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Preface The term intelligent sensor or smart sensor has been used in the sensor industry to describe sensors that provide not only measurements, but also functionality to specific measur

Intelligent and Biosensors

Intelligent and Biosensors

Edited by Vernon S Somerset

Intech

IV

Published by Intech

Intech

Olajnica 19/2, 32000 Vukovar, Croatia

Abstracting and non-profit use of the material is permitted with credit to the source Statements and opinions expressed in the chapters are these of the individual contributors and not necessarily those of the editors or publisher No responsibility is accepted for the accuracy of information contained in the published articles Publisher assumes no responsibility liability for any damage or injury to persons or property arising out of the use of any materials, instructions, methods or ideas contained inside After this work has been published by the Intech, authors have the right to republish it, in whole or part, in any publication of which they are an author or editor, and the make other personal use of the work

© 2010 Intech

Free online edition of this book you can find under www.sciyo.com

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First published January 2010

Printed in India

Technical Editor: Teodora Smiljanic

Intelligent and Biosensors, Edited by Vernon S Somerset

p cm

ISBN 978-953-7619-58-9

Preface

The term intelligent sensor (or smart sensor) has been used in the sensor industry to describe sensors that provide not only measurements, but also functionality to specific measurements There are three characteristics that define an intelligent sensor: i) firstly, it contains a sensing element that measures one or more physical parameter; ii) secondly, it has a computational element that analyses the measurements made by the sensing element; iii) thirdly, it contains a communication interface enabling interaction with the outside world in order to exchange information with other components in a larger system Furthermore, intelligent sensors allow networks of sensors to connect to each other, locally

or around the globe in order to accomplish specific tasks The use of intelligent sensors have revolutionised the way in which we gather data from the world around us, also how we extract useful information from that data, and the manner in which we use the newly obtained information for various operations and decision making

The field of Electrochemical sensors have shown that various methods can be employed

in transducer modification in order to produce analytical probes that can be applied for the analysis of clinical, industrial, food and environmental samples One specific type of electrochemical sensor that has received serious research attention over several decades is the Biosensor A Biosensor can be defined as a compact analytical device containing biological material that is closely associated with a physico-chemical transducer, to produce either discrete or continuous digital electronic signals that are proportional to a single analyte or a related group of analytes In this book the particular emphasis is on biosensors for the detection of organophosphorous and carbamate pesticide compounds These pesticide compounds are known for their toxic effects due to their ability to irreversibly modify the catalytic serine residue in acetylcholinesterases (AChE) and subsequent inhibition of the AChE effectively prevents nerve transmission by blocking the breakdown

of the transmitter choline

This book is an attempt to highlight the current research in the field of Intelligent and Biosensors, thereby describing state-of-the-art techniques in the field and emerging new technologies, also showcasing some examples and applications

The focus of the first eight chapters is on Intelligent Sensors In Chapter 1 we are introduced to the work of Chen and co-workers on the design of a smart jacket and a power supply for neonatal monitoring with wearable sensors This work has shown how it is possible to improve the comfort and quality of life for the child by elimination of the adhesive electrodes and by the elimination of wires In Chapter 2, we are introduced to a comprehensive survey of signal processing, feature extraction/selection and classification

methods used to provide the readers with guidelines on design brain-computer interfaces (BCIs) This work by Al-Ani and Trad have shown that the exploration of new methods in

BCI design would be strongly driven by new properties that will have to be taken into

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consideration in the real future applications of BCIs In Chapter 3, Sashima and Kurumatani

