Micro and smart devices and systems

Bhaumik Materials Science Division, CSIR-National Aerospace tories, Bangalore, IndiaLabora-Dhananjay Bodas Centre of Nanobioscience, Agharkar Research Institute, Pune,India Jeevanjyoti C

Springer Tracts in Mechanical Engineering

Tai Lieu Chat Luong

Springer Tracts in Mechanical Engineering

For further volumes:

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K J Vinoy

Electrical Communication Engineering

Indian Institute of Science

BangaloreKarnatakaIndia

S B KrupanidhiMaterials Research CentreIndian Institute of ScienceBangalore

KarnatakaIndia

ISSN 2195-9862 ISSN 2195-9870 (electronic)

ISBN 978-81-322-1912-5 ISBN 978-81-322-1913-2 (eBook)

DOI 10.1007/978-81-322-1913-2

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Dedicated to

Prof Vasudev K Aatre

for his inspiring vision, unwavering

conviction, and tireless effort that have resulted in creating and nurturing a vibrant multidisciplinary research field of micro and smart systems in India

Prof Vasudev Kalkunte Aatre was born in 1939 in Bangalore where he alsospent most of his childhood and formative years He obtained his B.E from UVCE(then under Mysore University) in 1961, M.E from the Indian Institute of Science(IISc), Bangalore in 1963, and Ph.D from the University of Waterloo, Canada, in

1967, all in Electrical Engineering He worked as Professor of Electrical neering at Technical University of Nova Scotia, Canada, from 1968 to 1980 Hewas also a Visiting Professor at IISc in 1977 In 1980 he joined the DefenceResearch and Development Organisation (DRDO) of India

Engi-Prof Aatre worked in India’s Ministry of Defence in various capacities for

24 years He started his career in DRDO as a Principal Scientific Officer(1980–1984) Subsequently, he became the Director of the Naval PhysicalOceanographic Laboratory (1984–1991), the Chief Controller (1991–1999), andfinally, led the organization as the Director General and Scientific Advisor toDefence Minister (1999–2004) During this long period of dedicated service, hedesigned and developed sonar suites for surface ships, submarines, and the air arm

of the Indian Navy He was also instrumental in the development of integratedelectronic warfare systems for the Indian Army, Navy, and Air Force, and heestablished GaAs MMIC fabrication facility and VLSI design centers for theMinistry of Defence Prof Aatre is also the founding president of the Institute ofSmart Structures and Systems (ISSS) and has led the national programs on smartmaterials and micro and smart systems

He has published over 60 papers in the fields of active filters, digital signalprocessing, and defense electronics, and has two books entitled Network Theoryand Filter Design and Micro and Smart Systems, both published by John Wiley &Sons He is a Fellow of the IEEE (USA) and the National Academy of Engineering(India), a Distinguished Fellow of IETE (India) and several other societies

Dr Aatre is the recipient of the prestigious Padma Bhushan Award of theGovernment of India

Since the dawn of civilization, Nature has been man’s greatest teacher We havelearned by observing and mimicking Nature and natural phenomena with theultimate goal of building systems as complex, efficient, and optimal as biologicalsystems created by Nature Such systems, if they have to mimic biological sys-tems, need to continuously sense the environment and respond, to a degree,optimally to achieve certain objectives or perform certain tasks Although over thecenturies, especially for the last century and a half, man has developed materials,devices, and systems, which have found application in myriad fields, competingwith natural systems is a dream yet to be fulfilled The recent advances in smart,micro, and nano systems have opened up a possibility of achieving this goal.Institute of Smart Structures and Systems (ISSS) was started by a group ofscientists, technologists, and engineers in India from academic institutions, spaceand defense departments in 1998 to trigger research and development in poten-tially highly application-oriented areas of micro and smart systems ISSS activelyparticipated in formulating two National Programs—National Program on SmartMaterials (NPSM) followed by the National Program on Micro and Smart Systems(NPMASS), both sponsored by the five Scientific Departments of the Government

of India and funded by the Department of Defence, India

While setting up infrastructural facilities such as MEMS foundries, LTCCpackaging facility, and developing sensors, actuators and subsystems for aero-nautical, automobile, and biomedical applications were the principal goals ofNPSM and NPMASS, supporting research projects in materials, sensors, andactuators and developing human resources in this area were equally importantgoals of the two programs Towards this, the two national programs sponsoredseveral R&D projects to academic institutions and national laboratories besidesestablishing 65 National MEMS Design Centers (NMDCs) in institutions acrossthe country These institutions and centers have conducted research, trainedundergraduate and postgraduate students, thus creating a large body of humanresources capable of pursuing developments in the general area of micro and nanosystems This special edition gives a glimpse of the R&D work carried out in theseinstitutions and centers

The contents of this special edition clearly bring out two facts The first andforemost is the large number of institutions involved in such R&D work and their

vii

geographical spread in India This augurs well for the future development of thisfield and for the development of the required human resources thereof The second

is that the R&D activities cover the entire spectrum of the field from materials tosystems and applications

The founding members of ISSS were guided by one conviction that ‘‘India hadmissed the microelectronic revolution but should not miss the micro-machine andnano revolution.’’ The happenings of the last decade and a half give great hope Iwish special editions like this were brought out once in three years to coincidewith the triennial International Conference organized by ISSS

This book covers multiple facets of micro and smart systems technologies iaturization of sensors and actuators through effective use of smart materials formsthe core of the book Related aspects of material processing and characterization;modeling and simulation; and applications are also given due importance Twentynine chapters written by competent research teams from academia and governmentresearch labs comprise a valuable resource that gives a bird’s-eye view of the state

Min-of the art Min-of the field in India While the technological details Min-of the workdescribed in this book are self-explanatory, it is pertinent to introspect on how it allhappened in India not too long after the miniaturization revolution transpiredelsewhere in the world

