DIAGNOSIS & TREATMENT - PART 7 doc

Brain Abscess■ Essentials of Diagnosis • History of sinusitis, otitis, endocarditis, chronic pulmonary tion, or congenital heart defect common infec-• Headache, focal neurologic symptoms

Brain Abscess

■ Essentials of Diagnosis

• History of sinusitis, otitis, endocarditis, chronic pulmonary tion, or congenital heart defect common

infec-• Headache, focal neurologic symptoms, seizures may occur

• Examination may confirm focal findings

• The most common organisms are streptococci, staphylococci,and anaerobes; toxoplasma in AIDS patients; commonly poly-microbial

• Ring-enhancing lesion on CT scan or MRI; lumbar puncturepotentially dangerous because of mass effect

Treatment of brain abscess Lancet 1988;1:219 [PMID: 2893043]

310 Essentials of Diagnosis & Treatment

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Pseudotumor Cerebri (Benign Intracranial Hypertension)

■ Essentials of Diagnosis

• Headache, diplopia, nausea

• Papilledema, sixth nerve palsy

• CT scan shows normal or small ventricular system

• Lumbar puncture with elevated pressure but normal spinal fluid

cerebro-• Associations include sinus thrombosis (transverse or sagittal),endocrinopathy (hypoparathyroidism, Addison’s disease), hyper-vitaminosis A, drugs (tetracyclines, oral contraceptives), chronicpulmonary disease, obesity; often idiopathic

• Untreated pseudotumor cerebri may lead to secondary optic phy and permanent visual loss

atro-■ Differential Diagnosis

• Primary or metastatic tumor

• Optic neuritis

• Neurosyphilis

• Brain abscess or basilar meningitis

• Chronic meningitis (eg, coccidioidomycosis or cryptococcosis)

• Vascular headache, migraine headache

■ Treatment

• Treat underlying cause if present

• Acetazolamide or furosemide to reduce cerebrospinal fluid mation

for-• Repeat lumbar puncture with removal of cerebrospinal fluid

• Oral corticosteroids may be helpful; weight loss in obese patients

• Surgical therapy with placement of ventriculoperitoneal shunt oroptic nerve sheath fenestration in refractory cases

Parkinson’s Disease

■ Essentials of Diagnosis

• Insidious onset in older patient of pill-rolling tremor (3–5/s),rigidity, bradykinesia, and progressive postural instability; tremor

is the least disabling feature

• Mask-like facies, cogwheeling of extremities on passive motion;cutaneous seborrhea characteristic

• Absence of tremor— not uncommon—may delay diagnosis

• Multiple system atrophy, progressive supranuclear palsy

• Diffuse Lewy body disease

first-• Anticholinergic drugs and amantadine are useful adjuncts

• Inhibition of monoamine oxidase B with selegiline (L-deprenyl)offers theoretical advantage of preventing progression but not yetestablished for this indication

• Surgical options remain highly controversial

Huntington’s Disease

■ Essentials of Diagnosis

• Family history usually present (autosomal dominant)

• Onset at age 30–50, with gradual progressive chorea and tia; death usually occurs within 20 years after onset

demen-• Caused by a trinucleotide-repeat expansion in a gene located onthe short arm of chromosome 4

• The earliest mental changes are often behavioral, including sexuality

hyper-• CT scan shows cerebral atrophy, particularly in the caudate

■ Differential Diagnosis

• Sydenham’s chorea

• Tardive dyskinesia

• Lacunar infarcts of subthalamic nuclei

• Other causes of dementia

Tourette’s Syndrome

■ Essentials of Diagnosis

• Motor and phonic tics; onset in childhood or adolescence

• Compulsive utterances, often of obscenities, are typical

• Hyperactivity, nonspecific electroencephalographic ties in 50%

abnormali-• Obsessive-compulsive disorder common

• Haloperidol is the drug of choice

• Clonazepam, clonidine, phenothiazine, pimozide if intolerant of

Multiple Sclerosis

■ Essentials of Diagnosis

• Patient usually under 50 years of age at onset

• Episodic symptoms that may include sensory abnormalities,blurred vision due to optic neuritis, sphincter disturbances, andweakness with or without spasticity