proposes some views of what a mobile sensor fusion platform can contribute to the field and two types of fusion architecture, e.g “mobile sensing architecture” and “stable sensing architecture” are described with a prototype platform of the mobile sensing architecture introduced In Chapter 4, the focus is on the assessment of the biomineralization capacity of polyamidoamine (PAMAM) dendrimers amino- and carboxylic-terminated immobilized on solid supports This work by Stancu is aimed as the first attempt of investigation of biomaterials-induced biomineralization through the label-free Surface Plasmon Resonance Imaging (SPRi) In Chapter 5, the work of Rangelova and co-workers discusses the use of soft computing techniques for modelling the inputoutput dependency of a dopamine biosensor that takes into account the simultaneous influence of pH and temperature over the output current In Chapter 6, Gargiulo and co-workers describes a long term, wearable personal monitoring system that is wireless, low power and uses convenient dry electrodes The use of this system for electrocardiogram (ECG) and athlete monitoring has also been demonstrated In Chapter 7, the work by De Silva and co-workers presents a framework to transfer the natural gestural behaviours of a human agent to a robot through a robust imitation algorithm The novelty of their proposed algorithm is the use of symbolic postures

to generate the gestural behaviours of a robot without using any training data or trained model The idea behind using symbolic postures is that a robot is flexibly able to generate its own motion In Chapter 8, the author Bae focuses our attention on a newly designed sensor

or structure of an in-vitro giant magnetoresistance (GMR) biosensor with a specially

designed magnetic shield layer (MSL) The physical sensing characteristics of the in-vitro GMR biosensor with an immobilized single FNSA are also discussed to explore its feasibility

to a single molecular based disease diagnostic biosensor system

The work in the following chapters focus on Biosensors for the detection of various analytes In Chapter 9, Somerset and co-workers describe the application of a mercaptobenzothiazole-on-gold biosensor system for the analysis of organosphosphorous and carbamate pesticide compounds The aim of this work was to improve the detection limit of these insecticides with an AChE biosensor, applied to various water miscible organic solvents In Chapter 10, the work of Cortina-Puig and co-workers focuses on AChE biosensors as a rapid and simple alternative method for the detection of organophosphorous insecticides They indicate that such sensors should be small, cheap, simple to handle and able to provide reliable information in realtime with or without minimum sample preparation In Chapter 11, the work of Stoytcheva highlights the fact that the analytical potential of electrochemical biosensors for the detection of organophosphorous insecticides

is obvious, despite the fact that they still demonstrate limited application in the quantification of real samples In Chapter 12, Srivastava and co-workers focus our attention

on the first continuous, electrochemical biosensor for real-time, rapid measurement of Neuropathy Target Esterase (NEST (or NTE) esterase activity The biosensor was fabricated

by coimmobilizing NEST protein and tyrosinase enzyme on an electrode using the layer by layer assembly approach In Chapter 13, the work of Nien and co-workers showcase two systems In the first system, a poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene) (PEDOT) modified electrode was used as a matrix to entrap glucose oxidase and was integrated in a flow system for sensing chip applications In the second system, the proposed electrode fabricated by multilayer structures successfully works as a glucose biosensor in the oxygen-independence solution, and the anode of the biofuel cell operates not only on glucose

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solution but also on real blood of human beings In Chapter 14, Budai discuss the fabrication

of single- and multibarrel carbon fiber (CF) microelectrodes, the covalent modifications of the carbon surface as well as the applications of CF microelectrodes in recording spikes from neurons, electrochemical or biosensor signals from various tissues This chapter further

discuss the novel use of CF microelectrodes as oxygen detectors usable in vitro and in vivo

applications In Chapter 15, the work of Reshetilov and co-workers focuses on microbial biosensors and showcase that the properties of microbial sensors are in many respects analogous to the properties of enzyme biosensors In Chapter 16, the work of Mateo-Martí and Pradier focuses on DNA biosensors with specific attention on a new artificial nucleic acid, PNA, as a highly specific probe They also provide an overview of some surface analysis techniques that have been successfully applied to the detection of PNA-DNA hybridisation In Chapter 17, the work of Yakhno and co-workers demonstrate the unique use of an uncoated quartz resonator in the diagnostics of multi-component liquids without detection of their content This is a new type of analytical instrument, based on non-linear non-equilibrium processes in drying drops, so called selforganization The main feature of this approach is that phase transitions in drying drops were registered and used as the

informative parameter In Chapter 18, Konuk and co-workers introduce and ALAD

(δ-Aminolevulinic Acid Dehydratase) biosensor and indicates that the expression of ALAD activity gives us a clear indication of the severity of the effect of Pb pollution along the pollution gradient In Chapter 19, the work of Vidic focuses on a bioelectronic nose based on olfactory receptors indicating that the development of sensor technology incorporating natural olfactory receptors provides the basis for a bioelectronic nose mimicking the animal olfactory system Such devices can be used for qualitative and quantitative identification and monitoring of a spectrum of odorants with much higher selectivity and sensibility than the present electronic devices

