Going Global Practical Applications and Recommendations for HR and OD Professionals in the Global Workplace_10 ppt

Though the number of studies examining the trans-fer of intercultural competence training is small, results to dateseem to indicate that training interventions, such as cultural assim-il

and culture specific) result in better job performance when pared to a control condition (Cushner, 1989; Mitchell & Foa,1969; O’Brien, Fiedler, & Hewett, 1971; Worchel & Mitchell,1972) Earley (1987) found that trainees given either area studies

com-or experiential training received higher job perfcom-ormance ratingsand reported less interpersonal adjustment difficulties comparedwith trainees placed in the control condition Finally, Sanchez-Burkes and colleagues (2007) found that trainees given relationalideology training reported higher perceived performance andintercultural adjustment compared with trainees given culturalassimilators Though the number of studies examining the trans-fer of intercultural competence training is small, results to dateseem to indicate that training interventions, such as cultural assim-ilators, area studies, experiential training, and relational ideologytraining, do have positive impacts on performance and adjustment

on the job

Affective Learning Outcomes

Compared to studies examining skill-based outcomes, there havebeen fewer empirical investigations regarding how interculturalcompetence influences affective outcomes Three notable studiesthat have examined affective intercultural learning outcomes areBhawuk (1998), Bird and colleagues (1993), and Sorcher andSpence (1982) In Bhawuk’s (1998) study, trainees who weregiven the theory-based cultural assimilator showed more intention

to change behavior as measured by the intercultural sensitivityinventory than trainees given either the culture-general, cultural-specific, or control training interventions Bird and colleagues(1993) found that area studies had no effect on trainees’ attitudestoward Japanese people, culture, management, products, andart when compared with trainees placed in a control condition.Sorcher and Spence (1982) assessed attitude change via self-report and interviews and found that behavioral modeling trainingresulted in no changes in attitudes compared with a controlcondition when assessed by a self-report, but resulted in significantchanges in attitudes compared with a control condition whenassessed by an interview This study, in particular, highlights theimportance of using a multimethod approach to assessing learning

outcomes Taken together, these results suggest that interculturalcompetence training can have an influence on trainee attitudes.

Summary

Cultural assimilators, whether in culture-specific, culture-general,

or theory-based form, clearly emerged as the most frequentlystudied intercultural competence training intervention Culturalassimilators were found to increase rote knowledge, interculturaladjustment, job performance, and intercultural sensitivity atti-tudes Area studies appear to be ideal for increasing traineeknowledge of a culture Behavioral modeling and relationalideology training have also emerged as promising training inter-ventions that have positive impacts on intercultural performanceand adjustment Unfortunately, the limited body of research onintercultural competence training effectiveness prevents makingany absolute statements regarding superiority, especially given themixed results found in field survey data The first step towardimproving our understanding of intercultural competence train-ing outcomes is to properly assess all training interventions thatare implemented in global organizations In the next section, wediscuss the importance of training evaluation, and provide sev-eral tools for assessing the outcomes of intercultural competencetraining

Intercultural Competence Assessment Tools

As the importance of intercultural competence training continues

to increase, so too will the importance of developing or fying methods to assess such programs Sercu (2004) points outthat ‘‘employers desire a reliable assessment tool that can predictwhether a particular employee possesses the necessary knowledge,skills, attitudes and personality traits to be successful in intercul-tural (business) contacts’’ (p.73) There is a consensus amongresearchers that the systematic evaluation of training programs

identi-is critical to the success of such programs (Goldstein, 1993),and this consensus extends to intercultural competence training

as well Training evaluation generally comprises the collectionand interpretation of data regarding the utility of training pro-grams (Goldstein, 1986) Training evaluation serves two primary

purposes: it ensures that trainees meet learning objectives setforth prior to training, and it diagnoses whether or not the train-ing program as a whole was effective in improving performance(Kraiger et al., 1993) Without such data it would be impossible

to conclude that a training program is achieving its aim(s) or todiagnose its inefficiencies

