Effects of corpus based instruction on verb noun collocation use

In addition, this study’s research can greatly facilitate collocation teaching, and the attitude’s findings can reflect students’ perspectives towards the instruction through corpus data

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DANG DUC TUE

EFFECTS OF CORPUS-BASED INSTRUCTION

ON VERB-NOUN COLLOCATION USE

MASTER OF ARTS IN TESOL

HO CHI MINH CITY, 2022

Tai Lieu Chat Luong

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND TRAINING

HO CHI MINH CITY OPEN UNIVERSITY

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DANG DUC TUE

EFFECTS OF CORPUS-BASED INSTRUCTION

ON VERB-NOUN COLLOCATION USE

Major: Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages

Major code: 8 14 01 11

MASTER OF ARTS IN TESOL

Supervisor: DR VU HOA NGAN

HO CHI MINH CITY, 2022

Ngày sinh: 04.10.1984 Nơi sinh: An Giang

Chuyên ngành: Lý luận và Phương pháp dạy học Bộ môn Tiếng Anh

Mã học viên: 1881401110041

Tôi đồng ý cung cấp toàn văn thông tin luận văn tốt nghiệp hợp lệ về bản quyền cho Thư viện trường đại học Mở Thành phố Hồ Chí Minh Thư viện trường đại học Mở Thành phố Hồ Chí Minh sẽ kết nối toàn văn thông tin luận văn tốt nghiệp vào hệ thống thông tin khoa học của Sở Khoa học và Công nghệ Thành phố Hồ Chí Minh

ĐẶNG ĐỨC TUỆ

STATEMENT OF AUTHORSHIP

I hereby certify that this thesis entitled “Effects of Corpus-based Instruction

on Verb-Noun Collocations Use” is my own work Except where reference is made

in the text of the thesis, this thesis does not contain material published elsewhere, or extracted in whole or in part from a thesis by which I have qualified for or been awarded another degree or diploma No other’s work has been used without due acknowledgement in the main text of the thesis This thesis has not been submitted for the award of any degree in any other tertiary institution

HoChiMinh city, 2022

ĐẶNG ĐỨC TUỆ

First and foremost, sincerely, I am deeply indebted to my thesis supervisor,

Dr VU HOA NGAN, Deputy Head of Department of English, International University, Vietnam National University HCMC Her great patience and comprehensive insightful knowledge gave careful justification for my inexperienced research skills I would like to thank her for unflagging support and great patience for

a long time

Second but very importantly, all of Blessings I have been bestowed, one of which was my family who waited and encouraged me to overcome difficulties By virtues of these, I was bolstered and braced in the face of depression

Next is my thankfulness to my friends, especially two classmates, Ms Phuong and Ms Thao Without them, I would have been in mental trouble

Also, I would like deepen my gratitude to Dr Nguyen Thi Thanh Ha from HCMC Open University, a person I had not known, who is warm-hearted and kind She encouraged me to keep going Without her help, undoubtedly my thesis could not have been completed

In addition, I would like to present my thankfulness to Graduate School of Open University HoChiMinh city, valuable feedback from examiners and academic officials who offer great help for me to the attainment of this thesis I would like to say thank you to them all

ABSTRACT

The accomplishment of technology helpfully offers education great opportunities to explore writing and speaking patterns Consquently, this renders linguists capable of understanding phrases and language use, among which corpus-based instruction has become increasingly popular One of corpus-based work has contributed subtantially to linguistics is collocation-related research As classified, collocations which are often associated with terms such as “formulaic language” or

“prefabricated chunk” can be devided into various types Verb-noun collocations are word combinations found with the most mistakes made by language learners

This thesis made endeavor to investigate the feasibility of corpus-based applications on learning collocations In pursuit of this, the study elaborates collocation learning of groups of college students, one of which experienced experimental treatment This group searched for collocations in the website of British National Corpus; additionally, they also practiced with exercises for a long time Having read sentence samples, students pinpointed meaning and collocation use To

be brief, the study results were obtained by administering the pretest, the posttest, and the questionnaire of learners’ attitude towards the instruction based on corpus data

In terms of the study’s benefits, this study can give rise to collocation learning in colleges; moreover, findings from this study gain insight into corpus-based applications in classrooms In addition, this study’s research can greatly facilitate collocation teaching, and the attitude’s findings can reflect students’ perspectives towards the instruction through corpus data albeit with both merits and demerits

TABLE OF CONTENT

Page

1.1 Statement of the problem 1

1.2 Goals of the study 3

1.3 Significance of the study 5

1.4 Structure of this thesis 7

1.5 Chapter summary 8

2.1 Collocations 9

2.1.1 Definitions of collocations 9

2.1.2 Overview of L2 collocations 17

2.1.3 Verb-noun collocations 18

2.1.4 Discussion on a working definition of collocations 19

2.1.5 Discussion on verb-noun collocations 19

2.2 Corpus- based instructions 20

2.2.1 Corpora definition and development 20

2.2.2 Corpus-driven approach, corpus-based instructions, and data-driven learning 21 2.2.3 Previous studies into corpus-based instructions and DDL 24