It is envisaged that this book will provide valuable reference and learning material to other researchers, scientists and postgraduate students in the field The references at the end

of each chapter serve as valuable entry points to further reading on the various topics discussed and should provide guidance to those interested in moving forward in the field of Intelligent and Biosensors

My sincere gratitude is expressed to the contributing authors for their hard work, time and effort in preparing the different chapters, because without their dedication this book would not have been possible

Editor

Vernon S Somerset

Cape Town, South Africa

Contents

1 Intelligent Design for Neonatal Monitoring with Wearable Sensors 001

Wei Chen, Sibrecht Bouwstra, Sidarto Bambang Oetomo and Loe Feijs

2 Signal Processing and Classification Approaches

Tarik Al-ani and Dalila Trad

3 Toward Mobile Sensor Fusion Platform for Context-Aware Services 067

Akio Sashima, Takeshi Ikeda, and Koichi Kurumatani

4 SPR Imaging Label-Free Control of Biomineral Nucleation!? 083

Stancu Izabela-Cristina

5 Soft Computing Techniques in Modelling the Influence of pH

Vania Rangelova, Diana Tsankova and Nina Dimcheva

6 Non-invasive Electronic Biosensor Circuits and Systems 123

Gaetano Gargiulo, Paolo Bifulco, Rafael A Calvo, Mario Cesarelli, Craig Jin,

Alistair McEwan and André van Schaik

7 The Extraction of Symbolic Postures to Transfer Social Cues into Robot 147

P Ravindra S De Silva, Tohru Matsumoto, Stephen G Lambacher,

Ajith P Madurapperuma, Susantha Herath and Masatake Higashi

8 In-Vitro Magnetoresistive Biosensors for Single Molecular Based

Disease Diagnostics: Optimization of Sensor Geometry and Structure 163

Seongtae Bae

9 Mercaptobenzothiazole-on-Gold Organic Phase Biosensor Systems:

3 Thick-Film Biosensors for Organophosphate

and Carbamate Pesticide Determination

185

V Somerset, P Baker and E Iwuoha

X

10 Analysis of Pesticide Mixtures using Intelligent Biosensors 205

Montserrat Cortina-Puig, Georges Istamboulie,

Thierry Noguer and Jean-Louis Marty

11 Enzyme vs Bacterial Electrochemical Sensors

Margarita Stoytcheva

Devesh Srivastava, Neeraj Kohli, Rudy J Richardson,

Robert M Worden, and Ilsoon Lee

13 Amperometric Enzyme-based Biosensors for Lowering the Interferences 245

Po-Chin Nien, Po-Yen Chen and Kuo-Chuan Ho

14 Carbon Fiber-based Microelectrodes and Microbiosensors 269

Dénes Budai

Reshetilov A.N., Iliasov P.V and Reshetilova T.A

16 A Novel Type of Nucleic Acid-based Biosensors:

the Use of PNA Probes, Associated with Surface Science

and Electrochemical Detection Techniques

323

Eva Mateo-Martí and Claire-Marie Pradier

Tatiana Yakhno, Anatoly Sanin, Vyacheslav Kazakov, Olga Sanina, Christina

Vacca, Frank Falcione, and Vladimir Yakhno

18 ALAD (-aminolevulinic Acid Dehydratase)

Muhsin Konuk, İbrahim Hakkı Ciğerci and Safiye Elif Korcan,

Jasmina Vidic

1

Intelligent Design for Neonatal Monitoring

with Wearable Sensors

Wei Chen1, Sibrecht Bouwstra1, Sidarto Bambang Oetomo1,2 and Loe Feijs1

1Department of Industrial Design, Eindhoven University of Technology,

2Department of Neonatology, Máxima Medical Center, Veldhoven,

The Netherlands

1 Introduction

Neonatal monitoring refers to the monitoring of vital physiological parameters of premature infants, full term infants that are critically ill, and a combination thereof Babies that are born after a pregnancy lasting 37 weeks or less are typically considered premature Critically ill neonates are a special group of patients that consist of premature infants who may suffer from diseases that are mainly caused by immaturity of their organs, and full term infants, who become severely ill during or immediately after birth In particular, these premature infants can weigh as little as 500g with a size of a palm and are highly vulnerable to external disturbances Critically ill newborn infants are normally admitted to a Neonatal Intensive Care Unit (NICU) for treatment by neonatologists and specialized nurses