The proper assessment of any training program requiresrobust assessment tools Fortunately for the field of interculturalcompetence, there are a variety of extant tools and approaches thathave been developed specifically for assessing levels of intercul-tural competence in individuals, as well as more general trainingassessment methods that can be used to evaluate the effective-ness of intercultural competence training interventions Althoughmany of the existing intercultural competence assessment toolswere originally intended to be used as measures of individual dif-ferences in intercultural competence, they can very easily be used

as training assessment tools as well In other words, any tool thatcan assess levels of intercultural competence in an individual can

also be used to assess changes in intercultural competence brought

about by training In the following sections, we describe a ety of tools, both general and intercultural-competence specific,which can be used to assess the effectiveness of training interven-tions We organize these tools around the three types of learningoutcomes that they assess: cognitive, skill-based, and affective (seeTable 10.2)

vari-Assessing Cognitive Intercultural Competence

Often in practice the goal of intercultural competence training

is to attain a foundation of knowledge of a specific culture Inthese situations, multiple-choice questions, essay questions, true-false questions, open-ended questions, listing of facts, assessment

of mental models, or any other knowledge-based assessment thatrequires trainees to display accurate knowledge of specific cul-tures would be suitable knowledge-based assessments Measures

of declarative knowledge such as these are often used to measurecognitive learning outcomes in training In fact, in practice, knowl-edge tests are often the assessment of choice when trying to assessintercultural competence training For example, the U.S Army

Table 10.2 Intercultural Competence Training

Measures assessing the

trainee’s gains in skills

• Observation and rating of simulated performance

• Observation and rating of

on the job performance Affective

• Cross-Cultural Adaptability Inventory (CCAI)

TRADOC Culture Center offers a variety of classes on culture

to soldiers The majority of these classes are self-administeredcomputer-based didactic area studies (for example, Iraq CultureOverview, Iran: History and Religion) courses that usually includeknowledge tests as the form of assessment (TRADOC CultureCenter, 2009) However, there are other potential ways to assesstrainee knowledge such as power tests, mental model assessments,and the probed protocol analysis technique

Kim, Kirkman, and Chen (2006) define cognitive culturalintelligence as knowledge about economic, legal, and social

aspects of different cultures These areas of knowledge can beused to develop knowledge tests for assessing the effectiveness ofintercultural competence training More specifically, power tests(tests assessing the total number of correct responses to a set ofquestions) could be used to assess trainee’s levels of knowledgeregarding economic, legal, and social aspects of a culture afterthey have received some culture-specific training This is a highlyrelevant measure of intercultural competence given that errorsmade during an intercultural exchange could be the differencebetween winning and losing a major contract or sale These types

of tests could also be offered at the beginning of training as a back tool because variance in the declarative knowledge amongtrainees is generally greater at the beginning of training (Kraiger

feed-et al., 1993)

Another potential measurement tool that could be used toassess changes in intercultural competence in trainees is a mentalmodel measure Mental models are representations of variousfunctions that a worker possesses on the job These models helpindividuals organize information and allow for attainment ofnew knowledge (Messick, 1984) A U.S ambassador working withseveral distinct cultures can be used to illustrate the utility ofassessing mental models to gauge intercultural competence Foreach culture, the ambassador may have a separate mental modelthat assists him or her in behaving appropriately from one situation

to the next One way to assess knowledge organization is tocompare the mental models of trainees with that of expert mentalmodels regarding a culture or culturally appropriate behaviors(Kraiger & Salas, 1993) An expert model can be created byhaving a host national, or perhaps a highly experienced expatriate,create a structure that shows the relationships among importantcultural concepts relevant to training The trainee would thenorganize a structure based on the mental model Significantoverlap between the expert and the trainee is correlated withtransfer of training and performance (Kraiger & Salas, 1993).Trainee metacognition is another cognitive construct thatcould be assessed to evaluate a training program’s effectiveness.The term refers to the regulation and knowledge of one’s thoughts(Brown, 1975; Leonesio & Nelson, 1990) These skills includethings such as planning and monitoring (Brown, Bransford,

