Global Warming Part 7 pot

Summary As energy scarcity and global warming are threatening human sustainability, governments and organisations must spend much effort in reducing the energy consumption and CO2 emiss

On the Effect of Global Warming and the UAE Built Environment 103 technologies as well as give opportunities to do various research activities in sustainable design [28]

To this end, protecting the depleted resources and switching towards more efficient use of energy coupled with replacing fossil fuels with non-fossil fuels would have a number of benefits for the UAE:

• The UAE would be given a better reputation in the regional and international policy arena

• The reduction in the use of fossil fuels will lead to an increase in the exported oil and natural gas

• The UAE would gain another important benefit from none-fossil fuels such as solar and wind energy Consequently, it will be prepared for the post-oil era

• Reducing the use of fossil fuel and the use of renewable energy will limit the effect of global warning on the UAE and on other countries in the Gulf region

5 Summary

As energy scarcity and global warming are threatening human sustainability, governments and organisations must spend much effort in reducing the energy consumption and CO2 emissions Buildings are one of the largest consumers of energy then they are also the largest contributor to the increase in the atmospheric CO2 and hence global warming and climate change At the same time, building operation is likely to be especially affected by global warming A rise in the ambient air-temperature can lead to a significant increase in electricity consumption and its associated CO2 emissions Global warming is likely to increase the energy used for cooling residential buildings by 23.5% if the UAE warms by 5.9 °C At the regional level, the energy consumption can be increased at around 5.4% Consequently, the CO2 emissions can increase to almost 7.6 million metric tonnes The net Emirati CO2 emissions could increase at around 138.4 million metric tonnes over the next few decades

To cope with global warming and the increase of CO2 emissions, two major changes in patterns are suggested in the UAE: first, effective measures to protect the depleted resources and second, valid policies to replace fossil fuels with non-fossil The former can be seen in the new building energy regulations Implementing these regulations can reduce the CO2 emissions by 50% The latter can be seen in establishing a new economic sector This sector focuses on alternative energy and sustainable technologies through the installation of new power plants that use renewable resources in power generation In addition, the construction of low energy and free carbon emission built environment such as Masdar City Such a project can served as the foundation for an extension of activities in the field of low carbon emission buildings and renewable resources with the goal of reducing the impact of global warming on our life, economy and above all our built environment

6 References

[1] Climate change Synthesis report, intergovernmental panel of climate change See,

http://www.ipcc.ch/ipccreports/ar4-syr.htm; 2007

[2] United Nations Statistic Division, 2007 Environmental Indicators, Climate Change, New

York

[3] Global footprint network 2010 Available at:

http://www.footprintnetwork.org/en/index.php/GFN/page/footprint_for_natio

ns/

[4] BP, 2009 BP Statistical Review of World Energy, June 2008, London Can be found at:

http://www.bp.com/liveassets/bp_internet/globalbp/globalbp_uk_english/repo

rts_and_publications/statistical_energy_review_2008/STAGING/local_assets/200

9_downloads/statistical_review_of_world_energy_full_report_2009.pdf

[5] Energy Information Administration UAE energy profile 2008 Available from:

http://www.eia.doe.gov/cabs/UAE/Electricity.html

[6] Ministry of Energy Initial National Communication to the United Nations

Framework Convention on Climate Change United Arab Emirates; 2006

[7] Kazim AM Assessments of primary energy consumption and its environmental

consequences in the United Arab Emirates Renewable and Sustainable Energy

Reviews 2007;11:426–46

[8] EIA Annual Energy Review 2008 June 2009 Can be found at: www.eia.doe.org

[9] Steemers, K (2003) Energy and the city - density, buildings and transport Energy and

Buildings 35 (1): 3-14

[10] Westphal, F S., & Lamberts, R (2004) The use of simplified weather data to estimate

thermal loads of non-residential buildings Energy and Buildings 36 (8): 847-854

[11] Yao R, Li B, Steemers K Energy policy and standards for built environment in China

Renewable Energy 2005; 30 (13): 1973-1988

[12] Al-Ain Distribution Company Special water and electricity report Al-Ain, United Arab

Emirates; 2008

[13] Dubai Electricity and Water Authority Thermal insulation Available from:

http://www.dewa.gov.ae/community/ThermalInsulation/thermalInsIntro.asp

[14] Nordqvist J Evaluation of Japan top runner programme- within the framework of the