2.2.4 Corpus studies in Vietnamese conditions 26

2.2.5 Previous studies into learning difficulties in corpus-based instruction 27 2.3 Learners' attitudes 30

2.3.1 Affective aspect of attitude 31

2.3.2 Cognitive aspect of attitude 31

2.3.3 Behavioral aspect of attitudes 31

2.3.4 Previous studies into attitudes towards learning with corpus 32

2.4 Research gaps 33

2.5 Chapter summary 36

3.1 Research design 38

3.2 Research participants 40

3.3 Research instruments and materials 42

3.3.1 The pretest and the posttest 42

3.3.2 Scoring and rubrics 47

3.3.3 Discussion about the reliablity, validity and feasibility 48

3.3.4 Justification of choosing verb-noun collocations 49

3.3.5 Teaching materials 50

3.3.6 The questionnaire into learners' attitudes 57

3.3.7 Justification of the questionnaire used in this study 59

3.4 Data Resources 60

3.5 Data Collection Procedures 61

3.5.1 Quantitative data collection for RQ1 into corpus instruction’s influence on collocation use 61

3.5.2 Quantitative data collection for RQ2 into leaners’ attitudes towards the corpus instruction 64

3.6 Data Analysis 65

3.6.1 Quantitative analysis relating to Research Question 1 (RQ1) 65

3.6.2 Quantitative analysis of questionnaire scores (RQ2) 66

3.7 Ethical issues and permission 67

3.8 Chapter summary 67

4.1 The influence of corpus instruction on collocation use (Research question 1) 69

4.1.1 The distribution of the Pretest and Posttest scores 69

4.1.2 The Pretest mean of the Control Group and the Pretest mean of the Experimental Group 72

4.1.3 Effect Size of the Experimental Group and the Control Group 73

4.1.4 Comparison within Control Group of the Pretest and the Posttest scores

74

4.1.5 Comparison within the Experimental group between the Pretest and the Posttest scores 75

4.2 Attitudes towards corpus instruction (Research question 2) 75

4.2.1 Affective aspect 78

4.2.2 Cognitive aspect 78

4.2.3 Behavioral aspect 78

4.3 Chapter summary 79

5.1 The influence of corpus instruction on verb-noun collocation use (Research question 1) 80

5.2 Learners' attitudes towards corpus instruction (Research question 2) 82

5.3 Chapter summary 83

6.1 Summary of key findings 84

6.2 Conclusions 85

6.2.1 For Research Question 1 85

6.2.2 For Research Question 2 86

6.3 Limitations 86

6.4 Implications 87

6.4.1 For teachers 87

6.4.2 For researchers 87

6.4.3 For students 88

6.5 Chapter summary 88

APPENDICES

APPENDIX A : Aspects of knowing collocations (Webb, Newton & Chang, 2013)

107

APPENDIX B : The pretest 108

APPENDIX C : The posttest 110

APPENDIX D: Keys to the pre-test, posttest and scoring rubrics 112

APPENDIX E: Scoring rubrics for for part 4 of the tests 113

APPENDIX F: Target collocations (collocations in three tests) 114

APPENDIX G: A sample of intructional handouts for Control group 117

APPENDIX H: Training materials (presentational materials for the experimental group) 119

APPENDIX I: Hypothesis-formation tasks (presentational materials for the experimental group) 125

APPENDIX J: Practice-production materials for the both groups 127

APPENDIX K: Differences in concordance lines between "make a speech", "give a speech", and "deliver a speech" : 129

APPENDIX L: Attitudes Questionnaire 131

APPENDIX M: Consent Form 134

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1 A model of idiomacity (Warren, 2007, p.11) 17

Figure 2 Types of pedagogical corpus applications (Flowerdew, 2012, p.193) 21

Figure 3 An example in search for « speech » collocation with help of scaffolding strategies 55

Figure 4 Results of search for verbs of «speech » collocations 56

Figure 5 Distribution of the Pretest scores of the EG 70

Figure 6 Distribution of the Postest of the CG 70

Figure 7 Difference in the Pretest and Posttest mean scores of CG and EG 73

Figure 8 Percentages of responses in terms of Likerst Scales 77

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1 Previous studies about DDL in classrooms (Romer, 2011) 25

Table 2: Difficulties in corpus studies (Bunting, 2013) 29

Table 3 Material used in the control group and the experimental group 51

Table 4 The original scaffolding prompts in concordancing activities (Chang & Sun, 2009) 55

Table 5 The adapted questionnaire with explained items 58

Table 6 Data types and data resources for each of research questions 60

Table 7 The teaching procedure for each week in two groups 62

Table 8 The computer equipment and softwares that are used in this study 66

Table 9 Tests of Normality Distribution of the Experimental Group 71

Table 10 Tests of Normality Distribution of the Control Group 71

Table 11 Means of Pretest scores of the Control Group and the Experimental Group 72

Table 12 Paired Samples of the Pretest and Posttest of the Control Group 74 Table 13 Paired Samples of the Pretest and Posttest scores of the Experimental group 75

Table 14 Reliability Statistics (Cronbach’s Alpha) of three parts of the questionnaire 76

Table 15 Percentages of responses of the questionnaire in terms of three aspects (%) 76

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

For English learners, collocations are critically important, especially in writing It plays a crucial role to transition from the word level to the sentence level Because of this importance, teaching collocations accelerated by technological advancement may

be highly promising and innovative with college classes Given that, this chapter aims at outlining the thesis and highlighting important points of this study