Generous financial support and guidance from the government, vision anddriving force of a leader, and a professional society that can enthuse an ableworkforce are perhaps three necessary factors to initiate and establish a newresearch area in a country India has had all of these in the last 15 years to lay afirm foundation for micro and smart systems technologies First, the DefenceResearch and Development Organisation (DRDO) and four other science andtechnology departments of the Government of India, initiated and ran two largeresearch programs, namely, National Programme on Smart Materials (NPSM,2000–2006) and National Programme on Micro and Smart Materials and Systems(NPMASS, 2007–2014), with a combined budget of nearly Rs 270 crores ($45 Mtoday) Second, Prof V K Aatre, gave unstinted leadership and support tonumerous researchers and research administrators whom he inspired and nurtured.Third, a professional society, ambitiously christened, the Institute of SmartStructures and Systems (ISSS) was founded in 1998 to bring together experts frommultiple disciplines to create a research community in micro and smart systems inIndia As a result of these efforts, India today is proud to claim its presence in thefield This edited monograph, with the exception of one chapter, is a record of thework done in India and thus it stands as a testimony to the success of a well-conceived and ably executed endeavor

Many researchers from the academia and government research laboratoriescontributed to NPSM and NPMASS, which were admirably administered by theAeronautical Development Agency (ADA) under the guidance of the Board forSmart materials Research and Technology (B-SMART) Constant support from thepast and present Heads of DRDO and its higher management has helped run these

ix

programs well Program offices of NPSM and NPMASS, which operated out ofADA, Bangalore, since 2000, did exemplary work in liaising with various arms ofthe programs and grantees, bringing synergy and effective program management.The chairs and members of Programme Assessment and Recommendation Com-mittees (PARCs) looked after the technical details of the funded projects Theresult of the untiring efforts of all these and many more individuals—too many tomention here—is widespread awareness of micro and smart systems technologiesand engagement into research and development activities in almost all parts ofIndia NPSM and NPMASS have paid particular attention to human resourcedevelopment by establishing more than 65 National MEMS Design Centres(NMDCs) in many states of India covering the length and breadth of the country.Hundreds of researchers have been involved in more than 150 projects funded byNPSM and NPMASS.

The most significant outcome of this concerted effort is that the spirit of tidisciplinary research in micro and smart technologies now pervades all parts ofIndia Most researchers began with modeling and design Not too long ago inIndia, possessing a license of a microsystems simulation software meant beingengaged in research in this area But today it has changed; with the establishment

mul-of state-mul-of-the-art well-equipped cleanrooms and characterization facilities,researchers in India are able to fabricate and even package devices and systems.All aspects of the field, development of microsensors and microactuators; materialprocessing and characterization; fabrication; advanced modeling, design, andsimulation; and systems design have all begun Packaging and transfer of tech-nology have also commenced The chapters in this book are indeed organizedaccordingly

The final link in this chain of events is commercialization of the developedtechnology This step needs conscious effort and copious resources, perhaps anorder of magnitude more than what went into creating the able research com-munity The time is now ripe to involve the established industries and to nurtureentrepreneurship One hopes that the same level of commitment and financialsupport will be given to incubating companies in micro and smart technologies inorder to create a thriving industry in these areas in India

G K AnanthasureshRudra Pratap

S B Krupanidhi

K J Vinoy

G K AnanthasureshRudra Pratap

S B KrupanidhiBangalore, April 2014

xi

Part I Microsensors

Design, Development, Fabrication, Packaging, and Testing

of MEMS Pressure Sensors for Aerospace Applications 3

K N Bhat, M M Nayak, Vijay Kumar, Linet Thomas,

S Manish, Vijay Thyagarajan, Pandian, Jeyabal,

Shyam Gaurav, Gurudat, Navakanta Bhat and Rudra Pratap

MEMS Piezoresistive Accelerometers 19Tarun Kanti Bhattacharyya and Anindya Lal Roy

A Handheld Explosives Detector Based on Amplifying

Fluorescent Polymer 35Anil Kumar, Jasmine Sinha, Ashok K Majji, J Raviprakash,

Sathyadeep Viswanathan, Justin K Paul, S Vijay Mohan,

Shilpa K Sanjeeva, Swathi Korrapati and Chandrashekhar B Nair

Development of a Surface Plasmon Resonance-Based

Biosensing System 49

S Mukherji, Munshi Imran Hossain, T Kundu and Deepali Chandratre

Design and Development of Ion-Sensitive Field-Effect Transistor

and Extended-Gate Field-Effect Transistor Platforms

for Chemical and Biological Sensors 73

V K Khanna, R Mukhiya, R Sharma, P K Khanna, S Kumar,

D K Kharbanda, P C Panchariya and A H Kiranmayee

Part II Microactuators

RF MEMS Single-Pole-Multi-Throw Switching Circuits 91Shiban K Koul and Sukomal Dey

xiii

Piezoelectric Actuators in Helicopter Active Vibration Control 111

R Ganguli and S R Viswamurthy

Design and Development of a Piezoelectrically Actuated

Micropump for Drug Delivery Application 127Paul Braineard Eladi, Dhiman Chatterjee and Amitava DasGupta

Development and Characterization of PZT Multilayered Stacks

for Vibration Control 143

P K Panda and B Sahoo

Development of Piezoelectric and Electrostatic RF MEMS Devices 155Abhay Joshi, Abhijeet Kshirsagar, S DattaGupta, K Natarajan

and S A Gangal

Part III Materials and Processes

Nickel–Titanium Shape Memory Alloy Wires for Thermal

Actuators 181

S K Bhaumik, K V Ramaiah and C N Saikrishna

Processing and Characterization of Shape Memory Films

for Microactuators 199

S Mohan and Sudhir Kumar Sharma

Piezoceramic Coatings for MEMS and Structural

Health Monitoring 213Soma Dutta

Cost-Effective Processing of Polymers and Application to Devices 229Bhoopesh Mahale, Abhay Joshi, Abhijeet Kshirsagar,