Ferrara, & Campione, 1983; Schoenfeld, 1985) Kim and leagues (2006) define metacognitive cultural intelligence as aperson’s thought processes that enable them to recognize andinterpret expectations appropriate for various cultural situations.Based on this definition, it is clear that metacognition is an impor-tant process during cultural interaction The probed protocolanalysis technique is an excellent method for evaluating metacog-nition (Means & Gott, 1988) This technique requires trainees

col-to describe a process step-by-step while being asked promptingquestions along the way Another measure used for evaluatingmetacognition is self-assessments of knowledge gained It hasbeen demonstrated that trainees often make accurate assessments

of such knowledge states (Schendel & Hagman, 1982)

It is important to note that measures of declarative knowledgealone are often insufficient for assessing trainees at higher levels ofcognitive development Although, in practice, it can be enticing

to just throw a multiple-choice test at a group of trainees andcall it a day, if the intended outcome of an intercultural trainingintervention is to improve behavior and performance on the job,the proper evaluation of that training program should includebehavioral measures as well In the following section, we describeseveral tools that can be used to assess behavioral outcomes ofintercultural competence training

Assessing Skill-Based Intercultural Competence

Skill-based learning outcomes are concerned with the ment of technical or motor skills (Kraiger et al., 1993) Sercu(2004) identifies five precise areas of skills or behavior in rela-tion to cultural training: (1) the ability to interpret and relate,(2) the ability to discover or interact, (3) the ability to acquirenew knowledge and to operate knowledge, attitudes, and skills,(4) metacognitive strategies to direct one’s own learning, (5) andthe ability to evaluate cultural perspectives, practices, and prod-ucts critically In order to assess skill development in any of theseareas, several measurement tools can be used: questionnaires,role-playing exercises, and on-the-job performance measurement.Because of the behavioral nature of skill-based outcomes,there are not many preexisting questionnaires designed to assess

develop-intercultural skills To the best of our knowledge, the BehavioralAssessment Scale for Intercultural Communication (BASIC) is theonly such scale Developed by Koester and Olebe (1988), BASIC

is used to evaluate intercultural communication competence.BASIC is a 27-item paper-and-pencil assessment that measuresseven dimensions of intercultural communicative effectiveness:display of respect, interaction posture, orientation to knowledge,empathy, task role behaviors, relational role behaviors, interactionbehavior or management, and tolerance of ambiguity (Ruben,1976) The dimensions contain more specific subcategories Eachsubcategory is evaluated using one question The question is anin-depth description of the subcategory as part of the broaderdimension Following the description are five expressive or behav-ioral options These describe in detail how an individual wouldrespond in that particular circumstance The respondent is asked

to choose the option that best fits how he or she would behave.The BASIC provides a unique means for assessing intention toengage in culturally related behavior, but it is important to note

that it measures how an individual perceives they would respond to

a cultural situation rather than how they actually respond In order

to assess actual responses, some form of role play is necessary.Depending on the specific purpose of the intercultural train-ing, it may be advantageous to develop an assessment simulation

or role play that is intended to measure the culturally relatedbehaviors or skills that are the focus of the training program.For example, Harrison (1992) developed a role-playing exercise

in which each trainee had to interact with a videotaped Japanesemanager The Japanese manager approached the trainee with aproblem, and the trainee then had to react to the videotapedmanager The participants’ responses were then rated on eightdimensions regarding the use of appropriate customs and behav-iors Role-playing exercises such as this one can be developed tomatch with specific training interventions Ideally, a host-countrynative or a very experienced expatriate would help to determinethe rating dimensions and to design an appropriate simulatedscenario for the trainees