1.1 Statement of the problem

Previous studies about corpus-based approaches, data-driven learning varied from different aspects because of wide applications However, to summarize the historical development, data-driven learning starting with paper-based materials, then has developed thanks to computerization and advanced technology Most of corpus application are about linguistics to serve for research and teaching As regards teaching and learning with corpus-based instructions, applications can be investigation of spoken and written language Recently, corpus-based instruction has received concerns because it helps to shed light upon native-speaker-like language use Especially, corpus-based instruction was recommended for learning collocations

Studies on collocations have become increasingly popular From collocation assessment to collocation types for different kinds of learners Verb-noun collocations are more important than other kind because they help to form a sentence This kind of verb-noun collocations are more difficult for students than other types

of collocations, showing a need of investigation

Alongside with teaching vocabulary, teaching collocations has recently received increasing concerns over how to inculcate collocations in EFL classrooms This upward trend is due largely to the great significance of collocations in foreign language learning Nonetheless, teaching and learning collocations in the Vietnamese context have recently encountered several predicaments as regards following issues

Despite being indispensable, promulgation of collocations in classroom seemed to be long ignored As for national studies, while international counterparts

placed solid foundations of teaching collocations for years, Vietnamese collocational studies seem to be under investigation (Le, 2017, p.2) The fact that little attention had not paid to teaching collocations leads to an urgent need of researching this in Vietnamese conditions

In terms of instructional methods, there have been little effort in utilizing different practice tasks ; additionally, teachers face discomforts of whether inductive

or deductive teaching is more effective More specifically,teachers have little idea about which tasks are beneficial to which types of collocations Given this deficiency

of collocation teaching methods, research into collocation teaching methods requires much more concerns

Third, teachers who intend to teach collocations find a turbulence of collocation-based materials disorganized Even though there are some books such as

"Collocations in use", it can be questionable if collocations suggested by these books are good enough to ease learners rather than to threaten them Therefore, the usefulness of collocations taught in classrooms is called into question, thereby urging rersearchers with much more effort to elaborate this issues

Among studies conducted in Vietnam, a few mentioned types of collocations This defect is because of the complexity of both collocation types and verb-noun relations For example, it is arguable how many types of collocations, particularly verb-noun collocations and arguable which verb can go with a given noun In other words, these issues include collocation categorization and verbs suiting with nouns

In short, a lack of collocation theories has renewed much more demand of casting light upon collocational theoretical concepts

Next, it is apparent that technology, namely corpus-based lessons, has hardly ever been applied into teaching collocations,especially in Vietnam Because such applications have some hurdles, corpora have been so innovative that teachers hesitate to apply While corpora had been applied widely, it is called into questions if corpora can be used in Vietnam to teach collocations

Another issue is coupled with practice tasks and tests of collocations Although collocations can be served to writing essays, little had been known about collocation assessment Regardless of well-known collocations examined by reliable sources, the purposes of collocations for writing essays or speaking skills or academic goals have not been clear Therefore, it is imperative that collocation assessment as well as practice tasks should be clarified

Finally, there is absence of studies regarding students' attitudes towards collocations learning and corpus-based learning This is easily understandable since these each aspect just mentioned represent a gap, and the aspects of learners’ attitude have just been concerned since learners are central to every innovative approach

As final notes, learning through corpora has been received both compliments and criticisms As a consequence, it is essential for researchers to give more insights into the applications of corpus in order to maximize potentials and minimize drawbacks

1.2 Goals of the study

The objectives of the study were to investigate the influence of instruction through data on verb-noun collocations and the learners’ attitudes towards this teaching model To achieve these goals, the study was conducted in the two colleges with first-year students, being summarized underneath

This study was executed in the 2nd semester of the schoolyear 2021-2022 offline over 12 weeks The sample size of the experimental group was 26 students and that of the control one was 14 students The handouts included paper-based practices tasks delivered by the researcher, based on the website British National Corpus The attitudes data were collected from the experimental group who practised the searching with the website, then answered Google Forms of a questionnaire Considering research settings, overall, subjects of the study were majored college students in B1 courses Therefore, the scope of this study did not cover students of other educational institutional levels

Basically, the experiment in this study focused on influence of corpus instruction by conducting the pretest and the posttest, and focused on learners’ attitudes on this instruction model Above all, the theories used were theoretical principles of collocations, underpinnings of attitudes and conceptual frameworks of corpus studies The scope of this study focused on verb-noun collocations, not other kinds of collocations, and focused on learners’ attitudes towards corpus instruction instead of teachers’ attitudes The focus of this study did not emphasize exploration

of difficulties participants faced while using corpus Equally important, the scope of this study did not focus on creating a typical list of verb-noun collocations, which required much more time to clarify

Research questions

The two aims of this study are to evaluate effects of corpus-based instruction

on collocation knowledge among Vietnamese undergraduate students, and to disclose learners’ attitudes towards collocations In details, the purpose of RQ1 is to understand corpus-based impacts on collocational learning whereas the purpose of RQ2 to investigate participant’s perspectives on the instruction There are two research questions as follows:

1) What are the differences in student verb-noun collocation use before and after the adoption of corpus-based instruction?

2) What are learners' attitudes towards corpus-based instruction?

