Evapotranspiration Remote Sensing and Modeling Part 1 pdf

Contents Preface IX Chapter 1 Assessment of Evapotranspiration in North Fluminense Region, Brazil, Using Modis Products and Sebal Algorithm 1 José Carlos Mendonça, Elias Fernandes de

EVAPOTRANSPIRATION – REMOTE SENSING AND

MODELING Edited by Ayse Irmak

Evapotranspiration – Remote Sensing and Modeling

Edited by Ayse Irmak

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Contents

Preface IX

Chapter 1 Assessment of Evapotranspiration in

North Fluminense Region, Brazil, Using Modis Products and Sebal Algorithm 1

José Carlos Mendonça, Elias Fernandes de Sousa, Romísio Geraldo Bouhid André, Bernardo Barbosa da Silva and Nelson de Jesus Ferreira

Chapter 2 Evapotranspiration Estimation Based on

the Complementary Relationships 19

Virginia Venturini, Carlos Krepper and Leticia Rodriguez Chapter 3 Evapotranspiration Estimation

Using Soil Water Balance, Weather and Crop Data 41

Ketema Tilahun Zeleke and Leonard John Wade Chapter 4 Hargreaves and Other Reduced-Set Methods

for Calculating Evapotranspiration 59

Shakib Shahidian, Ricardo Serralheiro, João Serrano, José Teixeira,

Naim Haie and Francisco Santos Chapter 5 Fuzzy-Probabilistic Calculations of Evapotranspiration 81

Boris Faybishenko Chapter 6 Using Soil Moisture Data to Estimate Evapotranspiration

and Development of a Physically Based Root Water Uptake Model 97

Nirjhar Shah, Mark Ross and Ken Trout Chapter 7 Impact of Irrigation on Hydrologic Change in

Highly Cultivated Basin 125

Tadanobu Nakayama

VI Contents

Chapter 8 Estimation of Evapotranspiration Using

Soil Water Balance Modelling 147

Zoubeida Kebaili Bargaoui Chapter 9 Evapotranspiration of Grasslands and Pastures in

North-Eastern Part of Poland 179

Daniel Szejba Chapter 10 The Role of Evapotranspiration in the Framework of

Water Resource Management and Planning Under Shortage Conditions 197

Giuseppe Mendicino and Alfonso Senatore Chapter 11 Guidelines for Remote Sensing of Evapotranspiration 227

Christiaan van der Tol and Gabriel Norberto Parodi Chapter 12 Estimation of the Annual and Interannual Variation of

Potential Evapotranspiration 251

Georgeta Bandoc Chapter 13 Evapotranspiration of Partially Vegetated Surfaces 273

L.O Lagos, G Merino, D Martin, S Verma and A Suyker Chapter 14 Evapotranspiration – A Driving Force in

Landscape Sustainability 305

Martina Eiseltová, Jan Pokorný, Petra Hesslerová and Wilhelm Ripl Chapter 15 Critical Review of Methods for the Estimation of Actual

Evapotranspiration in Hydrological Models 329

Nebo Jovanovic and Sumaya Israel Chapter 16 Development of Hybrid Method for the Modeling of

Evaporation and Evapotranspiration 351

Sungwon Kim Chapter 17 Modelling Evapotranspiration and the Surface Energy

Budget in Alpine Catchments 377

Giacomo Bertoldi, Riccardo Rigon and Ulrike Tappeiner Chapter 18 Stomatal Conductance Modeling to Estimate

the Evapotranspiration of Natural and Agricultural Ecosystems 403

Giacomo Gerosa, Simone Mereu, Angelo Finco and Riccardo Marzuoli Chapter 19 A Distributed Benchmarking Framework

for Actual ET Models 421 Yann Chemin

Chapter 20 Possibilities of Deriving Crop Evapotranspiration

from Satellite Data with the Integration with Other Sources of Information 437

Gheorghe Stancalie and Argentina Nertan Chapter 21 Operational Remote Sensing of ET and Challenges 467

Ayse Irmak, Richard G Allen, Jeppe Kjaersgaard, Justin Huntington, Baburao Kamble, Ricardo Trezza and Ian Ratcliffe