S DattaGupta, Dhananjay Bodas and S A Gangal

Chemical Synthesis of Nanomaterials and Structures,

Including Nanostructured Thin Films, for Different Applications 249

S A Shivashankar

A Study on Hydrophobicity of Silicon and a Few

Dielectric Materials 265Vijay Kumar and N N Sharma

Materials for Embedded Capacitors, Inductors,

Nonreciprocal Devices, and Solid Oxide Fuel Cells

in Low Temperature Co-fired Ceramic 285Vivek Rane, Varsha Chaware, Shrikant Kulkarni,

Siddharth Duttagupta and Girish Phatak

Smart Materials for Energy Harvesting, Energy Storage,

and Energy Efficient Solid-State Electronic Refrigeration 303Jayanta Parui, D Saranya and S B Krupanidhi

Part IV Modeling and Simulation

Vibratory MEMS and Squeeze Film Effects 319Rudra Pratap and Anish Roychowdhury

Streaming Potential in Microflows and Nanoflows 339Jeevanjyoti Chakraborty and Suman Chakraborty

A Simulation Module for Microsystems using Hybrid Finite

Elements: An Overview 355Kunal D Patil, Sreenath Balakrishnan, C S Jog

and G K Ananthasuresh

Structural Health Monitoring: Nonlinear Effects

in the Prognostic Analysis of Crack Growth in Structural Joints 375

B Dattaguru

Part V Systems and Applications

Smart e-Textile-Based Nanosensors for Cardiac Monitoring

with Smart Phone and Wireless Mobile Platform 387Prashanth Kumar, Pratyush Rai, Sechang Oh, Robert E Harbaugh

and Vijay K Varadan

Polymer-Based Micro/Nano Cantilever Electro-Mechanical

Sensor Systems for Bio/Chemical Sensing Applications 403Rajul S Patkar, Manoj Kandpal, Neena Gilda, Prasenjit Ray

and V Ramgopal Rao

Smart Materials Technology for Aerospace Applications 423

S Gopalakrishnan

Electronic Circuits for Piezoelectric Resonant Sensors 439

M Umapathy, G Uma and K Suresh

A Universal Energy Harvesting Scheme for Operating

Low-Power Wireless Sensor Nodes Using Multiple Energy

Resources 453

K J Vinoy and T V Prabhakar

RF MEMS True-Time-Delay Phase Shifter 467Shiban K Koul and Sukomal Dey

MEMS Sensors for Underwater Applications 487

V Natarajan, M Kathiresan, K A Thomas, Rajeev R Ashokan,

G Suresh, E Varadarajan and Shiny Nair

Author Index 503Subject Index 505

Com-S K Bhaumik Materials Science Division, CSIR-National Aerospace tories, Bangalore, India

Labora-Dhananjay Bodas Centre of Nanobioscience, Agharkar Research Institute, Pune,India

Jeevanjyoti Chakraborty Advanced Technology Development Centre, IndianInstitute of Technology Kharagpur, Kharagpur, West Bengal, India; MathematicalInstitute, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK

Suman Chakraborty Advanced Technology Development Centre, Indian tute of Technology Kharagpur, Kharagpur, West Bengal, India; MechanicalEngineering Department, Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur, Kharagpur,West Bengal, India

Insti-Deepali Chandratre IIT Bombay, Mumbai, India

Dhiman Chatterjee Department of Mechanical Engineering, Indian Institute ofTechnology Madras, Chennai, India

xvii

Varsha Chaware Centre for Materials for Electronics Technology (C-MET),Panchawati, Pune, India

Amitava DasGupta Department of Electrical Engineering, Indian Institute ofTechnology Madras, Chennai, India

S DattaGupta Department of Electrical Engineering, Indian Institute of nology, Mumbai, India

Tech-B Dattaguru Institute of Aerospace Engineering and Management, Jain versity, Bangalore, India; TechMahindra, Bangalore, India

Uni-Sukomal Dey Centre for Applied Research in Electronics, Indian Institute ofTechnology Delhi, Hauz Khas, New Delhi, India

Soma Dutta Materials Science Division, CSIR-National Aerospace Laboratories,Bangalore, India

Paul Braineard Eladi Department of Electrical Engineering, Indian Institute ofTechnology Madras, Chennai, India

S A Gangal Department of Electronic Science, University of Pune, hind Road, Pune, India

Ganeshk-R Ganguli Department of Aerospace Engineering, Indian Institute of Science,Bangalore, India

Shyam Gaurav Centre for Nano Science and Engineering, Indian Institute ofScience, Bangalore, India

Neena Gilda Department of Electrical Engineering, Indian Institute of nology Bombay, Mumbai, India

Tech-S Gopalakrishnan Department of Aerospace Engineering, Indian Institute ofScience, Bangalore, India

Gurudat Centre for Nano Science and Engineering, Indian Institute of Science,Bangalore, India

Robert E Harbaugh Department of Neurosurgery, Penn State UniversityMedical School, Hershey, PA, USA

Munshi Imran Hossain IIT Bombay, Mumbai, India

Jeyabal Centre for Nano Science and Engineering, Indian Institute of Science,Bangalore, India

C S Jog Computational Nanoengineering (CoNe) group and Mechanical neering, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, India

Engi-Abhay Joshi Department of Electronic Science, University of Pune, GaneshkhindRoad, Pune, India

Manoj Kandpal Department of Electrical Engineering, Indian Institute ofTechnology Bombay, Mumbai, India

M Kathiresan Naval Physical and Oceanographic Laboratory, Thrikkakara,Kochi, India

P K Khanna CSIR-Central Electronics Engineering Research Institute, Pilani,Rajasthan, India; Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR), NewDelhi, India

V K Khanna CSIR-Central Electronics Engineering Research Institute, Pilani,Rajasthan, India; Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR), NewDelhi, India