The objective of research question 1 is to investigate, firstly, whether instruction through corpus data has positive or negative impacts on collocation knowledge This study intended to target verb-noun collocations because Chan and Liou (2005, p.232) and other authors firmly believe that verb-noun collocations constitute the largest proportion of learner errors as compared to other collocation kinds

The objective of research question 2 is to disclose attitudinal aspects towards corpus-based instruction, a new way of learning collocations This aims to interpret results as a description of a Likerst scale

There are rationales for the two research designs of the two research questions First, according to Cresswell (2012, p.14), data taken from two research questions are measurable and observable Data from research question 1 will be obtained due to assessment of the two tests, meanwhile data from the research question 2 will be obtained from a questionnaire Logically, Cresswell (2012, p.14) pointed out that examples of instruments to obtain quantitative data are survey questionnaires, standardized tests, and checklists

1.3 Significance of the study

Whereas utilizing collocations is often referred as a way of enhancing writing skills, particularly for college students in high-stakes exams, collocations received little attention to pedagogical approaches In order to ameliorate this issue, some authors indicate that for college students learning collocations with corpus websites,

or data-driven learning, can enrich collocations knowledge

Some authors proposed that benefits of corpus-based learning can be explained because of some reasons First, some authors stated that Input Flooding Hypothesis, input enhancement and conscious-raising practices (Sharwood-Smith, 1993) are chiefly responsible for this collocational improvement, seeing that learners should be maximized favorable opportunies to be exposed in authentic materials To put it simply, reading corpora extensively can lead to an acceleration of language skills Secondly, some authors agreed that corpora describe how language is used by native speakers Take an example of collegiate students Using appropriate language gives rise to an increase in language skills, as a result

Corpus-based instruction has been considered as compatible with second language acquistion (SLA) (Vyatkina, 2016, p.208), and learning through corpus data emphasized the probabilistic bottom-up approach rather than top-down rules (Ellis, 2014) Also in this respect, the boundary of grammar and lexis was inseparable (Ellis,

2014) Another theoretical underpining of learning with corpus data is the theory of noticing hypothesis by Schmidt (1990) Also, both implicit and explicit instruction should be emphasized to help students understand L2 (Vyatkina, 2016)

However, Vietnam research studies seem to have lacked of the studies relating

to corpus-based instruction and collocation; consequently, putting forward a research for this is a much-awaited field of study This study aims at studying the influence of corpus-based instruction on verb-noun collocation use considering that this verb-noun collocation type is problematic with students (Nguyen & Web, 2016) In fact, students may be confused to choose a correct verb for a collocation Equally important, because corpus-based instruction studies were rare it is vital in this study

to further investigate learners’ attitudes towards this teaching paradigm Apart from that, this study gives its focus on the verb-noun relation considering aspects of verbs and nouns, based on Durrant (2008)’s definitions of collocations

Therefore, considering the above-mentioned reasons, it is imperative that a study should be conducted as a connection between corpus-based instruction and verb-noun collocations with collegiate participants The implementation of such a study was crucial in Vietnam conditions, establishing more links between linguistics and technology

There are many reasons this study focused on priorities of collocations and corpora in general In most cases, implementing this study opens door to various benefits such as faciliating collocation learning, revisiting theories related to collocations, recommending beneficial practice tasks, clarifying some corpus-based instructional modes, nurturing other teachers in preparation of corpused-based materials, fostering technology-assisted language learning morale and exploring implications to teaching collocations with corpora

First, this study can greatly benefit collocation learning, explaining some theories and suggesting propitious tasks in learning collocations The study could raise greater awareness of collocation catergories and their strengths; thus, it could enable students to be able to understand and learn collocations easily Another

possible merit is that sudents could develop collocational consciousness in semantic aspects, thereby supporting students to use collocations at their disposal

Second, this study would give a hint to corpus-based material preparations according to suitable instructional modes, acting as a prerequisite for further research inVietnam For educators, these preparations are highly beneficial for teachers who often encounter obstacles to strive for teaching materials With this study tasks, teachers could diversify teaching materials

Third, this study could contribute substantially to clarifying learners' attitudes towards the corpus-based instruction Surveys or questionnaires could elaborate students perception of corpus-based instruction, for instance surveys to examine whether they love this learning or if they feel confused with corpus examples

To simply put, the roles of this study are of significance on accounts of various reasons For sure, with feasible teachnological applications on language teaching, the study is more important on the advent of the digital age

1.4 Structure of this thesis

This study was organized in different chapters and sections to serve the purposes of elaborate aspects of research theories and design The arrangements of these parts can be used for following purposes

The literature review was divided in three important parts including theories about collocations, instruction based on corpus data, and learners’ attitudes In details, whereas corpus studies were reviewed (section 2.3), the collocation sections (section 2.2) explained the target verb-noun collocations, the attitudes section (section 2.4) analyzed attitudal components and the adapted questionnaire items

Apart from this, the organization of research design part and the data collection procedure part were about the ways this study was carried out More importantly, these ways entail activities that students carried out from week 1 to week 12, and explanation materials that students worked out There were task differences between the experimental and the control group; besides, there were also procedural differences between the research question 1 and 2

The data analysis section shows how data were under calculations leading to final results For special calculation, there were explanations about which tools or formulas for this research to use, and justfication of reasons why they were utilized

Particularly, the appendices include mostly the pretest, posttest, and materials delivered to students Because of distinctive nature of the research, there were a considerable number of handouts, training papers, and other kinds

Finally, in the conclusion and implication parts, findings was reiterated, limitations were highlighted, and future recommendations were made In these part, there were comparisons between current findings and previous studies