Chapter 22 Adaptability of Woody Plants in Aridic Conditions 493

Viera Paganová and Zuzana Jureková

Preface

The transfer of liquid water from soil to vapor in the atmosphere (Evapotranspiration)

is one of the most profound and consequential processes on Earth Evapotranspiration (ET), along with evaporation from open water, supplies vapor to the atmosphere to replace that condensed as precipitation The flux of water through plants via transpiration transports minerals and nutrients required for plant growth and creates

a beneficial cooling process to plant canopies in many climates At the global scale, ET measures nearly one hundred trillion cubic meters per year and is the largest component of the hydrologic cycle, following precipitation The large spatial variability in water consumption from land surfaces is strongly related to vegetation type, vegetation amount, soil water holding characteristics, and of course, precipitation or irrigation amount There are very strong feedbacks from all of these factors and consequent ET rates In this book, Evapotranspiration is defined as the aggregate sum of evaporation (E) direct from the soil surface and the surfaces of plant canopies and transpiration (T), where T is the evaporation of water from the plant system via the plant leaf, stem and root-soil system

In addition to consuming enormous amounts of water, ET substantially modifies the Earth’s energy balance through its consumption of enormous amounts of energy during conversion of liquid water to vapor Each cubic meter of water evaporated requires 2.45 billion Joules of energy That consumption of energy cools the evaporating surface and reduces the heating of air by the surface On a global basis, the cooling effect to the land surface is measured in trillions of GigaJoules per day Much of that ‘latent’ energy absorbed by ET later reenters the surface energy balance when the vapor recondenses as precipitation

Even though the magnitude of ET is enormous over the Earth’s surface, and even though ET has such high bearing on vegetation growth and health, its spatial distribution and magnitudes are poorly understood and poorly quantified Although man has been able to estimate general magnitudes of ET via its strong correlation with precipitation for centuries, it has only been during the past thirty years, with the advent of satellites and remote sensing technologies, along with sophisticated modeling approaches, that we have been able to view and quantify the complex and variable geospatial structure of ET The combination of thermally-equipped satellites, such as Landsat, AVHRR, MODIS and ASTER, and the improved ability to simulate

X Preface

the energy balance at the Earth’s surface has enabled a substantial revolution in

‘mapping’ of ET over large, variable landscapes

This edition of Evapotranspiration contains 23 chapters, covering a broad range of topics

related to the modeling and simulation of ET, as well as to the remote sensing of ET Both of these areas are at the forefront of technologies required to quantify the highly spatial ET from the Earth’s surface The chapters cover mechanics of ET simulation, including ET from partially vegetated surfaces and the modeling of stomatal conductance for natural and agricultural ecosystems, ET estimation using soil water balance, weather data and vegetation cover, ET estimation based on the Complementary Relationship, and adaptability of woody plants in conditions of soil aridity Modeling descriptions include chapters focusing on distributed benchmarking frameworks for ET models, Hargreaves and other temperature-radiation based methods, Fuzzy-Probabilistic calculations, a hybrid-method for modeling evaporation and ET, and estimation of ET using water balance modeling One chapter provides a critical review of methods for estimation of actual ET in hydrological models In addition to that, six chapters describe modeling applications for determining ET patterns in alpine catchments, ET assessment and water resource management planning under shortage conditions, estimation of the annual and interannual variation of potential ET, impacts of irrigation on hydrologic change in a highly cultivated basin, ET of grasslands and pastures in north-eastern part of Poland, and climatological aspects of water balance components for Croatia

Remote sensing based approaches are described in five chapters that include deriving crop ET from satellite data, integration with other information sources and an assessment of ET using MODIS products with energy balance algorithms Importantly, the book includes two chapters describing an overview of recommended guidelines for operational remote sensing of ET, and a review of operational remote sensing-based energy balance models including SEBAL and METRIC, and specific challenges and insights for their application

