeling can be derived.

Users can access current consumption values by selecting individual technical plants or viewing them collectively In a CAFM system, organizing similar objects into classes enhances data structure efficiency For instance, accessing a group of buildings, utilities, or process objects simultaneously allows for the management of shared attributes across various object types This classification is beneficial based on data type, format, and frequency of changes.

CAD programs based on a three-dimensional object oriented building model are state of the art.

Building components like slabs and columns are stored with their attributes and relationships in CAD software, which should provide various viewing options A significant challenge in exchanging data between geometric building models and alphanumeric databases lies in aligning the database logic of the CAD system The ISO 16739:2013 standard established the open IFC (Industry Foundation Classes) standard for digital building model descriptions, facilitating data exchange among different 3D systems However, the complexity of 3D objects and the interests of competing software vendors have slowed the development of these standards Some CAFM systems, such as Archibus/FM, utilize an open Oracle database structure combined with AutoCAD's overlay functionality, ensuring that database entries and drawing data remain current and free of redundancies.

S e i t S Building Function/process text Names

CAD construction: Example drawing layer Building Utilities

Sprinkler Ventilation systems Input air, Waste air, Fresh air d (documents) d d d d g, ventilation

Return pipe Radiators d d d ities//heating

Fig 17.7 Layer assignment home automation (example) © IFA 15.278ESW_B

A CAFM system is fundamentally built on a directory known as a space book or room book, which captures user requirements from the initial stages and elaborates on these parameters throughout the planning process.

Virtual Project Space

For complex projects Internet-based techniques for planning and documentation management are being increasingly used CAFM systems espe- cially offer World Wide Web communication of

Companies specializing in property management during the planning and execution phases offer online maintenance and control operations for building facilities This approach allows external service providers to continuously monitor the premises, identifying potential issues early on without the need for an on-site technician.

Creating a dedicated website for a building enhances flexibility and system transparency, allowing authorized users to access vital information such as location, building services, and facility data tailored to their specific needs Furthermore, data can be seamlessly entered online via mobile PDA devices, laptops, and smartphones, maximizing the system's efficiency and utility.

• Duplication and errors are reduced, as is ensuring that all work take place on the basis of current plans and documents.

• Plans can be reviewed and commented online, which leads to a considerable saving of time in the assessment and approval processes.

• The risk of losing importantfiles is eliminated, since the current and previous data versions of a drawing or document are stored in a central location.

• An improvement in theflow of communication within the team is achieved through a struc- tured initiating and responding to inquiries.

• A proactive task management facilitates the control of processes.

• Potential defects liability processes are accelerated.

Web-based CAFM edits offer a cost-effective solution by eliminating the need for full hardware and software installations for each office user Utilizing free viewer systems like Volo View or DWF Viewer enables users to edit AutoCAD drawings without requiring complete software installations, streamlining the editing process and reducing expenses.

Navigation

Visual information plays a crucial role in creating interactive and user-friendly systems For instance, Figure 17.10 demonstrates how information flows between various elements such as location, buildings, utility systems, and functions in the context of factory design It is essential to integrate the perspectives of planners, property owners, operators, and users, as their concerns may encompass aspects like master plan elements, components, floor levels, areas, rooms, and facilities.

The information merged together in facility management can be visualized as a structured data matrix A model such as this is depicted in Fig 17.11.

The upper horizontal bars represent the perspectives of system users—including planners, owners, operators, and object users—who can query information related to location, buildings, equipment, and processes Meanwhile, the left vertical bars facilitate the generation of graphical building project data across various scales, from the master plan to specific facility objects Users can access a range of reporting formats, including drawings, texts, and images, stored in this information grid by clicking on the relevant 'drawers' for an initial content survey This navigation system enables users to easily access pertinent information and layer it visually.

In the“cross-view”, for example, one can easily

find the arrangement of ventilation layouts for a specific area of a facility layout Similarly, in the

- emergency management application technical planning / client / owner / operator / user location building utility systems function/ process n n. factory lev el master plan building storey level area room facilities g t b g t b g t b reports

The Integrated FM Data Model encompasses a comprehensive framework that includes documentation, evaluation, and graphics for various functions and processes within facilities management It integrates essential components such as location, utilities systems, and networking project data into a cohesive database, ensuring efficient management and accessibility of information This model enhances the organization and visualization of critical data, facilitating improved decision-making and operational efficiency in facilities management.