Finally, on-the-job performance can be assessed after training

in order to evaluate the extent to which the training is ring to the job Much of the research on expatriate adjustment

transfer-has taken this approach and measured self-reported levels ofadjustment in expatriates after they have gone overseas Bothsubjective and objective measures of performance can be useful

to collect, depending on the desired outcome of the trainingintervention For example, if the training intervention is aimed

at improving the host nation’s perceptions of the expatriates, anappropriate outcome measure might be self-reported perceptions

of the expatriate’s conduct from the perspective of host nationals

Assessing Affective Intercultural Competence

Affective learning outcomes concern the influential nature

of people’s internal states or feelings about their decisionsand actions (Gagne, 1984) Self-report measures are the mostappropriate method for examining changes in affective learningoutcomes Two commonly used affective self-report measures arethe Intercultural Development Inventory and the Cross-CulturalAdaptability Inventory The Intercultural Development Inventory(IDI), developed by Hammer, Bennett, and Wiseman (2003),

measures people’s orientations toward cultural differences For that

reason, it can be considered an affective outcome measure of tural training The IDI is a 50-item paper-and-pencil measure thatassesses five dimensions of cultural difference orientation, whichinclude denial/defense, reversal, minimization, acceptance/adaptation, and encapsulated marginality The first three dimen-sions are considered ethnocentric in that they measure the degree

cul-to which individuals desire cul-to avoid intercultural interaction.The last two dimensions are considered ethno-related in thatthey measure the degree to which individuals seek interculturalinteractions Thirty-two items make up the ethnocentric section ofthe inventory and 19 items make up the ethno-related section

of the inventory The IDI has a theoretical base rooted inBennett’s (1986) developmental model of intercultural sensitivity(DMIS) and therefore can be deemed a useful tool in assessingaffective learning outcomes of a culturally related trainingprogram Honda has been reported to use the IDI as a culturalcompetence assessment tool (Bzdega, 2008)

The Cross-Cultural Adaptability Inventory (CCAI) measures

an individual’s readiness to interact with people from a different

culture (Kelley & Meyers, 1995) The CCAI measures dispositionaltraits that have been found to be related to intercultural com-petence The Cross-Cultural Adaptability Scale also focuses onaspects of intercultural effectiveness but emphasizes some of thepredictors of adaptability, such as openness to new experiencesand interest in adaptive situations (Stanhope, Solomon, Pernell-Arnold, Sands, & Bourjolly, 2005) For this reason it can beconsidered an affective learning measure The CCAI is a 50-item inventory that consists of four dimensions The dimensionsinclude flexibility/openness, emotional resilience, perceptual acu-ity, and personal autonomy Flexibility/openness measures anindividual’s level of openness toward others Emotional resiliencemeasures an individual’s ability to remain positive in unfamil-iar territory Perceptual acuity measures an individual’s level ofcomfort when interacting with someone from another culture.Personal autonomy measures a person’s ability to maintain asense of self while appreciating and interacting with people fromanother culture This instrument has been used extensively toexamine the effectiveness of cultural training programs However,

it has been found to have limited psychometric properties forits scores (Davis & Finney, 2006) If training content matchesthe dimensions assessed by the CCAI, then it could still beuseful in determining the effectiveness of a cultural trainingprogram

Summary

This section provided an overview of intercultural competenceassessment tools that can be used to evaluate training effec-tiveness These assessment tools included measures of cognitiveintercultural competence such as knowledge tests and mentalmodel measures, measures of skill-based intercultural competencesuch as role-playing or on-the-job-performance, and self-reportmeasures of affective intercultural competence In general, it

is important to consider the overall goals of the training gram and ensure that the intended cognitions, behaviors, andattitudes are assessed to determine if the training is meetingthose goals Often, intercultural competence training is aimed

pro-at improving more than one aspect of intercultural competence,

and multiple assessment methods will be necessary to truly uate the program Although the proper assessment of a trainingprogram can be quite an investment for an organization to make,without it, the organization could be wasting time and resources