These 23 chapters represent the current state of the art in ET modeling and remote sensing applications, and provide valuable insights and experiences of developers and appliers of the technologies that have been gained over decades of development work, experimentation and modeling This text provides valuable background information and theory for university students and courses on ET, as well as guidance and ideas for those that apply these modern methods I wish to express my thanks to the authors

of all chapters for making these timely and very useful contributions available, and to all anonymous reviewers of chapters I also wish to thank Mr Baburao Kamble, University of Nebraska, for assistance in the handling of chapter manuscripts during reviews and for providing technical assistance

Dr Ayse Irmak

School of Natural Resources and Civil Engineering, Center for Advanced Land Management Information Technologies (CALMIT), University of Nebraska-Lincoln,

USA

1

Assessment of Evapotranspiration in North Fluminense Region, Brazil, Using Modis

Products and Sebal Algorithm

1Laboratório de Meteorologia (LAMET/UENF) Rod Amaral Peixoto,

Av Brennand s/n Imboassica, Macaé, RJ

2Laboratorio de Engenharia Agrícola (LEAG/UENF); Avenida Alberto Lamego,

CCTA, sl 209, Parque Califórnia, Campos dos Goytacazes, RJ

3Instituto Nacional de Meteorologia (INMET/MAPA); Eixo Monumental,

Via S1 – Sudoeste, Brasília, DF

4Departamento de Ciências Atmosféricas (DCA/UFCG); Avenida

Aprígio Veloso, Bodocongó, Campina Grande, PB

5Centro de Previsão de Tempo e Estudos Climáticos (CPTEC/INPE);

Av dos Astronautas, Jardim da Granja, São José dos Campos, SP

Brazil

1 Introduction

North Fluminense Region, Rio de Janeiro State, Brazil (Fig 1) is known as a sugar cane producer The production during harvest season 2007/08 were 4 million tons of sugar cane, that were transformed into 4.8 million sacks of sugar, 36,786 liters anhydrous alcohol (ethanol) and 91,008 liters of hydrated alcohol Economically generated 250 million U S dollars (Morgado, 2009) However, this activity is declining in the region due to different factors, including hidric deficit and the use of irrigation techniques may reverse this situation(Azevedo et al., 2002) Some authors (Ide e Oliveira, 1986; Magalhães, 1987) define temperature as a factor of greater importance for sugar cane physiology maturation (ripening) because more the affecting nutrients and water absorption through transpiration flux is a non-controllable condition Soil humidity is another preponderant factor to sugar cane physiology and varies in function of the cultivation cycle, development stage, climactic conditions and others factors, such as spare water in the soil The soil moisture content varies during the growth that corresponds to the main cause of production variation However, the precipitation distribution along the year and spare soil water for the plant disposition are more important in the vegetative cycle of the sugar cane that total precipitation (Magalhães, 1987)

The physical properties of energy exchange between the plant community and environment such as momentum, latent heat, sensible heat and others are evidenced by the influence they

Evapotranspiration – Remote Sensing and Modeling

2

exert on physiological processes of plants and the occurrence of pests and diseases, which affect the productive potential of plants species exploited economically (Frota, 1978) The radiation components measurements of energy balance in field conditions have direct applicability in agricultural practices, especially in irrigation rational planning, appropriate use of land in regional agricultural zoning, weather variations impact on agricultural crops, protecting plants, among others The knowledge advance in micro-scale weather, as well as the instrumental monitoring technology evolution has allowed a research increase in this area Energy balance studies on a natural surface based on energy conservation principle By accounting means for components that make up this balance, can be evaluate the net radiation plots used for the flow of sensible and latent heat

The analysis of data collected by artificial satellites orbiting planet earth, allows the determination of various physical properties of planet, consequently, spatial and temporal modifications of different ecosystems are able to be identified

According Moran et al (1989), estimative of evepotranspiration – ET, based in data collected

in meteorological stations have the limitation of representing punctual values that are capable of satisfactory representing local conditions but, if the objective is to obtain analysis

of a regional variation of ET using a method with interpolation and extrapolation from micro-meteorological parameters of an specific area, these punctual data may increase the uncertainty of the analysis