Fig 17.10 Networking of project data © IFA 15.281ESW_B

“longitudinal view”, for example, one canfind the complete information about a sprinkler system of a large scale technical infrastructure right down to the individual sprinkler head on a given storage rack.

Integrating classification structures, like the proposed navigation system, with verbal instructions can enhance user experience by enabling interactive features such as voice command filters This shift towards more intuitive, user-specific queries and information storage options could greatly increase the acceptance of increasingly complex facility management systems.

Selection of a CAFM System

CAFM software is increasingly offered by various manufacturers, including those specializing in CAD design, building services systems, planning, consulting firms, and business-oriented management programs like SAP.

By 2002, Germany had 43 CAFM systems, with 60% of them being newly introduced to the market within the last five years, while 15 systems that were developed before 1999 had been discontinued.

CAFM systems show a clear trend away from

“CAD-based”systems which are to be operated only with special knowledge towards more

“neutral”database-oriented systems with variable surfaces for easy operation The dominance of industry standards such as AutoCAD (77 %) and

Oracle, with an impressive 81% market share in CAD drawing systems and central databases, stands out as a leader in the industry To safeguard valuable assets and ensure their future availability and security, it is essential to choose systems that are compatible with widely accepted industry standards for graphics and text, backed by years of experience.

The GEFMA guideline 400 distinguishes between CAFM software and a CAFM system, with the latter being a complex, customized solution that implements specific processes within a tailored database structure Prior to selecting and implementing a CAFM system, it is essential to create a detailed specification that outlines user requirements and defines information levels for variable views The specifics of the CAFM system depend on the facility management (FM) processes that users wish to monitor and support, making it crucial to identify the various tasks and queries from different user groups, such as the FM team, owners, managers, internal and external service providers, and prospective users.

17.4.5.1 CAFM Consulting According to Warner et al [War02], and May [May12] the following tasks have to be defined at the onset for any CAFM systems:

• The requirements for a CAFM system have to be structured and detailed.

• A moderating dialogue should be installed between the different“stakeholders”.

• A rating and prioritization should be undertaken.

• An agreed process, system and data architec- ture is to be developed.

• Aflowchart of steps and milestones depending on prioritization.

• The success of the implementation must be ensured with an accompanying quality management.

Specialist advisers to the CAFM consulting are useful for moderating the introduction of a CAFM project Accordingly, the following schedule has been proven to be beneficial in major projects:

• 1st Workshop: spaces, organization, equip- ment, relocation

• 2nd Workshop: maintenance, technical equip- ment, energy, building maintenance

• 3rd Workshop: waste disposal, cleaning, security

• 4th Workshop: data sets, license plate system

• 5th Workshop: interfaces to other computer systems.

It is advisable to store the data and process descriptions not only in the form of a protocol but also in digital formats like spreadsheets for ease of transferability.

Selection of a suitable CAFM system for a given purpose needs clarification of the required

Facilities Management processes are evolving, with CAFM systems transitioning from closed CAD concepts to open, flexible database structures This shift allows for better integration with popular CAD software like Autodesk (AutoCAD, Revit), enhancing user flexibility, availability, and security Additionally, there is an opportunity to combine these systems with business process-oriented software for improved efficiency.

Integrating SAP with an effective graphics visualization tool enhances functionality for companies utilizing SAP in their core operations A prominent example is Archibus/FM, a widely adopted facility management system that seamlessly connects with various software platforms, including ERP and human resources management This system offers numerous application modules for managing areas, surfaces, furniture, equipment, and maintenance, providing a comprehensive solution for businesses.

AutoCAD system can be edited within Archibus/

FM by means of the“overlay”function.

Applications of Facility Management

Minimizing Maintenance Costs

Facility management differs from traditional building design by focusing on optimizing maintenance costs during the development phase, rather than adhering to a fixed construction investment target This approach seeks to balance higher initial investment costs with lower life cycle operating expenses By addressing key factors influencing maintenance costs, such as energy and cleaning expenses, early in the process, facility management ensures a more cost-effective and sustainable building operation.