D K Kharbanda CSIR-Central Electronics Engineering Research Institute, lani, Rajasthan, India; Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR),New Delhi, India

Pi-A H Kiranmayee CSIR-Central Electronics Engineering Research Institute,Pilani, Rajasthan, India

Swathi Korrapati Bigtec Private Limited, Bengaluru, India

Shiban K Koul Centre for Applied Research in Electronics, Indian Institute ofTechnology Delhi, Hauz Khas, New Delhi, India

S B Krupanidhi Materials Research Centre, Indian Institute of Science, galore, India

Ban-Abhijeet Kshirsagar Department of Electronic Science, University of Pune,Ganeshkhind Road, Pune 411007, India; Department of Electrical Engineering,Indian Institute of Technology, Mumbai, India

Shrikant Kulkarni Centre for Materials for Electronics Technology (C-MET),Panchawati, Pune, India

Anil Kumar Indian Institute of Technology Bombay, Mumbai, India

Prashanth Kumar Department of Electrical Engineering, University ofArkansas, Fayetteville, AR, USA

S Kumar CSIR-Central Electronics Engineering Research Institute, Pilani,Rajasthan, India

Vijay Kumar Department of Mechanical Engineering, Nanomaterials andNational MEMS Design Centre, Birla Institute of Technology and Science, Pilani,India

T Kundu IIT Bombay, Mumbai, India

Bhoopesh Mahale Department of Electronic Science, University of Pune,Ganeshkhind Road, Pune, India

Ashok K Majji Indian Institute of Technology Bombay, Mumbai, India

S Manish Centre for Nano Science and Engineering, Indian Institute of Science,Bangalore, India

S Mohan Indian Institute of Science, Bengaluru, India

S Mukherji IIT Bombay, Mumbai, India

R Mukhiya CSIR-Central Electronics Engineering Research Institute, Pilani,Rajasthan, India; Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR), NewDelhi, India

Chandrashekhar B Nair Bigtec Private Limited, Bengaluru, India

Shiny Nair Naval Physical and Oceanographic Laboratory, Thrikkakara, Kochi,India

K Natarajan Department of Telecommunication Engineering, MS RamaiahInstitute of Technology, Bangalore, India

V Natarajan Naval Physical and Oceanographic Laboratory, Thrikkakara,Kochi, India

M M Nayak Centre for Nano Science and Engineering, Indian Institute ofScience, Bangalore, India

Sechang Oh Department of Electrical Engineering, University of Arkansas,Fayetteville, AR, USA

P C Panchariya CSIR-Central Electronics Engineering Research Institute, lani, Rajasthan, India; Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR),New Delhi, India

Pi-P K Panda Materials Science Division, CSIR-National Aerospace Laboratories,Kodihalli, Bangalore, India

Pandian Centre for Nano Science and Engineering, Indian Institute of Science,Bangalore, India

Jayanta Parui Materials Research Centre, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore,India

Kunal D Patil Computational Nanoengineering (CoNe) group and MechanicalEngineering, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, India

Rajul S Patkar Department of Electrical Engineering, Indian Institute ofTechnology Bombay, Mumbai, India

Justin K Paul Bigtec Private Limited, Bengaluru, India

Girish Phatak Centre for Materials for Electronics Technology (C-MET),Panchawati, Pune, India

T V Prabhakar Department of Electronic Systems Engineering, Indian Institute

of Science, Bangalore, India

Rudra Pratap Center for Nano Science and Engineering and Department ofMechanical Engineering, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, India

Pratyush Rai Department of Electrical Engineering, University of Arkansas,Fayetteville, AR, USA

K V Ramaiah Materials Science Division, CSIR-National Aerospace tories, Bangalore, India

Labora-Vivek Rane G M Vedak College of Science, Raigad, Maharashtra, India

V Ramgopal Rao Department of Electrical Engineering, Indian Institute ofTechnology Bombay, Mumbai, India

J Raviprakash Bigtec Private Limited, Bengaluru, India

Prasenjit Ray Department of Electrical Engineering, Indian Institute of nology Bombay, Mumbai, India

Tech-Anindya Lal Roy Advanced Technology Development Centre, Indian Institute ofTechnology, Kharagpur, India

Anish Roychowdhury Center for Nano Science and Engineering and Department

of Mechanical Engineering, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, India

B Sahoo Materials Science Division, CSIR-National Aerospace Laboratories,Kodihalli, Bangalore, India

C N Saikrishna Materials Science Division, CSIR-National Aerospace ratories, Bangalore, India

Labo-Shilpa K Sanjeeva Bigtec Private Limited, Bengaluru, India

D Saranya Materials Research Centre, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore,India

N N Sharma Department of Mechanical Engineering, Nanomaterials andNational MEMS Design Centre, Birla Institute of Technology and Science, Pilani,India

R Sharma CSIR-Central Electronics Engineering Research Institute, Pilani,Rajasthan, India; Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR), NewDelhi, India

Sudhir Kumar Sharma Indian Institute of Science, Bengaluru, India

S A Shivashankar Centre for Nano Science and Engineering, Indian Institute ofScience, Bangalore, India

Jasmine Sinha Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, USA

G Suresh Naval Physical and Oceanographic Laboratory, Thrikkakara, Kochi,India

K Suresh Department of Instrumentation and Control Engineering, NationalInstitute of Technology, Tiruchirappalli, India

K A Thomas Naval Physical and Oceanographic Laboratory, Thrikkakara,Kochi, India

Linet Thomas Centre for Nano Science and Engineering, Indian Institute ofScience, Bangalore, India

Vijay Thyagarajan Centre for Nano Science and Engineering, Indian Institute ofScience, Bangalore, India

G Uma Department of Instrumentation and Control Engineering, NationalInstitute of Technology, Tiruchirappalli, India