• Neurologic progression to fixed abnormalities occurs variably

• Single pathologic lesion cannot explain clinical findings

• Multiple foci in white matter best demonstrated radiographically

• Optic neuritis due to other causes

• Primary or metastatic central nervous system neoplasm

• Cerebellar ataxia due to other causes

• Steroids may hasten recovery from relapse

• Treatment with other immunosuppressants may be effective, butrole is controversial

• Symptomatic treatment of spasticity and bladder dysfunction

• Weakness, hyporeflexia or areflexia, atrophy of muscles at level

of spinal cord involvement (usually upper limbs and hands);hyperreflexia and spasticity at lower levels

• Thoracic kyphoscoliosis common; associated with Arnold-Chiarimalformation

• Secondary to trauma in some cases

• MRI confirms diagnosis

• Surgical decompression of the foramen magnum

• Syringostomy in selected cases

Guillain-Barré Syndrome (Acute Inflammatory Polyneuropathy)

• Electromyography consistent with demyelinating injury; also aless common axonal form

• Lumbar puncture, normal in early or mild disease, shows highprotein, normal cell count later in course

• Transverse myelitis of any origin

• Familial periodic paralysis

■ Treatment

• Plasmapheresis or intravenous immunoglobulin

• Pulmonary functions closely monitored, with intubation of forcedvital capacity < 15 mL/kg

• Respiratory toilet with physical therapy

• Up to 20% of patients are left with persisting disability

■ Pearl

The occasional Guillain-Barré may start in the stem and descend— the

C Miller Fischer variant.

Reference

Hahn AF: Guillain-Barré syndrome Lancet 1998;352:635 [PMID: 9746040]

Chapter 12 Neurologic Diseases 317

12

Bell’s Palsy (Idiopathic Facial Paresis)

■ Essentials of Diagnosis

• An idiopathic facial paresis

• Abrupt onset of hemifacial (including the forehead) weakness,difficulty closing eye; ipsilateral ear pain may precede or accom-pany weakness

• Unilateral peripheral seventh nerve palsy on examination; tastelost on the anterior two-thirds of the tongue, and hyperacusis mayoccur

■ Differential Diagnosis

• Carotid distribution stroke

• Intracranial mass lesion

• Basilar meningitis, especially that associated with sarcoidosis

Combined System Disease

(Posterolateral Sclerosis)

■ Essentials of Diagnosis

• Numbness (pins and needles), tenderness, weakness; feeling ofheaviness in toes, feet, fingers, and hands

• Stocking and glove distribution of sensory loss in some patients

• Extensor plantar response and hyperreflexia typical, as is loss ofposition and vibratory senses

• Serum vitamin B12level low

• Megaloblastic anemia may be present but does not parallel rologic dysfunction

neu-■ Differential Diagnosis

• Tabes dorsalis

• Multiple sclerosis

• Transverse myelitis of viral or other origin

• Epidural tumor or abscess

• Short-acting anticholinesterases transiently increase strength

• Electromyography and nerve conduction studies demonstratedecremental muscle response to repeated stimuli

• Associations include thymic tumors, thyrotoxicosis, rheumatoidarthritis, and SLE

• Elevated acetylcholine receptor antibody assay confirmatory butnot completely sensitive

■ Differential Diagnosis

• Botulism

• Lambert-Eaton syndrome

• Polyneuropathy due to other causes

• Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis

• Bulbar poliomyelitis

• Neuromuscular blocking drug toxicity (aminoglycosides)

• Primary myopathy, eg, polymyositis

Reference

Keesey J: Myasthenia gravis Arch Neurol 1998;55:745 [PMID: 9605737]

320 Essentials of Diagnosis & Treatment

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Periodic Paralysis Syndromes

• Hyperkalemic variety or normokalemic variety: brief attacks afterexercise

• Hyperkalemic-normokalemic variant: intravenous calcium, venous diuretics useful for acute therapy; prophylactic acetazol-amide or thiazides also beneficial