Name of the piece of furniture {furniture}

Name of the building Name of the storey Name of the room Description of the division Name of the department Drawing block Data processing

Facilities Management (FM) plays a crucial role in minimizing both construction and maintenance costs for clients It not only facilitates potential savings in new construction projects but also enhances efficiency in existing buildings By concentrating on optimizing energy usage, ensuring cost transparency, improving operational processes, and refining organizational structures, FM helps mitigate the high expenses associated with retrofitting building services after construction is complete.

Various utility service providers are implementing stand-alone solutions to optimize equipment and processes However, given the current professional qualifications available, a trained architect, with extensive knowledge of building systems, is best suited to address the complexities of building operation optimization in a holistic way.

Since the early 1990s, there has been a significant shift in property management discussions regarding business locations and municipal management Today, public administration's budgeting and accounting systems prioritize economic optimization and service quality In an era of constrained budgets and funding deficits, effective management of municipal properties requires transparent, cost-element-based budgeting across all departmental offices Achieving this transparency necessitates a Facilities Management (FM) database that encompasses all public property parameters.

Prevention of Allocation Conflicts

A constant discussion in the use of a building is the appropriate carpet area per user or per func- tion, as nothing is more defended than an

Chapter 14 outlines methods for determining area requirements for new or renovated workplaces, but these methods are not applicable to ongoing operations A Facility Management (FM) system can accurately assess the areas currently utilized in each department By employing an objective approach to space allocation, organizations can enhance employee acceptance of their assigned areas Additionally, reservation plans facilitate the swift identification of available spaces for new hires.

fied Depending on the chosen facility manage- ment system this allows for:

• the creation of plans and reports with average areas per employee, building and location,

• the allocation of areas by group, space or staff,

• the inclusion of staff symbols in drawings,

• the clearing of the area rates by group, space or an employee within a cost center,

• the possibility to search for rooms with assigned equipment, e.g., display systems and video conferencing.

Spatial Planning

The room and space management function of an

An FM system provides essential features that help determine if a change in function necessitates additional space or a reorganization of room occupancy Space requirements can be effectively planned based on employee numbers, usage types, occupancy levels, and logistical costs Furthermore, room occupancy data can be easily exported to Microsoft Excel or Adobe Acrobat, or formatted for web access, allowing other departments within the organization to view this crucial information Depending on the selected facility management system, various functionalities may be available.

• the building and infrastructure data can be made accessible to users within their organization,

• the efficiency of space utilization can be compared with the use of indicators to other buildings,

• the allocation of space costs can be effected by occupied space as well as a proportional area of common areas,

• supporting the relocation management and inventory planning.

Lock Management and Key Management

Lock management allows for the simultaneous handling of an unlimited number of locks with unrestricted nesting depth It encompasses essential elements such as groups, individual locks, and central closures within a defined hierarchy This organized structure guarantees that access permissions across all areas are effectively and comprehensively managed.

The integration of lock management within CAD graphic modules enhances reporting and analysis capabilities, allowing for the automatic generation and transfer of plans for individual, central, and group locks to Microsoft Excel Additionally, it enables the creation of robust generators for customized lists and reports, facilitating comprehensive data analysis.

Costs and Building State Control

In order to calculate transparent costing systems for management, it is important that all building costs elements are sufficiently and accurately identified.

Moreover all operating costs for owned or leased real estate, as well as taxes need to be registered.

Community costs, including municipal fees and land expenses, can be efficiently calculated using departmental key structures or unit allocation methods By establishing budget and payment plans, the management of these payments can be monitored effectively.

• compliance with contractual requirements and deadlines,

• control of the current and upcoming fiscal expenditures,

• assessment of the economical soundness of the properties, and

• status and analysis for each property and real estate.

Reporting

Direct access to accurate floor space information simplifies compliance with external reporting requirements Significant discrepancies between estimated and actual area costs can result in substantial reimbursements from external organizations, potentially amounting to thousands or millions of Euros Employing the right accounting methods ensures that each division within the organization is accountable for its space usage, with expenses allocated according to a predetermined distribution key The effectiveness of these processes may vary based on the facility management system in place.