eval-on a training program that isn’t effective and never even know it

Best Practices for Intercultural Competence

Training and Assessment

Up to this point, this chapter has described several extant tural competence training approaches, provided research-basedevidence for the effectiveness of intercultural competence train-ing programs, and discussed several measurement tools that canpotentially be used to assess levels of intercultural competence inemployees In general, the literature has demonstrated that there

intercul-is no single answer regarding the best way to train interculturalcompetence or the best way to assess the effectiveness of a trainingprogram Due to the proprietary nature of the data, very littlepublic information is available, besides the examples found inthe scientific literature, regarding the types and effectiveness oftraining being used in today’s organizations However, based onthe science of training and training assessment along with thelimited empirical evidence provided in the literature, several rec-ommendations can be made regarding how to best match trainingcontent, design, and methodology to specific intercultural compe-tence training needs Therefore, rather than attempting to makefinal judgments regarding the superiority of training approaches,the next section will offer several best practices aimed at guidingboth researchers and practitioners in making any interculturalcompetence training intervention as effective as possible in anygiven situation (see Table 10.3)

Best Practice 1: Start with a Needs Assessment, and Pay Special Attention to Culturally Unique Aspects of the Job

A needs assessment must be carried out in order to develop anyeffective training intervention, including training interventionsaimed at developing intercultural competence (Bennett et al.,2000; Littrell et al., 2006) A needs assessment consists of collecting

Table 10.3 Best Practices for Intercultural

Competence Training.

Best Practice Suggestions for Implementation

1 Start with a needs

assessment, and pay

special attention to

culturally unique

aspects of the job.

• Assess the task, organization, and son needs for intercultural competence training.

per-• Focus specifically on culturally unique aspects of the task, organization, and person.

• Consider spousal and family needs for expatriate trainees.

• Use role-playing exercises to simulate the emotions and behaviors that accompany intercultural interaction.

com-• Provide opportunities for trainees to tice these competencies across a variety of settings.

prac-4 When using

culture-specific

training, match the

design of training and

learning outcomes to

the work situation.

• Focus on the work-related aspects of a ture such as cultural business customs.

cul-• Tailor the training to reflect the cultural toughness of a given culture.

5 Use longer, more

complex training for

longer, more complex

assignments.

• Match the length of the training components to the length of the transfer assignment.

• Avoid wasting resources on extensive training for short-term assignments.

(continued overleaf )

trainee (if possible).

• Consider the acculturation profile of the trainee when choosing what training com- ponents to implement.

• Prioritize various components of the ing based on the acculturation profile in order to minimize effort.

train-7 Provide trainees with

• Use a clear theoretical framework to develop the advanced organizer.

8 Get the best of both

• Choose the intercultural competence training components based on the needs

of the trainees and the transfer situation.

9 Make sure learning

• Provide feedback at multiple times throughout the training process.

information regarding where training is needed, what needs to

be trained, and who needs to be trained (Goldstein, 1993) Thethree essential components of a needs analysis are task, person,and organizational analysis Task analysis provides informationregarding task duties and difficulty in the intercultural assignment.For intercultural competence training in particular, the task anal-ysis portion of the needs assessment should include informationregarding culturally unique aspects of the task requirements Forexample, does a certain culture begin each work meeting with aparticular formal greeting? If so, this formal greeting should beincluded as part of the task description Organizational analysisprovides information regarding organizational level factors thatcan affect training effectiveness, such as organizational culture,social support, and strategic objectives Again, for the purposes

of designing or choosing an intercultural competence trainingprogram, the organizational analysis should include a particularfocus on culturally unique organizational factors