Aid-EE project 2006 Can be found at:

http://www.aid-ee.org/documents/018TopRunner-Japan.PDF

[15] World Resources Institute Climate and atmosphere–UAE 2006 Available from:

http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/cli_cou_784.pdf

[16] Visual DOE User manual USA: Architectural Energy Corporation; 2004

[17] Radhi H and Sharples S (2008) Developing energy standards for low energy buildings

in the Gulf States, Architectural Science Review 51(4): 369-381

[18] Hong WK, Kim JM, Park SC, Lee SG, Kim SI, Yoon KJ, et al A new apartment

construction technology with effective CO2 emission reduction capabilities Energy

2009; doi:10.1016/j.energy.2009.05.036

[19] Radhi H (2010) On the optimal selection of wall cladding system to reduce direct and

indirect CO2 emissions, Energy 35:1412-1424

[20] Annual Statistical Report Dubai Electricity and Water Authority (DEWA); 2003

[21] Al-Sanea SA, Zedan MF Optimized monthly-fixed thermostat-setting scheme for

maximum energy-savings and thermal comfort in air-conditioned spaces Applied

Energy 2008;85(5):326–46

[22] Radhi H Evaluating the potential impact of global warming on the UAE residential

buildings – A contribution to reduce the CO2 emissions Building and Environment

2009; 44: 2451- 2462

[23] Emerites Green Building Council 2010 Available at

http://www.esoul.gohsphere.com/default.aspx

On the Effect of Global Warming and the UAE Built Environment 105 [24] AboulNaga MM, Elsheshtawy YH Environmental sustainability assessment of

buildings in hot climates: the case of the UAE Renewable Energy 24 (2001) 553–563 [25] Radhi H and Al-Shaali R Energy and CO2 Emissions Benchmarks: A Step towards

Performance Standards for Educational Buildings in Al-Ain City Special report UAE university 2010

[26] Radhi H (2010) On the optimal selection of wall cladding system to reduce direct and

indirect CO2 emissions, Energy 35:1412-1424

[27] Reiche D Renewable Energy Policies in the Gulf countries: A case study of the

carbon-neutral ‘‘Masdar City’’ in Abu Dhabi Energy Policy 2010, 38: 378–382

[28] Masdar city Abu Dhabi Future energy company (Masdar) 2010 can be found at:

http://www.masdar.ae/en/home/index.aspx

Fig 1 Locations of the UAE

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

2 )

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90

o C )

Total radiation Direct radiation Mean air-temperature Mean relative humidity

Fig 2 Analysis of UAE climate

On the Effect of Global Warming and the UAE Built Environment 107

Fig 3 Energy consumption per sector

10

20

30

40

50

60

1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005

0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160

Electricity

CO2 emissions

Fig 4 Increase in CO2 emissions relative to the use of energy

Fig 5 Energy end-uses in the typical building

On the Effect of Global Warming and the UAE Built Environment 109

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

800

900

Jan Feb Mar April May Jun July Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

Heating degree days (10C) Cooling degree days (10C) Heating degree days (18C) Cooling degree days (18C)

Fig 6 Monthly heating and cooling degree days

Heating (KWH)

Cooling (KWH)

Fans (KWH)

Electricity (KWH)

CO2 emissions (Kg/m2/yr) Baseline (consumption) 6369 73049 11886 122920 176 I.6 °C (%) -9.5 7.3 3.9 4.1 183

2.9 °C (%) -14.2 11.7 5.8 6.7 188

2.3 °C (%) -17.4 16.7 6.8 9.5 193

5.9 °C (%) -37.1 23.5 12.3 12.9 197

(-) reduction

Table 1 Increase in electricity and CO2 emissions due to global warming

Cooling requirement (CR)

C o C 1 C 2 C 3 C 4 C 5

-258 11.8 20.2 249 2.9 27.6

R 2 0.97

Table 2 Regressing the energy cooling energy requirement

Climate Baseline 1.6 °C 2.9 °C 2.3 °C 5.9 °C

Consumption (KWH)

Cooling 75462 80434 83390 86811 96203

Electricity 126836 131393 134173 137397 145486

Reduction due to thermal

Reduction due to glazing system

Reduction due to glazing area WWR (%)

(-) increase in energy demand

Table 3 Performance of design technologies under different scenarios

7 Transport Planning and Global Warming

Pedro Pérez, Emilio Ortega, Belén Martín,

Isabel Otero and Andrés Monzón

TRANSyT-UPM, Centre for Transport Research, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid

Spain

1 Introduction

Transport energy consumption in industrialised countries is based primarily on fossil fuels, and is associated with the main negative impacts of transport: climate change, air pollution, congestion and accidents (Sperling, 2004) The emissions of many pollutants are being moderated due to improvements in engines and fuels, but the consequences for health are a growing concern, and particularly the risks posed by nitrogen oxides and particles, which are closely associated to transport CO2 emissions (the gas considered mainly responsible for the greenhouse effect) are also increasing, and this phenomenon can be seen most intensely

in the transport sector

The European Commission’s 2001 White Paper on transport (and the 2006 revised edition) declared that the sustainability of the transport energy model must include the control of transport demand and an improvement in the efficiency of transport modes It is this area which offers the greatest potential for establishing an effective strategy of action This requires a greater commitment to the processes of transport deregulation –in order to make consumers aware of price considerations–, the establishment of mechanisms to ensure that these prices reflect actual costs, and the promotion of energy savings This approach was underlined in the 2005 Green Paper on energy end-use efficiency and energy services, which suggests that overall consumption in the European Union can be reduced by up to 20% without compromising economic profitability This was subsequently ratified by the European Council’s March 2007 Action Plan which established this as an objective for the year 2020 The European Parliament and Council has also approved Directive 2006/32/EC concerning end-use energy efficiency, as well as revising a proposal for a directive for the development of clean and energy-efficient road vehicles

However, measures require some time after their implementation in order to take effect, and they must be supported by changes in lifestyle which will effectively influence transport use over the forthcoming decades (Rodenburg et al., 2002) A reduction in transport GHG emissions can be achieved by reducing the need for transport, improving the energy efficiency of the different modes of transport and fuels, and balancing modal distribution (Schipper et al., 1997; Steenhof et al., 2006)

The measures that can be applied in the transport sector to promote savings and improvements in energy efficiency are well known in general terms (Rodenburg et al., 2002; Cuddihy et al., 2005) These include everything from correctly setting energy prices, and reflecting these prices in the cost of services, including external costs; economic and tax

incentives which favour a reduction in energy intensity; the optimisation of travel in order

to increase occupancy; joint planning of transport infrastructures and land uses so as to

reduce average distances; development of new low-carbon fuels and low-consumption

engines; and making more use of communications technologies as a resource

The United Nations’ Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) and other

institutions in this area consider that energy savings and efficiency will be a key element in

guaranteeing sustainable development in forthcoming decades, until such a time as any

current or future technological innovations can be implemented on a massive scale (Kahn

Ribeiro et al., 2007) The United Nations Convention on Climate Change outlines the main

technologies and commercial practices available to the sector to mitigate GHG emissions:

these include energy-efficient vehicles, hybrid vehicles, clean diesel vehicles, biofuels, modal

change from roads to railways and public transport, and non-motorised transport

(UN-FCCC, 2007) It also details the technologies and practices which are expected to be available

on the market by 2030: second-generation biofuels, more energy-efficient aircraft, more

advanced hybrid and electric vehicles with more powerful and reliable batteries All these

measures can serve as the basis for a low-emission economy, and this will be possible only if

low-emission fuels are used to supply the different forms of motorised energy necessary for

transportation, and the complete chain of energy transformations which make that energy

available to the end users (Van Wee et al., 2005) Thus the consumption of one unit of energy

for railway traction involves the consumption of 2.5 units of primary energy Energy savings

and efficiency are therefore key in securing an energy supply which is low in CO2

Another aspect is the reduction in concentrations of air pollutants, for which the European

Union is establishing guidelines for all European countries Many of the directives in this

area include measures which coincide with those for improving energy efficiency, and

particularly regarding fuels and vehicles

2 The energy and environmental behaviour of transport

2.1 Transport energy consumption

In the Kyoto protocol, the European Union undertook to reduce GHG emissions in its area

by 8% over 1990 levels between 2008 and 2012 The significant increase in GHG emissions

for the transport sector cannot be explained simply by demographic growth, nor even by

economic growth, both of which have grown at a lower rates This indicates that productive

processes are increasing their consumption of transport, contrary to Community targets

which aim to generate economic growth with lower increases in transport flows of

passengers and freight (European Environmental Agency, 2008) In Spain, for example, the

energy intensity of road transport has gone from 0.46 tonnes of oil equivalent (toe) per

inhabitant in 1990 to 0.71 in 2008 (an increase of 54%) Similarly, the energy intensity of road

transport (at constant 1995 prices) has gone from 0.045 ton per million euros in 1990 to 0.052

in 2008 (15% growth)

Energy consumption and CO2 emissions can be estimated based on transport data by using the

methodology and the factors developed by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

(1995) These emissions are directly proportional to the carbon content of the fuel used in

transport (expressed in kilotonnes of equivalent CO2 per pegajoule, ktCO2 eq./PJ) Most of the

carbon is converted into CO2 during combustion, although a part is released as CO, CH4 or

hydrocarbons without methane which oxidise into CO2 over time The fuel oil used in

maritime transport has the highest carbon content, followed by diesel, kerosene (air transport)