M Umapathy Department of Instrumentation and Control Engineering, NationalInstitute of Technology, Tiruchirappalli, India

Vijay K Varadan Department of Electrical Engineering, University of Arkansas,Fayetteville, AR, USA; Department of Biomedical Engineering, University ofArkansas, Fayetteville, AR, USA; Department of Neurosurgery, Penn State Uni-versity Medical School, Hershey, PA, USA; Global Institute of Nanotechnology inEngineering and Medicine, Fayetteville, AR, USA

E Varadarajan Naval Physical and Oceanographic Laboratory, Thrikkakara,Kochi, India

Vijay Kumar Centre for Nano Science and Engineering, Indian Institute ofScience, Bangalore, India

S Vijay Mohan Bigtec Private Limited, Bangalore, India

K J Vinoy Department of Electrical Communication Engineering, IndianInstitute of Science, Bangalore, India

S R Viswamurthy National Aerospace Laboratories, Council of Scientific andIndustrial Research, Bangalore, India

Sathyadeep Viswanathan Bigtec Private Limited, Bengaluru, India

ADC Analog-to-digital converter

AFE Antiferroelectric

AFE-FE Antiferroelectric to ferroelectric switching

AFP Amplifying fluorescent polymer

A-IgG Anti-immunoglobulin G

APA Amplified piezo actuator

ASME American society for mechanical Engineers

ASSURED Affordable, sensitive, specific, user-friendly, rapid and robust,

equipment-free, and delivered to those who need it

ASTM American society for testing and materials

ATS Alkyltricholrosilane

CBP Cardiac biopotentials

CFRP Carbon fiber reinforced plastics

CMOS Complementary metal oxide semiconductor

CSIR Council of scientific and industrial research, India

CVD Cardiovascular diseases

CVI C for virtual instrumentation

DAC Digital-to-analog converter

DNA Deoxy-ribonucleic acid

DNT 2,4-Dinitrotoluene

DoS Department of Space, India

DRDO Defence Research and Development Organization, India

DRIE Deep reactive ion etching

DSC Differential scanning calorimeter

DST Department of Science and Technology, India

xxiii

EDC N-(3-Dimethylaminopropyl)-N0Ethyl-carbodiimide HydrochlorideEESSs Electrical energy storage systems

EGFET Extended-gate field-effect transistor

EMI Electro magnetic interference

FEA Finite element analysis

FE-AFE Ferroelectric to antiferroelectric switching

FEM Finite element method

FITC Fluorescein Isothiocyanate

FSO Full scale output

FWHM Full width at half maxima

GFRP Glass fiber reinforced plastics

GPRS General packet radio service

HMX High melting explosive

(Octahydro-1,3,5,7-tetranitro-1,3,5,7-tetrazocine)

ICAF International Committee for Aeronautical Fatigue

ICCMS International Congress on Computational mechanics and SimulationIDE Inter Digited electrode

ISFET Ion-sensitive field-effect transistor

KMF Kotagiri Mission Fellowship Hospital

LCD Liquid crystal display

LED Light emitting diode

LPCVD Low-pressure chemical vapor deposition

LSCO Lanthanum strontium cobaltate

LTCC Low-temperature co-fired ceramic

LUMO Lowest unoccupied molecular orbital

MEMS Micro electro mechanical systems

MOSFET Metal-oxide semiconductor field-effect-transistor

MuA 11-Mercapto-undecanoic acid

MWCNT Multi-wall carbon nanotubes

NDE Non destructive evaluation

NPMASS National Programme on Micro and Smart Systems

NPSM National Programme on Smart Materials

Op-Amp Operational amplifier

OTS Octadecyltrichlorosilane

PANP Polyaniline nanoparticles

PBS Phosphate buffer saline

PCB Printed circuit board

PDE Partial differential equation

PDMS Polydimethylsiloxane

PDMS Poly-dimethyl Siloxane

PECVD Plasma enhanced chemical vapor deposition

PEDOT PSS:poly (3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene) poly(styrenesulfonate)PETN Penta erythritol tetra nitrate

pHpzc pH at the point of zero charge

PLD Pulsed laser deposition

PLZT Lead lanthanum zirconate titanate

PMN Lead magnesium niobate

pMUTs Piezoelectric micromachined ultrasonic transducers

PZT Lead zirconate titanate

RC Resistance capacitance network

RCA Radio Corporation of America

RDX Research Department Explosive

(1,3,5-Trinitro-1,3,5-triazacyclohexane)

REFET Reference field-effect transistor

RIE Reactive ion etching

RIU Refractive index unit

SAMs Self assembled monolayers

SEM Scanning electron microscopy

SHM Structural health monitoring

SIF Stress intensity factor

SOI Silicon on insulator

SPR Surface plasmon resonance

SWCNT Single walled carbon nanotubes

TCAD Technology computer-aided design

TEM Transmission electron microscopy

TMAH Tetra-methyl ammonium hydroxide

TNT 2,4,6-Trinitrotoluene

T-NT Titanium-rich nickel titanium

UART Universal asynchronous receiver/transmitter

UTM Universal testing machine

WCA Water contact angle

XRD X-ray diffraction

Part I

Microsensors

Design, Development, Fabrication,

Packaging, and Testing of MEMS

Pressure Sensors for Aerospace

Applications

K N Bhat, M M Nayak, Vijay Kumar, Linet Thomas, S Manish,

Vijay Thyagarajan, Pandian, Jeyabal, Shyam Gaurav, Gurudat,

Navakanta Bhat and Rudra Pratap

Abstract In this chapter we present the design, fabrication, packaging, and ibration of silicon micro machined piezo-resistive pressure sensors for operation inthe pressure range of 1.2–400 bar Based on the detailed Finite Element Analysis(FEA), the diaphragm dimensions and the optimized locations for the piezo-resistors are designed, to achieve the best performance parameters over a widerange of pressures, with minimum nonlinearity and adequate burst pressure Theprocess parameters are optimized and the pressure sensors fabricated in the Centrefor Nano Science and Engineering (CeNSE) at IISc The wafers are diced, thedevices mounted on headers, wire bonded and packaged suitably, tested, andcalibrated at the cell level to determine the adequacy of the performance param-eters of the sensors for different pressure ranges The results achieved on thepressure transducer assembly with Active Temperature Compensation and theoffset compensation using electronics and EMI filters in a single package arepresented Excellent linearity within 0.5 % in the output voltage versus pressure isdemonstrated, over the specified pressure ranges (i) 0-1.2 bar and (ii) 0-400 bar,and over the temperature range of -40C to +80C