Finally, person analysis gathers information regarding the sonality characteristics, adaptability, tolerance for ambiguity, andstrengths and weaknesses of individual employees This aspect

per-of the needs analysis is critical for developing an appropriateintercultural competence training intervention as it assesses theskills sets (such as adaptability) necessary for intercultural com-petence For example, perhaps the employees at an organizationall display high levels of adaptability prior to intercultural com-petence training In this situation, it would be most beneficial

to focus on other skills sets besides adaptability, as this lar trainee population is already adept in that area In addition,spousal and family needs may also have to be considered duringthe person analysis if the trainee is going to be sent overseasfor an expatriate assignment Perhaps training should includestrategies for minimizing stress on family members, or other inter-ventions aimed at reducing the negative impact of cultural shock

particu-on expatriate’s family members A well-cparticu-onducted needs analysiswill enable trainers to select the most appropriate training inter-vention based on organizational, task, and individual needs For

a more thorough discussion of needs analysis, refer to Goldsteinand Ford (2002)

Best Practice 2: Cognitive Learning Outcomes Are Necessary, but Not Sufficient—Develop Skill-Based and Affective Outcomes Too

It has been suggested that experiential-based training aimed

at developing and practicing the skills necessary to interacteffectively in intercultural situations is more advantageous thandidactic forms of training (Graf, 2003) In particular, if an inter-cultural competence training program is aimed at improvingthe effectiveness of employees in a variety of intercultural situ-ations, rather than in one specific culture, the development ofknowledge alone is not an ideal approach Intercultural inter-action is difficult not only because individuals are unaware ofeach other’s customs and practices but also because individu-als are unaware of how to deal with the stress and uncertaintyinherent in the new situation Experiential-based training is idealfor training employees to handle any intercultural interactionmore effectively because it allows for the development of thecognitive, affective, and behavioral aspects of intercultural com-petence simultaneously For example, by engaging in role-playingexercises that simulate commonly occurring intercultural situa-tions, the trainees are simultaneously developing their knowledge

of other cultures, experiencing and learning to control the tions that accompany intercultural interactions, and learning how

emo-to respond appropriately in terms of behaviors This is not emo-tosay that didactic methods of intercultural training are not useful;they can be very effective as supplemental training to increasethe depth of knowledge regarding a particular set of culturalpractices and norms However, didactic approaches alone can-not effectively develop the emotional and behavioral aspects ofintercultural competence

Best Practice 3: Use Culture-Generic Training,

Especially if Trainees Could Potentially

be Interacting in Multiple Cultures

Triandis (1994) argued that culture-general training is superior

to culture-specific training because there are so many possiblerelevant intercultural topics that are not specific to any culture

Graf (2003) conducted a review of intercultural training thatfound that only 6 of 27 dimensions of intercultural compe-tence (for example, intercultural sensitivity, social problem-solvingcapacity, self-monitoring) were culture-specific Graf (2003) alsosuggested that intercultural training is most effective when culture-generic because training can then be applied across a variety ofsettings Culture-generic training is more widely applicable thanculture-specific and thus often represents a better investment fororganizations This generic-competence approach has been uti-lized in the past in teams, with much success (Cannon-Bowers &Salas, 1997) It could be argued that, given the dynamic nature ofwork, generic, transferable competencies are more critical thanever before This is essentially the argument we make regardingcultural competencies: Generic cultural competencies will serve

to aid individuals who have to interact with multiple cultures on

a regular basis, and therefore should be the focus in tural training efforts, especially if the intended trainees will beinteracting in multiple cultures

intercul-Best Practice 4: When Using Culture-Specific Training,

Match the Design of Training and Learning Outcomes

to the Work Situation

In the preceding best practice, we suggested that culture-generictraining is superior to culture-specific training However, some-times culture-specific training is already being used, or is a morepractical choice because trainees will only ever be interacting inone specific culture In this situation, culture-specific competencetraining should be focused on the work-related cultural aspects

of the intercultural assignment in order to be most efficient andeffective In other words, though it can’t hurt to train individu-als on the personal life-related customs and norms for a givenculture, it is much more important to focus on work-related cul-tural differences, such as preference for electronic or face-to-facecommunication, or cultural business customs By tailoring theintercultural competence training to match the type of intercul-tural situation at hand, training will give you ‘‘more bang forthe buck.’’