• calculate the room share percentage for par- tially or temporarily usedfloor areas,

• summarize the area of each division with the department oriented space analysis reports, and

Fire Protection

Fire protection standards are defined by relevant federal and municipal building codes Effective facility management plays a crucial role in outlining necessary structural measures, ensuring operational readiness of building services, and clarifying user responsibilities With evolving user needs and building renovations, it is essential to regularly update documentation to reflect the legally agreed-upon conditions with authorities.

Structural fire protection and risk prevention relates primarily to specifics on the following issues:

• position and arrangement of buildings and structures on the property,

• access roads and areas for thefire brigade,

• building materials, components and overall design,

• positioning and arrangement of emergency routes, and

• location and arrangement of fire department key boxes.

The organizational fire and hazard protection covers constant inputs to the overallfire protec- tion concept on the following issues:

• use of factory-, office- or homefire brigades,

• provision of object-related application documents,

• timely and effective initiation of security measures.

Modeling of FM Processes

In the operational phase of a building, facility management (FM) adopts a process-oriented approach, focusing on the efficiency of production and logistics functions This perspective highlights the importance of coordinating various tasks to ensure smooth operations within the facility.

These processes are dimensioned by their costs, information and benefit.

The fundamental processes remain consistent, making it effective to model reference processes and tailor them to specific scenarios As illustrated in Figure 17.13, these processes encompass key objectives and content, with examples including business continuity management, energy monitoring, and maintenance and repair orders.

In the event of a defective water faucet in a public building, the disruption process begins with the service provider’s 24-hour emergency service receiving a trouble report, either via phone or email This report is documented using a web-based tool, such as the pit-FM building services software module, or users can register the disruption directly through the CAFM system by navigating to the specific room, like '009 Men’s Washroom.' Based on the urgency of the issue, a contract for repair is initiated Once the repair is completed, the system is updated with the completion status, and the associated costs are allocated to disturbance management, energy controlling, and repair orders.

• order release (internal or external)

• increase of availability process aims contents

Fig 17.13 Examples of processes of technical building management (after Krimmling) © JR 15.284_JR_B

492 17 Facilities Management the respective party (e.g., customer, division etc.).

To mitigate conflicts in building services and address limited resources in businesses and communities, "performance contracting" or "energy performance contracting" is increasingly utilized This approach finances all operational activities related to the optimization and management of technical systems—including measurement, control, heating, ventilation, air conditioning, lighting, and power—through the savings generated from reduced energy costs.

Case Studies

Phoenix AG Hamburg

Phoenix AG is among the leading providers of rubber technology and acoustic systems Phoenix

AG currently belongs to Continental AG During the 1990s, the Group decided to shift the pro- duction facilities increasingly towards Eastern

The main plant at Hamburg employs around

The company, once employing 3,100 people and situated across from the main train station, has vacated its inner-city location due to the inability to expand with modern factory buildings The outdated industrial structure was hindered by inefficient production processes, prompting the development of several alternatives for repurposing the existing facilities.

Due to the absence of documentation for around 120,000 m² (1,290,700 ft²) of gross floor area, the implementation of new FM Systems was essential These systems facilitated the digital documentation of inventory in key areas and enabled the 3D construction of premises based on available archived plans.

• determining the land and grossfloor area of the entire area identified in association with nine companies operating there,

• listing of the individual building details under area categories according to German DIN 277,

• generating a complete 3D-building documen- tation for the entire site (see Fig.17.14),

Special elements of the existing construction, including CAD objects of ceilings, now feature enhanced text attributes that provide crucial information These attributes encompass details on floor loading capacity, structural parameters, utilities status, clear heights, and the overall requirements for both the building and its utilities.

• a digital documentation of all facades of the different buildings.

On this basis, several scenarios/optimization proposals were worked out aiming at answering the following queries:

• correction of floor vacancies by means of better organization of departments,

• improving functional relationships of process, logistics and administration,

• identifying possible areas for“outsourcing”for rental or sale.