cal-Keywords Pressure sensors Microfabrication  Packaging  Aerospace cations Finite element analysisPressure sensor calibration

appli-1 Introduction

Pressure sensors cater to about 60 % of the MEMS market Among the varioustypes of pressure sensors, piezo-resistive pressure sensors are easy to design to suit

a wide range of pressure ranges They are simple to fabricate with a suitably

K N Bhat ( &)  M M Nayak  V Kumar  L Thomas  S Manish  V Thyagarajan Pandian  Jeyabal  S Gaurav  Gurudat  N Bhat  R Pratap

Centre for Nano Science and Engineering, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, India e-mail: knbhat@gmail.com

K J Vinoy et al (eds.), Micro and Smart Devices and Systems,

Springer Tracts in Mechanical Engineering, DOI: 10.1007/978-81-322-1913-2_1,

 Springer India 2014

3

designed diaphragm acting as the sensing element and piezo-resistors serving astransducers Miniaturization and batch processing of this device is achieved withgreat precision using the silicon micromachining technique for realizing the dia-phragm [1 3] The piezo-resistors and the interconnections are achieved usingphotolithography, diffusion, ion implantation, and thin film deposition, which arewell established in the microelectronics technology All the finer aspects of design,fabrication, packaging, characterization, and calibration of silicon micro machinedpiezo-resistive pressure sensors ranging from 1.2 (0.12) to 400 bar (40 MPa)fabricated at the National Nano Fabrication Centre (NNFC) of the Centre for NanoScience and Engineering (CeNSE) at the Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore inIndia are presented in the following sections of this chapter The analysis and theexperimental results on the devices fabricated have shown that the best results interms of sensitivity and accuracy can be achieved by appropriately laying out theresistors either inside or outside the diaphragm, depending on the diaphragmdimensions and aspect ratios, which are decided by the maximum pressure range

of operation The chapter also brings out the various critical issues encounteredduring packaging and calibrating the pressure sensors

2 FEM Analysis and Diaphragm Design Considerations

Based on the theory of plates [4], which assumes that the diaphragm is anchoredall around its edges (as shown in Fig.1a), the location of the maximum stress isusually identified to be at the center of the edge of the diaphragm and hence thepiezo-resistors are conventionally embedded on the inner side of the diaphragmedge However, for the silicon micro machined diaphragms, realized either byDeep Reactive Ion Etching (DRIE) or wet chemical anisotropic etching, thephysical location of the anchor position is on the backside of the chip as shown inFig.1b and c Hence, the maximum stress position with respect to the diaphragmand the positions of piezoresitors on the chip need to be assessed

A rigorous 3D FEM-based COMSOL [5, 6] simulation of these bulk micromachined diaphragms has indeed shown that the position of the longitudinal peakstress component, estimated along the line XX’ (marked in Fig.1d) lies outside thediaphragm edge at a distance Xp (marked in Fig.1b and c), when the aspect ratio,length/height (L/h), of the diaphragm is low In Fig.2we show the typical resultobtained for the case of a DRIE etched diaphragm having thickness h = 200 lmand lateral dimension L = 750 lm, for different magnitudes of pressure applied onthis DRIE diaphragm as shown in the inset For this case, the L/h ratio is 3.75 andthe location of the peak stress lies outside the diaphragm edge at a distance

Xp= 75 lm It is also interesting to note that the position of the peak stressremains the same irrespective of the magnitude of the pressure applied

The effects of aspect ratio (L/h) on the position Xp of the peak longitudinalstress, for an applied pressure P = 100 bar is studied using the FEM simulationtool, considering L/h ratios ranging from 2.5 to 8.5 by varying L from 500 to

Fig 1 Cross-section of the diaphragm a anchored on all sides (as in the theory of plates) b and

c anchored on the backside (as obtained in the DRIE and KOH etched silicon) d Top view of the chip showing the square diaphragm of side length L (= 2a) by dashed line The side length of the square chip is shown as 2A

Fig 2 FEM analysis results showing the stress distribution along XX’ for different magnitudes

of pressure P (in bars) = 10, 25, 50, 75, and 100 applied on a DRIE diaphragm having

h = 200 lm and L = 750 lm, and a square chip having the side length 2A = 2 mm,

t = 400 lm

1700 lm and keeping the DRIE etched diaphragm thickness fixed at h = 200 lm.The results are shown in Fig.3 The distance (Xp) between the edge of the dia-phragm and the position of peak as a function of L/h ratio determined for the caseshaving h = 200 lm and h = 20 lm are shown in Table1a and b.