Continuous health monitoring for the neonates provides crucial parameters for early detection of in adverted events (such as cessation of breathing, heart rhythm disturbances and drop in blood oxygen saturation), and possible complications (such as seizures) Immediate action based on this detection increases survival rates and positively supports further development of the neonates Advances in medical treatments over the last decades resulted in a significant increase of survival As a result, neonates born after 25 weeks of pregnancy can survive with adequate medical care and appropriate medical care in NICU (Costeloe et al., 2000) Encouraged by this success NICUs are populated by a large proportion of infants, born after very short gestational age Survival and long-term health prospects strongly depend on medical care and reliable and comfortable health-status monitoring systems

In the last decades several important treatment modalities emerged that had a substantial impact on the mortality of prematurely born infants However there is a concomitant increase of neurobehavioral problems on long-term follow-up (Perlman, 2001; Hack & Fanaroff, 1999; Chapieski & Evankovitch, 1997) Follow-up studies indicate that preterm infants show more developmental delay compared to their full-term peers More than 50%

of them show deficits in their further development, such as visual-motor integration problems, motor impairments, speech and language delay, behavioral, attention, and learning problems (Marlow et al 2007) Medical conditions including chronic lung disease, apnea and bradycardia, transient thyroid dysfunction, jaundice and nutritional deficiencies, are potential contributing factors In addition infants in a busy NICU are often exposed to stressful environmental conditions Examples are the attachment to multiple monitoring

Intelligent and Biosensors

2

devices and intravenous lines, high noise levels and bright light (Perlman, 2003) A concept

of interactions in the developing neonatal brain with maternal separation and exposure to pain and stress is illustrated in Fig 1, according to Anand and Scalzo (Anand & Scalzo, 2000) These negative stimuli can interfere with the normal growth and development of the neonates and hamper the parent-child interaction (Als et al., 2003) Thus, it is essential to develop comfortable care solutions for NICU and follow-up

Fig 1 Schematic diagram of the effects of neonatal pain and maternal separation in the neonate on brain plasticity and long term effects on subsequent brain development and behaviour

Vital parameters of clinical relevance for neonatal monitoring include body temperature, electrocardiogram (ECG), respiration, and blood oxygen saturation (Als, 1986; Polin & Fox, 1992) Presently, body temperature is monitored with adhesive thermistors; ECG and respiration are obtained by adhesive skin electrodes The oxygen saturation of the blood is monitored by a pulse oximeter with the sensor applied on the foot or palm of the neonate (Murković et al 2003) Placement of these adhesive sensors and the presence of all the wires lead to discomfort and even painful stimuli when the electrodes have to be removed Preterm infants, in particular the ones with an immature central nervous system, are highly sensitive for external stimuli such as noise, bright light, and pain As the survival rate of neonates has increased significantly in the last decades (de Kleine et al., 2007), the quality of life of NICU graduates becomes an important issue as well Alternative, non-invasive monitoring of vital physiological functions is a pressing need to provide convenient care and hence, may lead to improved developmental outcome of the neonates

Recent advances in sensor technologies (Yang, 2006; Van Langenhove, 2007; Murković et al., 2003) and wireless communication technologies (Goldsmith, 2005) enable the creation of a