Chapter 12 Neurologic Diseases 321

12

Trigeminal Neuralgia (Tic Douloureux)

■ Essentials of Diagnosis

• Characterized by momentary episodes of lancinating facial painthat arises from one side of the mouth and shoots toward the ipsi-lateral eye, ear, or nostril

• Commonly affects women more than men in mid and later life

• Triggered by touch, movement, and eating

• Symptoms are confined to the distribution of the ipsilateral geminal nerve (usually the second or third division)

tri-• Occasionally caused by multiple sclerosis or a brain stem tumor

• Giant cell arteritis

• Brain stem gliosis

■ Treatment

• Either carbamazepine or gabapentin is the drug of choice; if this

is ineffective or poorly tolerated, phenytoin, valproic acid, orbaclofen can be tried

• Surgical exploration of posterior fossa successful in selectedpatients

• Radiofrequency ablation useful in some

■ Pearl

The diagnosis can sometimes be made before the patient says a word:

a man unshaven unilaterally in the V 2 distribution has tic douloureux until proved otherwise.

Normal Pressure Hydrocephalus

■ Essentials of Diagnosis

• Subacute loss of higher cognitive function

• Urinary incontinence

• Gait apraxia

• In some, history of head trauma or meningitis

• Normal opening pressure on lumbar puncture

• Enlarged ventricles without atrophy by CT or MRI

• Lumbar puncture provides temporary amelioration of symptoms

• Ventriculoperitoneal shunting, most effective when precipitatingevent is identified and recent

■ Pearl

An apraxic gait differs from an ataxic gait—-the former is magnetic, as though the floor were a magnet and the patient had shoes with metal soles.

• Behavioral disturbances, psychiatric symptoms common

• Alzheimer’s disease accounts for roughly two-thirds of cases;vascular dementia causes most others

■ Differential Diagnosis

• Normal age-related cognitive changes or drug effects

• Delirium, depression, or other psychiatric disorder

• Metabolic disorder (eg, hypercalcemia, hyper- and ism, or vitamin B12deficiency)

• Consider anticholinesterase inhibitor, such as donepezil

• Treat behavioral problems (eg, agitation) with behavioral ventions or medications directed against target symptom

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• Increased anxiety and irritability

• Risk factors include dementia, organic brain lesion, alcoholdependence, medications, and various medical problems

• Mild to moderate delirium at night, often precipitated by talization, drugs, or sensory deprivation (“sundowning”)

hospi-■ Differential Diagnosis

• Depression or other psychiatric disorder

• Medical condition, such as hypoxemia, hypercalcemia, natremia, infection, thiamin deficiency

hypo-• Subarachnoid hemorrhage

• Medication side effect

• Subclinical status epilepticus

• Pain

■ Treatment

• Identify and treat underlying cause

• Promote restful sleep; keep patient up and interactive during day

• Frequent reorientation by staff, family, clocks, calendars

• When medication needed, low-dose haloperidol or atypical psychotic, avoid benzodiazepines except in alcohol and benzodi-azepine withdrawal

anti-• Avoid potentially offending medications, particularly ergic and psychoactive medications

anticholin-• Avoid restraints, lines, and tubes

■ Essentials of Diagnosis

• Infrequent stools (less than three times a week)

• Straining with defecation more than 25% of the time

■ Differential Diagnosis

• Normal bowel function that does not match patient expectations

of bowel function

• Anorectal dysfunction

• Slow bowel transit

• Dietary factors, including low-calorie diet

• Obstructing cancer

• Metabolic disorder, such as hypercalcemia

• Medications (opioids, iron, calcium channel blockers)

■ Treatment

• In absence of pathology, increase fiber and liquid intake

• In presence of slow transit constipation, stool softeners such asdocusate, osmotically active agents such as sorbitol and lactulose

• In refractory cases or with opioid use, stimulant laxatives (eg,senna) may be necessary