1.5 Chapter summary

The aim of this Chapter 1 is to identify problems relating to learning collocations in Vietnam and to narrow down specific aspects being the importance of the thesis’s topic These issues are presented under different aspects including a dearth of teaching methods, collocation assessment, technology-assisted language learning Similarly, there have been other issues discussed such as collocation types, learners’ attitudes towards learning collocations and material preparation Obviously, the statement of the problem determined the background of the study and identied related problems On top of that, while goals of the study described scopes of the study and research questions, significance of the study included rationales of the study In addition, the structure of the study outlined how the thesis was organized

By the end of the this chapter, some critical issues can be spotlighted, leading to the urgent need of this study

CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW

The theories regarding collocations, corpus-based approach, corpus-based instruction and students’ attitudes are highly diverse However, concentrating on the mainstream can greatly help outline relating concepts and compare theories The foci

of the this chapter are to briefly review fundamental theories regarding collocations, research work on corpora, and students’attitudes; in addition, the latter part of this chapter is to readily identify research gaps

2.1 Collocations

2.1.1 Definitions of collocations

Definitions of collocations are divergent in various studies No matter how different they are, the two main perspectives of collocation definitions are the stastitical view (Greenbaum, 1974; Hunston, 2002; Partington, 1998; Sinclair, 1991) and the phraseological view (Webb & Kaghimoto, 2009, p.59) The former was supported by proponents who are corpus linguists (Webb & Kaghimoto, 2009, p.59) These two perspectives were repeatedly reviewed by Webb & Nguyen (2016, p.2)

Another definitions of collocations mentioned is in Durrant (2008, p.6) Collocations are words in a relationship in which the existence of one word is likely

to decide that of the other word Because typical collocates of a word represent a

profile which makes them distinctive, the word strong and powerful despite being synonyms can have different collocations such as strong coffee but powerful engine

(Durant, 2008) Other examples were illustrated (Durrant, 2008), as regards divergent

collocations of nearly synonymous words: sheer, pure, complete, utter and absolute The term semantic prosody referred in (Durrant, 2008) to express the likely semantic

environment or an aura of meaning (Durrant, 2008, p 7) that the word can be used

in To put it differently, if a word is chosen, its next word is presupposed and so is the next one of that (Durrant, 2008, p.7) These combinations sometimes go beyond independent words' meanings (Durrant, 2008) This loss of meaning is the process of delexicalization (Durrant, 2008) For instance, idiomatic expressions with the similar

phenonmenom are spill the beans or sitting duck Durrant (2008) stated SinClair’s

(1987, p 319-320) proposed "idiom principle of interpretation" that is a top priority

or "default mode of interpretation" (Durrant, 2008, p.8) In order to explain collocations, learners should, therefore, do "chunking" (Ellis, 2001) or "priming" (Hoey, 2005), which were researched in series of the so-called "psycholinguistically-defined ‘formulaic language’" (Durrant, 2008, p 9) As stated in Do (2017), the term

"formulaic language" has been refered to "lexical phrases, multiword items, formulaic sequences, fixed expressions, prefabricated chunks, idioms, collocations, lexical bundles, conventional sequences" (p.18)

Teaching collocations has been widely researched in a multitude of studies, as

in Boers, Demecheleer, Coxhead, and Webb (2014, p.3) for research work in both second language acquisition and second language pedagogy The significance of learning collocation has been evidently proved in Webb & Kaghimoto (2009, p.55)

Walker (2011, p.291) noted that collocation definitions are of either full or partial arbitrariness in multifarious articles (Benson, 1989; Nesselhauf, 2003, 2005; Smadja & McKeown, 1991; Lewis, 1997, p 32); teachers, therefore, try to avoid explanation in classroom Walker (2011, p 292) highlighted an over-dependence of language learners on dictionary, while practicing writing, to decide whether or not some language uses are acceptable What they know the rope is memorisation Besides, in Walker (2011, p 293) emphasized collocation demarcations as habitual co-occurance to combine lexical items with citation of Crystal (2003, p 82)

The components of collocations according to Walker (2011, 294) are nodes and spans Nodes are refered to the main word that is subject to collocation studied Meanwhile, spans are relevant words on the left or right of the node ; spans are called collocates of nodes (SinClair, 1966, p.415)

Collocations are statistically extracted by concordance computer programmes

on the basis of their appearance frequencies in divergent discourses But it depends

on which senses a node have, its collocates may vary It is widely known that some

large corpora can be listed as British National Corpus, Collin COBUILD Corpus, and Cambridge Corpus However, most of them are not free of use and only accessed by own institutional officicers

Unaldi, Bardakci, Akpinar & Dolas (2013, p.83), Benson (1985) and Biskup (1992) categorized collocations as grammatical/ syntactical collocations and semantic/ lexical collocations The former contains a grammatical word with prepositions or structural patterns, while the latter refers to a mere combination of nouns, verbs, adjectives or adverbs Nesselhauf (2005, p.22) classified collocations into six types: adjective + noun, noun + verb, noun + noun, adverb + adjective, verb + adverb, verb + (object) + noun Aisenstadt (1981) as in Nesselhauf (2005, p.22) further divided verb - noun collocations into verb + noun or verb + preposition + noun (come to a decision) Accordingly, if grammatical elements are added such as prepositions, collocations are of grammatical collocations With regard to classifications of verb-noun collocations, Nesselhauf (2005) tried to clarify meaning