The 2D/3D construction and area calculations were designed using AutoCAD, with graphics and image data subsequently transferred to the Oracle database of the Archibus/FM CAFM system Archibus/FM's report generator facilitates the seamless integration of various data types, including area calculations, color-coded images for departments and traffic, as well as specific assignment dependencies for designated floor spaces.

Londa Rothenkirchen

As an extension to its established plant structure the Londa company wanted to realize a new manufacturing hall with an approximately

6000 m 2 (64,600 ft 2 ) grossfloor area and corre- sponding service areas at their Rothenkirchen location Londa is a subsidiary of WELLA AG,

The name Storey Standard room

Büro1 Lager1 Büro3 Sanitary Lager1 Lager1 Lager1 Büro1 Büro1 Büro1 Büro1 Büro1 Lager1 Prod5 Lager1 Lager4 Prod6 Prod1 Prod1 Prod5 Prod1

The name Storey Standard room

The name Storey Standard room

Büro1 Lager2 Prod1 Prod1 Prod1 Prod1 Prod1 Prod1 Prod1 Prod1

Standard- description Total number Total area

Fig 17.15 Area structure of an existing building © JR 15.286_JR_B

Fig 17.14 3D building documentation (example Phoenix Hamburg) © JR 15.285_JR_B

Darmstadt which is now part of the Procter &

As part of the IT network of all Proctor &

Gamble’s properties; the American owner places great value on storing relevant data about the locations, buildings, building services, and facili- ties in an Oracle database with the Archibus

The CAFM system will be utilized for the plant expansion, ensuring compliance with FM documentation throughout all planning stages This approach will encompass workshops, rough planning, detailed planning, approval planning, work organization, and tender calls.

All professional planners for site, building, utilities, process and logistics collected their 2-D,

The integration of 3-D models, text, and engineering data was achieved using standard CAD formats and Excel listings, following the synergetic factory planning methodology A macro tool facilitated a digital interface with Archibus/FM by systematically scanning Excel sheets for new entries and transferring them into the relevant Oracle database tables of the CAFM system Archibus through an Access-programmed entry.

Due to the various reports offered by Archibus/

FM P&G management effectively utilized detailed information for global benchmarking across plants, enabling comparisons in areas such as processes and costs To enhance clarity in the architectural project, a video simulation was developed, showcasing an integrated model of the location, buildings, and furnishings during the development phase This 3D data served as the foundation for a visual information system, which facilitated the creation of a virtual 3D production line for hair cosmetics from a 2D floor plan The system efficiently linked drawing information with the CAFM database, allowing users to access process information, including equipment costs and vendor details This user-friendly graphical navigation proved to be a significant advantage for the globally active company.

In conclusion, our exploration of facility management highlights its gradual adoption; however, the rapid advancement of digital factories and the accelerating pace of changes within manufacturing environments will undoubtedly showcase the value of facility management systems.

Fig 17.16 Linking of building and facilities data (Example cosmetics industry) © IFA 15.287

Summary

Facility Management fosters synergies between space and processes by emphasizing the importance of clearly defining engineering objects in terms of changeability It is crucial to consciously structure and document project data related to processes and buildings from the outset of factory planning, continuing through target programming and development phases Effective project management requires transparent information gathering across all phases, with a particular focus on the latest space and cost evaluations Facility Management plays a vital role in controlling and ensuring quality throughout the project lifecycle With the advancement of 3D BIM technologies, it is anticipated that more integrated programs will emerge, enabling simulations for thermal comfort, sustainability, and energy efficiency.

Also, visually aided navigation would help to simplify the current data structures and make the

FM Systems more interactive and user friendly.