We also determined the effect of the diaphragm lateral length L on the position

of the peak stress (Xp), with a fixed diaphragm thickness, h = 100 lm, consideringboth DRIE etched and KOH etched diaphragms with crosssection shown inFig.1b, c The results obtained from all the simulation studies involving variousthicknesses and L/h ratios are shown in Fig.4, where Xp is plotted versus L/h ratio

It can be seen that in general, Xp is positive when the aspect ratio is below eightindicating that the peak stress lies outside the diaphragm portion for these cases As

it can be seen from Fig.4, in the case of thick diaphragms with h = 200 lm thatare used for high-pressure applications, the location of peak stress lies at

Xp= +50 lm outside the diaphragm edge when L/h ratio is equal to 5, sponding to L = 1000 lm On the other hand when L/h [ 8, corresponding to thecases L [ 1600 lm, with h = 200 lm, Xp becomes negative showing that thelocation of the peak stress shifts onto the diaphragm surface In this situation as thediaphragm is too large the pressure range of operation decreases In the case of thindiaphragms of the order of 20 lm thickness, Xp = 0 or very small (Xp = +1 to+3 lm) Thus, in situations where the diaphragm is thin, the theory of plates holdsgood with the maximum stress occurring at the diaphragm edge

corre-Fig 3 FEM analysis results showing the variation of stress along XX’ for a 200 lm thick DRIE etched diaphragm, for different diaphragm side lengths (L) as running parameter, when a pressure

of 100 bar is applied

Table 1 Variation of peak position relative to the diaphragm edge (Xp) and the maximum total stress as the L/h ratio is changed for a DRIE etched diaphragm of thickness a h = 200 lm.

P = 100 bar and b h = 20 lm, P = 1 bar

100, 200 lm, and for the KOH etched diaphragms with h = 100 lm

3 Pressure Sensor Design and Fabrication

3.1 Pressure Sensor for Operation up to 400 bar

The lateral dimension of chip was chosen to be 2 9 2 mm, and based on the FEMsimulations a reasonable diaphragm dimension of 750 9 750 lm and a diaphragmthickness of 210 lm was chosen to ensure that the maximum stress on chip is only0.3 GPa at 400 bar, so that the maximum stress is well below 1 Gpa even at1,000 bar Once again the maximum stress versus pressure was determined to belinear over the pressure range 0–400 bar The resistors of the Wheatstone bridge ofthe sensors were placed outside the diaphragm at a distance of 77 lm from thediaphragm edge Considering a sheet resistance of 200 ohm/square, individualresistor dimensions were decided to be L/W = 20 A mask layout for a five-maskprocess was designed and the mask plates were prepared at the NNFC of CeNSE atIISc Figure5shows the composite mask layout of the five-mask process.Each of the process steps are marked alongside the individual masks Thestarting wafer is an SOI (100) wafer with N-type device layer thickness 210 lm,

Fig 5 Composite mask layout for the 400 bar Pressure sensor

BOX layer of 1 lm, and P type handle wafer thickness 400 lm This wafer isthermally oxidized and P+ diffusion window is opened using Mask#1 in the oxideand boron diffusion is carried out in this region at 1,100C for 30 min to achieve asheet resistance in the range 5-6 ohm/square This is followed by ion implanta-tion at 80 KeV with a dose of 3 9 1014Boron ions/cm2into the region opened inthe oxide using Mask#2 Thermal annealing is done at 1,000C in Nitrogenambient for 30 min to achieve a sheet resistance of 180-190 ohms/square Fol-lowing this step, backside alignment lithography is carried out aligned with respect

to the patterns already created, using the Mask#3 to open window in the backside.DRIE is carried out using Bosch process with etch rates of 10 lm/min initially and

4 lm/min during the last 10 min, using the photoresist as the masking layer Afterstripping of the PR in oxygen plasma aluminum metallization is carried out andpatterned using Mask#4 Next, the Forming Gas Anneal (FGA) is carried out for

30 min at 450C This is followed by deposition of silicon dioxide by PECVD at

350C to a thickness of 0.1 lm In the final step, lithography is carried out usingMask#5 and the pad oxide and scribe lines are etched The backside oxide isremoved protecting the front surface and borofloat glass is anodically bonded on tothe backside in an evacuated bonding system During the bonding process thetemperature is maintained at 390C and the glass is biased at a negative voltage of1,000 V for 30 min as shown in Fig.6

A photograph of the completed pressure sensor after the anodic bonding isshown in Fig.7 The wafer is next diced using a diamond saw and then diesmounted on a header and wire bonded A photograph of the diced sensor and the die

Fig 6 Screenshot taken during anodic bonding of silicon wafer to glass The high current pulse indicates the successful completion of bonding process

mounted and wire bonded sensor is shown in Fig.8a and b respectively Figure9shows the packaged 400 bar pressure sensor with compensating electronics.

3.2 Pressure Sensor for Operation up to 1.2 bar

Based on the FEM analysis similar to that presented in Sect 2, a thin squarediaphragm of h = 25 lm and L =1 mm is chosen for this pressure range (0-1,

2 bar) The FEM-based COMSOL simulated stress distribution across the

Fig 7 Photograph of processed and anodic bonded 100 mm silicon wafer showing about 700 pressure sensors The devices occupy only the 75 mm diameter area

Fig 8 a Front side view and backside view of the pressure sensor die after dicing b Pressure sensor die mounted on the header and wire bonded

diaphragm along the XX’ line (as in Fig.1d) is shown in Fig.10 It can be seen thatthe maximum stress occurs at the edge of the diaphragm For this situation of highL/h ratio = 40, the theory of plates is applicable as discussed inSect 2and hencethe maximum longitudinal stress is estimated to be equal to 48 MPa at the center ofthe diaphragm edge, for the applied pressure P = 0.12 MPa (1.2 bar) using the

Fig 9 Photograph of the packaged 400 bar pressure sensor along with electronics, a Without the connector and pressure port b With the connector and the welded pressure port

Fig 10 Stress distribution across the top surface of a square diaphragm with its thickness

h = 25 lm and side length L = 1 mm for pressure P = 0-1.2 bar

analytical expression rL¼ P L=2hð Þ2 This value is very close to the value of

46 MPa determined using the FEM-based analysis with COMSOL (see Fig.10)

As in the case of 400 bar sensor, in this case also the starting wafer is SOI wafer,the only difference being in the SOI layer thickness, which in this case is h = 25 lm.The mask layout, the number of masks, and process parameters are exactly the same

as the 400 bar sensor However, as the aspect ratio is L/h = 40 in this case, theposition of the piezo-resistors is at the edge on the inner side of the diaphragm At theend of the five-mask process, anodic bonding of the wafer to glass is carried out andthe individual dies are separated by dicing and followed by die mounting wirebonding and other packaging steps The packaged devices are calibrated and elec-tronically compensated for temperature drift Figure11shows the photographs ofthe packaged 1.2 bar pressure sensors alongwith electronics and EMI filters