Gabrys-of verbs and classified "figurative", "delexical", "technical" (p.22) What is more, Nesselhauf (2005, p.24) made classification based on "commutability" and degree of restriction Briefly speaking, semantic restrictions of either "verb" or "noun" can lead

to different combination possibilities Nesselhauf (2005, p.30) divided verbs into five groups depending on the degree of freedom in combinations For instance, verbs in group 1 such as "want" can combine almost every noun while verbs in group 2 such

as touch or kill can combine a narrower scale of nouns Verbs in group 3 such as catch

or spend are likely to combine in a limited smaller groups of nouns than group 2

because of semantic properties ("catch" + [infectious diseases] or [means of public transport]; "spend" + [a period of time]) (Nesselhauf, 2005, p.29-30) Three groups just mentioned are free combinations (Nesselhauf, 2005, p.30) Then, consider other verbs groups including group 4 and group 5 Verbs in group 4 can have exceptional combination in terms of semantic properties (commit + [something wrong or illegal], i.e, commit a lie, commit a delinquency; perform + [something such as piece of work,

task or duty], i.e, perform a survey) (Nesselhauf, 2005, p.30) Verbs in group 5 can

only combine with limited number of nouns such as purse sb's mouth, run a risk, fell

a tree, foot the bill As a result, combinations of group 4 and 5 are collocations

(Nesselhauf, 2005, p 31) Nesselhauf (2005; 2003) catergorized combinations into

free combinations, collocations, and idioms In particular, hold sb's hand for instance, can be regarded as idioms because we can not identify the sense of hand Nesselhauf

(2005, p 33) The idiom means to comfort someone through difficulties.Then, Nesselhauf (2005, p.35-36) has two ways of classifications: The first classification is according to restrictions: collocations of group 4 as said above are RC1 (type 1) and those of group 5 are RC2 (type 2) The second classification is SVC and non-SVC SVC stands for stretched verb constructions which denote verb-noun collocations

which are alternatives of the verb itself For instance, take a bite out of is another way

to say bite Nesselhauf (2003, p.226) indicated two measures to teach collocation

types: RC1 (less restricted) and RC2 (a lot of restriction) Nesselhauf (2003) saw less

errors in RC1 (such as pay attention or run a risk) It seemed that learners made more errors with collocations where verbs have a wide range of collocations such as exert,

perform or reach

Differently, according to Rezaee, Rouhi, Saeedakhtar (2013), Rezaee et al (2013) suggested the classification of HCV (high communicative value) and LCV collocations to indicate lexical and grammatical collocations respectively Rezaee et

al (2013) in many studies on HCV and LCV Rezaee et al (2013) investigated roles

of concordancing with a mixture of HCV and LCV collocational tests Rezaee et al (2013)'s equal targeted collocations comprised HCV items consisting of verb-noun, adj-noun, noun-verb and LCV items consisting of verb-preposition, prep-noun, adj-prep, noun-prep Rezaee et al (2013) found concordancing had had equal effects on HCV and LCV collocations

Among delineations regarding types of collocations, delexical verbs were

mentioned to play a role in forming collocations A case in point is make a proposal,

in which the meaning is laid on the noun rather than the delexical verb make

(Szudarski, 2012, p.10) In fact, delexical verb + noun collocations (Wang, 2016,

p.56) are troubled waters for students Wang (2016) noticed that only some verbs

have high frequencies and contain classified semantic features For instance, give goes with communication nouns such as advice, account, indication and answer or goes with behaviors nouns such as yelp, snort, shrug, grunt, gurgle and shudder In

terms of "semantic fields" Wang (2016, p.63) listed several examples For instance,

in the semantic field of "manner", collocations can be make an effort, take steps, do

sb's duty; or, in terms of "communication", collocations can be make a comment, give someone a call (Wang, 2016, p.63) Having analysed in British National Corpus,

Wang (2016, p.65) tabulated a breakdown of uses of "have" in nine semantic fields

A valuable table can be found in Wang (2016, p 67) who listed differences in L1 and L2 of the key nouns in "have" collocations This is significantly noteworthy because Nesselhaulf (2003) suggested a translinguistic method in teaching collocations (also

in Sripicharn (2003), Chan & Liou (2005), Nataka (2006), Webb & Kagimoto (2009), Nakata (2006)) Differences in meanings classify if a collocation is congruent or non-congruent Teaching collocations with Vietnamese translations seem to be ignored in general Likewise, the five verbs: "get", "make", "give", "do", "take", has the same

tables Chi, Wong & Wong (1994, p.158) took the example of have a shower to show

how meaning falls on the noun "shower" whereas the verb "have" loses its meaning

or "delexicalised"

Dongkwang (2008) distinguished collocations and colligations Dongkwang (2008, p.71) explained colligations have the element of grammatical class An

example of this is verb+preposition + a ripe old age such as live to a ripe old age,

survive to a ripe old age These are colligations rather than collocations because they contained a preposition

Last but not least, so noticeable is classifications of collocations in Barfield & William (2006) Barfield & William (2006, p.18) used the phraseology approach to make five sets of 600 words in which, he believed, contained words occuringly frequently Barfield & William (2006), additionally, further explained that besides class-based classifications, there exist sub-categories in which a verb, for instance, is

showed how many nouns can go with it Barfield & William (2006, p.20) indicated a standard of choosing collocations is its "degree of intelligibility" because of the fact that foreign students find hard to understand a phrase Thus, based on this degree, three types of collocations consist of "abnormal collocations" (being unable to be deduced meaning from its parts), "semi-normal collocations", and "normal collocations" In Barfield & William (2006), many researchers making enormous contribution to build up theories of collocation are Hornby (1947), Cowie (1999), Béjoint (1994), Cowie & Mackin (1975), Strassler (1982), Vinogradov (1947), Asomova (1963) More pivotally, Aistenstadt (1979; 1981) and also Carter (1998) in Barfield & William (2006, p 29) casted light upon restrictedness in collocations by elaborating that two parts of a verb-noun collocations contains different meanings that permit them associate with few limited words Aistenstadt (1979) used the term