Trying to reduce such uncertainty degree, different algorithms were developed during the last decades to estimate surface energy flux based in the use of remote sensing techniques Bastiaanssen (1995) developed the ‘Surface Energy Balance Algorithm for Land - SEBAL’, with its validation performed in experimental campaigns in Spain and Egypt (arid climate) using Landsat 5 –TM images This model involves the spatial variability of the most agro-meteorological variables and can be applied to various ecosystems and requires spatial distributed visible, near-infrared and thermal infrared data together with routine weather data The algorithm computes net radiation flux – Rn, sensible heat flux - H and soil heat flux - G for every pixel of a satellite image and latent heat flux - LE is acquired as a residual

in energy balance equation (Equation 01) This is accomplished by firt computing the surface radiation balance, flowed by the surface energy balance Althoygh SEBAL has been designed to calculate the energy partition at the regional scale with minimum ground data (Teixeira, 2008)

Roerink et al (1997) also used Landsat 5 –TM images to evaluate irrigation’s performance in Argentina and AVHRR/NOAA sensor images in Pakistan Combination of Landsat 5 – TM and NOAA/AVHRR images were used by Timmermans and Meijerink (1999) in Africa Latter, Hafeez et al (2002) used the SEBAL algorithm with the ASTER sensor installed onboard ‘Terra’ satellite while studying Pumpanga river region in Philippines These authors concluded that the combination of the high spatial resolution of ETM+ and ASTER sensors, together with the high temporal resolution from AVHRR and MODIS, provided high precision results of water balance and water use studies on regional scale

In Brazil, several research center are conducting research using the SEBAL algorithm specially ‘Federal University of Campina Grande, PB - UFCG’, ‘National Institute of Space Research - INPE’ and others

Sebal was developed and validated in arid locations and one of its peculiarities is the use of two anchors pixels (hot pixel – LE = 0 and cold pixel – H =0) with the determination or

Assessment of Evapotranspiration in North Fluminense

Region, Brazil, Using Modis Products and Sebal Algorithm 3 selection of hot pixel easier in dry climates In humid and sub-humid climates is not easy determine a hot pixel, where the latent heat flux is zero or null

The objectives of the research described in this work are (i) to evaluate two propositions to estimate the sensible heat flux (H) and (ii) to evaluate two methods for conversion of ETinst values to ET24h on the daily evepotranspiration to estimate evepotranspiration in regional scale using SEBAL algorithm, MODIS images, the two propositions to estimate H and meteorological data of the four surface meteorological stations

2 Materials and methods

2.1 Study area

The Norte Fluminense region in Rio de Janeiro State, Brazil, has an area of 9.755,1 km2, corresponding to 22% of the state’s total area Among its agricultural production, sugar cane plantations are predominant as well as cattle production In the last years irrigation technologies for fruit production are being promoted and implemented by the government Nowadays, passion fruit, guava, coconut and pineapple plantations extend for more than 4.000 ha (SEAAPI, 2006)

According Koppen, this region’s clime is classified as Aw, that is, tropical humid with rainy summers, dry winters and temperatures average above 18 oC during the coolest months The annual mean temperatures are of 24oC, with a little thermal amplitude and mean rain precipitation values of 1.023 mm (Gomes, 1999)

The area under study is showed in Figure 1, comparing the area of the Norte Fluminense region within the Rio de Janeiro state and the RJ state within Brazil

Fig 1 Study area localization

2.2 Digital orbital images – MODIS images

Daily MOD09 and MYD09 data (Surface Reflectance – GHK / 500 m and GQK / 250 m) and MOD11A1 and MYD11A1 data (Surface Temperature - LST) were used in this research, totalizing 24 scenes over the ‘tile’ h14/v11 corresponding to Julian Day 218th, 227th, 230th, 241st, 255th, 285th, 320th and 339th in 2005 and 15th, 36th, 63rd , 102nd, 116th, 139th, 166th, 186th, 189th, 190th, 191st, 200th, 201st, 205th, 208th and 221st in 2006 These days were selected because no cloud covering was registered over the study area during the satellite’s course over the area were obtained from the Land Processes Distributed Active Archive Center (LP-DAAC), of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), at http://edcimswww.cr.usgs.gov/pub/imswelcome/