4 Testing, Calibration and Temperature Compensation

of the Pressure Sensors

4.1 Setup for Testing Packaged Sensors

The photograph of a Hydraulic Pressure Calibrator, procured from M/s DHB, UK.Model DHB 42 H-542, capable of operation in the range of 0-1,200 Bar is shown

in Fig.12 The transducer to be tested is mounted on the calibrator adapter andelectrical connections are made to stabilized power supply, digital voltmeter(DVM), and decade box This setup is used to calibrate the 0-400 bar MEMSsensor in five equal ascending and descending steps In addition, proof pressureapplication, burst pressure trials, and testing of glass to metal seals are also carriedout up to 800 Bars

Fig 11 Photographs of 1.2 bar pressure sensors packed and hermetically sealed with electronics

4.2 Testing and Temperature Compensation

of 1200 milli Bar Pressure Sensor

The 0-1,200 milli bar MEMS-based pressure transducers were wire bonded,encapsulated, and then tested through a wide range of temperatures (-40C, 0 C,+25C, +50 C, and +80 C) Figure 13 shows the raw milli volt output atvarious temperatures with respect to input pressure

From the above results, the drift in the range of 1-13910-3/FSO/C may benoted in the Zero Offset and Full Scale Output (FSO) with temperature In terms ofactual values, the drift in Zero Offset is as high as 50.34 mV between 25C and -

40C and the drift in the full scale output voltage is 56.95 mV at 1,200 milli bars.Similarly, the drift in Zero Offset and FSO between 25C and 80 C was found to

be 15.83 mV and 24.12 mV respectively To compensate for these drifts, weutilize active temperature compensation technique using advanced differentialsensor signal conditioning CMOS IC ZMD 31050 This IC contains programmablegain amplifier, multiplexer, built-in temperature sensor, ADC, DAC, PWM, ROM,EEPROM, analog output, I2C, digital interface and other blocks After program-ming the compensation circuit and retesting the overall drift is reduced to

1910-4-1910-5/FSO/C and thus the Zero Offset and FSO can be adjusted tosuit many requirements Figure14 shows the linear and repeatable output at

Packaged Pressure sensor Under test

Fig 12 Hydraulic calibration set-up to calibrate 0-400 bar pressure transducers at CeNSE, IISc

+25C, -33.5 C and +65 C, randomly chosen temperatures for the validation

of active compensation The maximum nonlinearity and hysteresis was also found

to be within 0.5 % FSO To utilize these transducers for aerospace application,specific EMI filters and necessary protection diodes were also incorporated in thecircuit and tested from 16 to 36 V DC excitation

The transducer was subjected to proof pressure of 2.4 bar, twice the nominalpressure and random vibration tests for their survival under harsh environment.The drift after these tests is found to be within the allowable limits

4.3 Testing and Calibration of 400 Bar (Gauge) Pressure

Transducer Output at Different Temperatures

The 0-400 bar absolute MEMS pressure transducer was temperature sated Figure15 shows a linear output from -40 to +80C and the overalltemperature drift was found to be within 1910-4- 6910-5/FSO/oC The sensorwas also calibrated at +80C, +50 C, +25 C, -20 C, and -40 C for fiveascending and descending equal pressure intervals (80 bar) The inset shows thephotograph of a 0-400 bar Pressure sensor with built-in electronics having avoltage regulator and ZMD 31050 signal conditioning IC for active temperaturecompensation along with sensor protection filter at the pressure end The inputexcitation can be from 16 to 36 V DC The nominal excitation is 28 V DC TheMaximum nonlinearity and hysteresis of this transducer was found to be within0.855 % FSO, as calculated using least squares best fit straight line method.The pressure end connection has M1491.5 thread for 10 mm length with an ‘‘O’’

compen-Fig 13 Output voltage versus pressure at various temperatures with the 1.2 bar pressure sensor before compensation

Fig 14 Temperature compensated output versus pressure at different temperatures for the 1.2 bar pressure (Gauge) sensor

Fig 15 Temperature compensated output voltage versus pressure from the 400 bar pressure transducer at different temperatures

ring groove for arresting the leak during mechanical interfacing We employ laser

or electron beam welding, AISI 304L stainless steel assembly for corrosionresistance and robust mechanical integrity

The MEMS piezo-resistive sensor is mounted on a glass to metal seal (normallycalled as ‘‘Header’’) made out of Kovar metal with matching glass to withstand apressure of above 800 bars The insulation resistance between all the leads of thisglass to metal seal with the body of the transducer is above 100 mega ohms at

50 V DC for proper isolation as per aerospace requirements This assembly is alsohelium leak tested for a leak rate better than 10-8sccm/sec for long-term oper-ational stability This transducer is tested under random vibration conditions in Xand Y axes at 13.5 g rms, over a frequency range of 20 Hz-2 KHz for 3 minutes.After, all the calibration and testing, the drift was within allowable limits

4.4 Dynamic Testing on the Pressure Sensor

To experimentally verify the output response of 1,200 milli bar pressure ducer, a simple dynamic test setup was rigged up as shown in Fig.16consisting of

trans-a low pressure source, 3-wtrans-ay vtrans-alve, required tubing, cltrans-amp, power supply, digittrans-alvoltmeter, storage oscilloscope, and related accessories A balloon was pressurized

so that the considerable output can be recorded through the transducer under test

Fig 16 Dynamic pressure testing on 1,200 milli bar absolute MEMS-based pressure transducer