"commutability" to clarify the relationship between a verb-noun collocation's parts Accordingly, three types of collocations that can be regarded in this view comprise:

1)one of two elements in a collocation has a narrow and specific meaning (i.e, shrug

one's shoulders; 2)one of two parts has a secondary meaning which makes it more

abstract (figurative) (i.e, pay attention); 3)the verb becomes grammaticalised, then, loses its meaning (delexicalisation) (i.e, have a fall) (Aistenstadt, 1981, p.51)

When it comes to restricted collocations, many researchers made important concepts Barfield & William (2006, p.29) stated that restricted collocations are distinguishable from free collocation because of their usage-restricted commutability This is attributable to one or two elements of restricted collocations are limited in commutability To further understand, Barfield & William (2006, p.29) indicated that restrictedness can be understood as the restrictions of selections decided by the

understandable, Barfield & Gyllstad (2009) re-phrased collocation type names as (1) transparent; (2) semi-transparent; (3) non-transparent This classificaton is based on how literal meaning relationship of the verb and noun is But because this call is fairly obscure, the current thesis will use Bension (1989)'s name

From a similar perspective, Barfield & William (2006, p 31) showed five types of collocations This classification seems a scale dividing restrictedness of verbs and nouns, in which the final type represents rare combinations due to no choices being able to be made On one end of the scale is the free combinations (i.e, pay a

bill, also in (Peng, 2016, p.12) On the other end is the pure idiom (i.e, sweeten the

bill) (Peng, 2016, p.12) But classification of verbs Howarth (1998) are more worth

noticing when it discriminates figurative verbs (pay attention), delexical verbs (take

precautions), and technical sense (publish a bill)

Two more classifications in the limelight are the Vinogradov's ones (Barfield,

2006, p.27-28) and Igor Mel’cuk's ones (Nesselhauf, 2005, p.22) Two different taxonomy seems different but fairly beneficial to selecting target collocations afterwards

First, Vinogradov divided collocations into phraseological fusion, phraseological unity and phraseological combination The first term relates to no meaning links between a collocation's component and the collocation as a whole The second term pertains to a figurative meaning of one component predominant to

the collocation's meaning as a whole (hit the hay, predominant meaning is "sleep")

The third term relates to one component with direct meaning while the other

component with figurative meaning (meet the demand, Cowie (1998b) as in Barfield

Second, Igor Mel’cuk's classifications as in Nesselhauf (2005, p.22) are based

on semantic justification just as what Cowie , and Aisenstadt in Nesselhauf (2005, p.22) and Barfield (2006) in the discussion mentioned which highlighted "figurative, delexical and technical sense" This new classification is called "lexical functions"

In an effort to separate semantic verbs, Igor Mel’cuk divided verbs into groups which

have the same functional meaning For instance, group "Mag" means to intensify, and

includes stark in stark naked; whereas, group "Incep" means to begin, and includes

catch in catch fire

SinClair (1991, p.109) proposed two models of interpretation On the one hand, word co-occurrence can be seen because of the open-choice principle Some words are presumably chosen in accordance with only grammatical restrains, thereby leading to randomness of various word choices On the other hand, word co-occurrence is regarded in line with the idiom principle According to this, some words come along with each other because of relating to an area of physical world or human affairs or natural tendency to economy of effort or exigencies of real-time conversation These exceptions of word co-occurrence are responsible for what the open-choice principle can not explain For instance, « of course » is a word co-occurrence in which components lose semantic identity (SinClair, 1999, p.111)

The term collocation was firsted coined by Firth (1957) as a technical term Firth (1968) added collocations were results of habits and customs Because of its being quantitative (Krishnamurthy, 2002), Firth’s notions about collocatons were advocated by many linguistics Xiao and McEnery (2006) including Halliday (1966) and SinClair (1991).Carter (1987, p.58) defined idioms as restricted collocations in which the meaning of the whole expression can not be derived from component words Warren (2007, p.11) described an alternative model of idiomacity as followed

Figure 1: A model of idiomacity (Warren, 2007, p.11)

Warren (2005, p.35) also distinguished idiomacity and idioms in which idioms show a combination of opaque invariant words

There is another explanation about differences between collocations and idioms Bahns (1993, p.57) suggested that idioms are "frozen expressions" whose meanings do not reflect their components' meanings Meanwhile, free combination collocations are those whose verbs can be replaced by other verbs Furthermore, in the middle of the cline between free combination ones and idioms are other word combinations which are called "loosely fixed collocations" (Bahns, 1993, p 57) Collocations differ from free combinations because of being "psychological salient"whereas collocations are distinguished from idioms due to reflecting constituent words' meanings partially (Bahns, 1993, p.57) However, there are transitions among three domains (Cruse, 1986, p.41)