[Boo09] Booty, F (ed.): Facilities Management Hand- book, 4th edn Elsevier, New York (2009)

[Bra07] Brown, P., Putter, J., Reents, M., Zahn, P.:

Facility Management: Erfolg in der Immobil- ienbewirtschaftung (Facility Management:

Success in the Real Estate Management), 5th edn Springer, Berlin (2007)

[GEF13] GEFMA Guide Line 400: Computer Aided

Facilities Management CAFM Begriffsbes- timmungen, Leistungsmerkmale (CAFM: Def- initions, Characteristics) Bonn (2013)

[GEF96] GEFMA Guide Line 100: Facility Manage- ment Begriffe, Strukturen, Inhalte (Concepts, Structures, Contents) Bonn (1996)

[Jed02] Jedlitzke, M.: IT-Grundlagen f ü r Facility Man- ger (IT basics for facility managers) In: May,

M (ed.) IT im Facility Management erfolgr- eich einsetzen Das CAFM Handbuch (Suc- cessful use of IT in Facility Management The CAFM Manual) Springer, Berlin (2002) [Kri08] Krimmling, J., Preuss, A., Deutschmann, J.U.,

Renner, E.: Atlas Geb ọ udetechnik Grundla- gen, Kontruktionen, Details (Atlas Building Techniques Foundations, Structures, Details). Rudolf M ỹ ller Publisher, K ử ln (2008) [Lut02] Lutz, U (ed.): Facility Management Jahrbuch

2002/2003 (Facility Management Year Book 2002/2003) Springer, Berlin (2002)

[May12] May, M., Williams, G (eds.): The Facility

Manager ’ s Guide to Information Technology:

An International Collaboration International Facility Management Association (2012) [Mor02] Morfeld, E., Potreck, H.: Digitale Bestandsdok- umentation zur Optimierung von Wartungs- und Instandhaltungsprozessen In: Lutz, U. (Hrsg.): Facility Management Jahrbuch 2002/

2003 (Digital “ as built ” - documentation for the optimization of maintenance and repair pro- cesses In: Lutz, U (ed.): Facility Management Yearbook 2002/2003) Springer, Berlin (2002) [Nọv02] N ọ vy, J.: Markt ỹ bersicht CAFM-Systeme In:

The "Facility Management Yearbook 2002/2003," edited by U Lutz and published by Springer in Berlin, provides a comprehensive market overview of CAFM systems The fourth edition of "Facility Management: Computer Support, System Implementation, Application Examples" by J Novy, also from Springer, highlights practical applications in the field Rondeau et al.'s second edition of "Facility Management," published by Wiley in New Jersey, offers in-depth insights into the discipline Additionally, the fourth edition of "The Facility Management Handbook" by Roper and Pyant, released by the American Management Association in New York, serves as a crucial resource for professionals Lastly, Warner et al discuss consulting in CAFM and the role of IT in facility management, emphasizing the importance of technology in the industry.

Facility Management erfolgreich einsetzen In: May, M (Hg.): Das CAFM-Handbuch (Con- sulting in CAFM Successful Use of IT in Facility Management The CAFM Manual). Springer, Berlin (2002)

Build-operate-transfer model (BOT model), 8, 19, 26

Carbon footprint, 57 Ceilings, 302 Ceiling slabs, 276 Cellular of fi ces, 242 Certi fi cation systems, 423 Changeability, 9 Changeability of logistic resources, 165 Changeability of manufacturing processes, 126 Changeable buildings, 305

Changeable production networks are influenced by various change drivers and enablers, highlighting the importance of adaptability in modern manufacturing Effective circulation areas facilitate the flow of goods, while claims for damages can arise from disruptions within these networks Understanding the different classes of changeability and digital planning tools is essential for optimizing operations Additionally, clearance requirements and co-determination play vital roles in ensuring compliance and collaboration within co-operative networks The coincidence factor of energy consumers also impacts operational efficiency, alongside the significance of color design in branding and product visibility.

Color scheme, 202 Combi-of fi ces, 243 Comfort zones, 253 Commissioning system, 164 Communication, 42, 239, 280 Competence development, 172 Competency pro fi le, 172 Complex partitioning walls, 259 Concept planning, 394 Concept stage, 367 Con fi guration of production control, 232, 234 Consignment store, 220

Construction materials, 274 Content theory, 177 Continuous improvement, 75 Contract drafting, 444 Contract stock, 220 Conveyor systems, 290 CONWIP, 232 Core and support processes, 385 Core competence process, 355 Cores, 304

Corporate culture, 48 Cost estimations, 448 Costing and control, 447 Costing framework, 449 Cost management, 452

H.-P Wiendahl et al., Handbook Factory Planning and Design,

DOI 10.1007/978-3-662-46391-8, © Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2015