• In presence of anorectal dysfunction, suppositories often necessary

Hearing Impairment

■ Essentials of Diagnosis

• Difficulty understanding speech, difficulty listening to television

or talking on the telephone, tinnitus, hearing loss limiting sonal or social life

per-• “Whisper test”: patient is unable to repeat numbers whispered ineach ear

• Hearing loss on formal audiologic evaluation (pure tone etry, speech reception threshold, bone conduction testing, acous-tic reflexes, and tympanometry); hearing loss of >40 dB will causedifficulty understanding normal speech

audiom-■ Differential Diagnosis

• Sensorineural hearing loss (presbycusis, ototoxicity due to ications, tumors or infections of cranial nerve VIII, injury by vas-cular events)

med-• Conductive hearing loss (cerumen impaction, otosclerosis, chronic otitis media, Meniere’s disease, trauma, tumors)

low-• Educate family to speak slowly and to face the patient directlywhen speaking

Decubitus Ulcers (Pressure Sores)

• Risk factors: immobility, incontinence, malnutrition, cognitiveimpairment, older age

■ Differential Diagnosis

• Herpes simplex virus ulcers

• Venous insufficiency ulcers

• Control pain

• Select dressing to keep the wound moist and the surrounding sue intact (hydrocolloids, silver sulfadiazine, or, if heavy exudate,calcium alginate or foams)

tis-• Perform debridement if necrotic tissue present (wet-to-dry ings, sharp debridement with scalpel, collagenase, or moisture-retentive dressings)

dress-• Surgical procedures may be necessary to treat extensive pressureulcers

Weight Loss (Involuntary)

■ Essentials of Diagnosis

• Weight loss exceeding 5% in 1 month or 10% in 6 months

• Weight should be measured regularly and compared with ous measures and normative data for age and gender

previ-• The cause of weight loss is usually diagnosed by history and sical examination

phy-• Most useful tests for further evaluation: chest x-ray, complete bloodcount, serum chemistries (including glucose, thyroid-stimulatinghormone, creatinine, calcium, liver function tests, albumin), uri-nalysis, and fecal occult blood testing

■ Differential Diagnosis

• Medical disorders (congestive heart failure, chronic lung disease,chronic renal failure, peptic ulcers, dementia, ill-fitting dentures,dysphagia, malignancy, diabetes mellitus, hyperthyroidism, mal-absorption, systemic infections, hospitalization)

• Social problems (poverty, isolation, inability to shop or preparefood, alcoholism, abuse and neglect, poor knowledge of nutrition,food restrictions)

• Psychiatric disorders (depression, schizophrenia, bereavement,anorexia nervosa, bulimia)

• Drug effects (serotonin reuptake inhibitors, NSAIDs, digoxin,antibiotics)

■ Treatment

• Directed at underlying cause of weight loss, which is usually tifactorial

mul-• Frequent meals, hand-feed, protein-calorie supplements

• Among patients with psychosocial causes of malnutrition, ral to community services such as senior centers

refer-• “Watchful waiting” when cause is unknown after basic evaluation(25% of cases)

• Consider enteral tube feedings if treatment would improve quality

of life, remembering the importance of identifying goals of carebefore instituting feedings

■ Pearl

Pay attention to the definition: gradual weight loss over many years is the rule in older patients, and aggressive evaluation may be harmful.

Reference

Gazewood JD et al: Diagnosis and management of weight loss in the elderly

J Fam Pract 1998;47:19 [PMID: 9673603]

Chapter 13 Geriatric Disorders 329

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■ Essentials of Diagnosis

• Frequently not mentioned to physicians

• Evidence of trauma or fractures, but this may be subtle, especially

■ Essentials of Diagnosis

• Risk factors: older age, cognitive impairment, taking five or moremedications, multiple prescribing physicians, and recent dis-charge from a hospital

• A medical regimen that includes at least one unnecessary or appropriate medication, such that the likelihood of adverse effects(from the number or type of medications) exceeds the likelihood

in-of benefit

• Medications used to prevent illness without improving symptomshave increasingly marginal risk-benefit profiles in patients withlimited life expectancies

• Over-the-counter drugs and vitamin supplements often added on

by patient without physician’s awareness

■ Differential Diagnosis

• Appropriate use of multiple medications to treat older adults formultiple comorbid conditions

■ Treatment

• Regularly review all medications, instructions, and indications

• Keep dosing regimens as simple as possible

• Avoid managing an adverse drug reaction with another drug

• Select medications that can treat more than one problem

• Comorbid disease causing chronic pain, dyspnea, urinary quency, reflux esophagitis, or delirium

fre-• Akathisia

• Noisy environment, excessive daytime napping

• Disordered circadian rhythms (jet lag, shift work, dementia)

• Refer for polysomnography if primary sleep disorder is suspected

• Consider short-term (< 4 weeks) intermittent use of trazodone or

a sedative-hypnotic (eg, zolpidem or a benzodiazepine with half-life)

short-• Diphenhydramine best avoided because of its anticholinergic sideeffects

■ Pearl

The need for sleep diminishes with age, though patients may perceive

a need for 8 hours of sleep throughout life.

Reference

Insomnia: assessment and management in primary care National Heart, Lung,and Blood Institute Working Group on Insomnia Am Fam Physician1999;59:3029 [PMID: 10392587]

332 Essentials of Diagnosis & Treatment

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Psychiatric Disorders

Panic Disorder

■ Essentials of Diagnosis

• Sudden, recurrent, unexpected panic attacks

• Characterized by palpitations, tachycardia, sensation of dyspnea

or choking, chest pain or discomfort, nausea, dizziness, sis, numbness, depersonalization

diaphore-• Sense of doom; fear of losing control or of dying

• Persistent worry about future attacks

• Change in behavior due to anxiety about being in places where

an attack might occur (agoraphobia)

■ Differential Diagnosis

• Endocrinopathies (eg, hyperthyroidism)

• Cardiac illness (eg, supraventricular tachycardia, myocardialinfarction)

• Pulmonary illness (eg, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease,asthma)

• Pheochromocytoma

• Medication or substance use or withdrawal

• Other anxiety disorders (eg, generalized anxiety disorder, traumatic stress disorder)

post-• Major depressive disorder

• Benzodiazepines as adjunctive treatment

• May have only a single attack; reassurance, education thus portant early

im-■ Pearl

In younger patients with multiple emergency room visits for cardiac complaints and negative evaluations, panic attack is the most common diagnosis.

Generalized Anxiety Disorder

■ Essentials of Diagnosis

• Excessive, persistent worry

• Worry is difficult to control

• Physiologic symptoms of restlessness, fatigue, irritability, muscletension, sleep disturbance

• Medication or substance withdrawal (eg, alcohol, benzodiazepines)

• Major depressive disorder

• Psychotherapy, especially cognitive-behavioral

• Relaxation techniques (eg, biofeedback)

• Buspirone, extended-release venlafaxine, benzodiazepines

primary-334 Essentials of Diagnosis & Treatment

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Stress Disorders

■ Essentials of Diagnosis

• Includes acute stress disorder and posttraumatic stress disorder

• Exposure to a traumatic event

• Intrusive thoughts, nightmares, flashbacks

• Mental distress or physiologic symptoms (eg, tachycardia, phoresis) when exposed to stimuli that cue the trauma

dia-• Avoidance of thoughts, feelings, or situations associated with thetrauma

• Isolation, detachment from others, emotional numbness

• Sleep disturbance, irritability, hypervigilance, startle response,poor concentration

• High comorbidity with depression and substance abuse

• Substance use or withdrawal

• Neurologic syndrome secondary to head trauma

Peebles-Kleiger MJ et al: Office management of posttraumatic stress disorder

A clinician’s guide to a pervasive problem Postgrad Med

1998;103(5):181-3, 187-8, 194-6 (UI: 98253219)

Chapter 14 Psychiatric Disorders 335

14

Phobic Disorders

■ Essentials of Diagnosis

• Includes specific and social phobias

• Persistent, irrational fear due to the presence or anticipation of anobject or situation

• Exposure to the phobic object or situation results in excessiveanxiety

• Avoidance of phobic object or situation

• Social phobia: fear of humiliation or embarrassment in a mance or social situation (eg, speaking or eating in public)