Design of composite steel and concrete structures, 272

Features of fl oors, 300 Fine layout, 415 Fire protection, 256 Fire protection concept, 257 Fire resistance classes, 257, 259 Flexibility of production, 91 Flexible manufacturing system, 69, 147 Flexible volume production, 32 Flexible working times, 184, 187 Floors, 299

FM data model, 487 Form follows function, 52 Form follows performance, 52 Forms of work structures, 66 Fractal enterprises, 78 Fractal factories, 6 Functional scheme, 406 Function follows form, 52 Funnel model, 134 Funnel model for a production, 230

G Galleries, 244 GENEering, 381 General contractor, 445 General development, 324 General planner, 445 Global compact ’ s ten principles, 54 Global footprint design, 349 Global location assessment, 345 Global variant production system (GVP), 353 Goal setting, 373

Goal setting workshop, 374 Graceful industrial architecture, 307 Green concept, 327

Gross fl oor area, 449 Group technology, 6 Group work, 66 Guaranteed maximum price, 445, 446

H Hall constructions, 319 Hazardous substances, 208 Heating systems, 289, 291 Hierarchy of needs, 178 High tech factory, 23 HOAI, 366

Holistic production systems, 6, 77 Horizontal participation, 40 Human resource, 169 Human resources development, 170, 174 HVAC (Heat, Ventilation, Air Condition) systems, 296 Hybrid assembly systems, 151

M Main routings, 286 Make-to-order, 30, 218, 222 Make-to-stock, 30, 218 Manual workplace principle, 225 Manufacturing and assembly principles, 223 Manufacturing cells, 67

Manufacturing facilities, 141 Manufacturing location, 22 Manufacturing processes, 122 Manufacturing segments, 69, 225 Manufuture, 87

Market offer, 16 Mass customization, 80 Master plan, 324 Material fl ows, 394 Material requirement planning, 229 Media routings, 288

Media supplies, 332 Media systems, 283 Milestones, 442 MIPS factor (material input per unit service), 53 Morphology of changeability, 103

Morphology of factory types, 23 Motivation, 170, 177

Motivation theory, 179 MRP II concept, 228 Multifunctional structures, 317 Multi-storey factory, 319

N Net fl oor area, 449 Noise protection, 208 Nominal illuminance, 249 Non-monetary target system, 414

O Object analysis, 367 Object planning, 366 Occupancy costs, 450 Occupational health, 204

Of fi ce concepts, 242 Offshore plant, 348 One-of production, 30 One-piece- fl ow assembly, 67, 151 One-piece- fl ow production, 68 Open of fi ces, 243

Optimized production technology, 232 Order decoupling point, 216

Order ful fi llment, 21Order generation, 230Order release, 230Order schedule, 216Order sequencing, 230Order types, 219

Process model synergetic factory planning, 366

Public private partnership, 445 Pull principle, 76, 222 Push model, 222

Q Quali fi cation, 170 Quantity and variant fl exibility, 34

The rack system plays a crucial role in optimizing space, with a focus on required floor space and reserve stock concepts to enhance efficiency Understanding the ramp-up curve and phases is essential for effective planning and responsiveness in operations Recreational areas and relaxation spaces contribute to employee well-being, while regional networks and lead plants foster collaboration Effective removal systems and remuneration systems are vital for maintaining operational flow and employee motivation Additionally, the recycling economy emphasizes sustainability, and the request program aids in managing recurring costs Ensuring clear rescue routes is critical for safety, and the replenishment time must be minimized to maintain productivity.

Roles of employees, 41 Room interiors, 200 Room list, 311 Rough layout, 405 Rough layout planning, 368 Rules for project team, 440

S Safety colors, 203 Safety standards, 204 Safety technology design, 200 Scaled functional scheme, 407 Scenario management, 378 SCOR-model, 77 Sectional pro fi le, 318 Segmented factory, 26 Self-organization, 40 Service level operating curves, 139 Service package, 19

Shell (of a building), 278 Simulation applications, 459 Simulation of daylight and arti fi cial light, 467 Simultaneity factor (of energy consumers), 316 Single item procurement, 221