2.1.2 Overview of L2 collocations

2.1.2.1 Form, meaning and use

Vocabulary knowledge is of importance given the fact that it is catalogued into constructs There are variations of vocabulary aspects suggested by researchers, but amongst them are vocabulary form, meaning and use (Webb, Newton & Chang,

Combinations

Open:

certain meanings:

commit->

immoral act

Certain items are required

transparent:

brush teeth

opaque:

spill beans

2013, p 94) (Appendix A) Webb, Newton & Chang (2013, p 94) indicated that for learners, there is less form and meaning knowledge of collocations than form and meaning knowledge of single words For example, a student knows the word

medicine, but he or she does not know a correct verb to go with it Consequently,

understanding each aspects is essential; reviews about this are thus now disscussed

With respect to word form, Carstairs-McCarthy (2002, p 30) clarified that word forms can distinguished clearly straightforwardly and clearly by pronunciation For example, perform is a lexeme but performance, performs and performed are word

forms of the lexeme perform which indicated the bare and unaffixed state

(Carstairs-McCarthy, 2002, p.30-31) Also, word forms can be primarily organized in two groups : derivation and inflection According to Carstairs-McCarthy (2002, p.45),

while inflectional forms are decided by grammar such as performs or performed, derivational forms result from kinds of affixation Furthermore, the term word classes

or parts of speech or lexical categories includes main groups such as nouns, verbs,

adjectives and adverbs A « base » is a word form that is attached with an affix A

base can be roots (for example, wive- in wives is bound root, and cat in cats is free

root) or bigger roots that include a root already and an affix (Carstairs- McCarthy,

2002, p 45-49) By adding suffixes and prefixes, verbs can be morphed into nouns, adjectives and many other types

2.1.3 Verb-noun collocations

Among many types of collocations, verb-noun collocations are ones that Nguyen & Webb (2016, p.4) and Nesselhauf (2005) affirmed students often found most difficult to acquire Similarly, Boers, Demecheleer, Coxhead and Webb (2014,p.55) and Laufer and Waldman (2011) considered the acquisition of verb-noun collocations as being problematic for students Also in Laufer and Waldman (2011), the productive skill of using verb-noun collocations is regarded clearly distinctive between lower- and upper-intermediate students Some verbs in verb-noun collocations are often misused by learners because impact of L1 and lack of

equivalents (Nessehaulf, 2005 ; Yamashita & Jiang, 2010) Therefore, it is imperative that verb-noun collocation be concerned as a top priority in collocation research

2.1.4 Discussion on a working definition of collocations

Based on considerations, the working definition of collocations was chosen in this research is the definition of Durrant (2008) because this emphasizes on the meaning relationship between the words of a collocation In this case, this relation is between the verb and the noun This is why collocations can be classified in different groups from free combinations to more idiomatic collocations This working definition seem have solid theoretical backgrounds as presented in the literature above

2.1.5 Discussion on verb-noun collocations

As above-mentioned, this study chose verb-noun collocations as the focus of the research given that it is essential for college students In other words, improving verb-noun collocation is expected to ameliorate students’ collocation use

As known from previous parts, one noun of a collocation can go hand in hand with many verbs (Chan & Liou, 2005, p.232) ; however, each verb conveys a different meaning, which depends on either the postive or negative context the sentence carries, expressing meanings such as cause-effect, and success or failure However this factor

is not completely systematic but rather it sometimes relies on native speaker habits (idioms) Considering collocational theories and based on Chan & Liou (2005, p.232), Wang (2016) and other authors, selection of target collocations had some modifications and adaptations

Classifications of verb-noun collocations can vary due to recent studies For one thing,Verb-noun collocations can be classified into delexicalized, non-congruent,

synonymous verbs, troponymy verbs (Chan & Liou, 2005, p.236-239) For other

things, verb-noun collocation can be seen from perspectives of functions (Wanner,

2004, p.102-112), eight most common types of which were listed such as Oper1 (perform/do/act), Func0 (happen/ take place), Real2 (fulfill/ meet) and other types If judged from meaning representation, verb-noun collocations can be classified thanks

to hypernym-based meaning representation and the development of WordNet, a

lexical database (Gelbukh & Kolesnikova, 2012, p.53-54)

2.2 Corpus- based instructions

2.2.1 Corpora definition and development

The notion of real data collection emanated for long but since 1950s it came into use, which was pointed by Leech (1992) and Tognini-Bonelli (2001) Computer development was a prerequisite of transformation: from the start of cumbersome reel-to-reel collections to the groundbreaking innovation of COBUILD ; corpus linguistics, thus, took a remarkable progress (O’Keeffe & McCarthy, 2010, p.5) In historical perspectives, concordance programmes were developed such as Wordsmith Tools (1996) and Monoconc (1996) Cambridge International Corpus (Cambridge University Press) may be one of the biggest corpora in the world

As regards corpora types, corpus linguists these days created divergent ones Small corpora are used to analyse particular uses of language whereas multi-modal ones are in speech, writing or body-language (O’Keeffe & McCarthy, 2010, p.6) There are a plethora of corpora for multi-purposes (Bunting, 2013; Tognini-Bonelli ,2001)

Kim (2019, p 129) made discrimination of "corpus tools" and "corpus methods" Kim mentioned work in Rӧmer (2011, p.206) to set apart "corpus tools" as hands-on text items and corpus-access software programmes Meanwhile, corpus methods involves analytic skills to consult corpus data Corpora undoubtedly substantiate learners with a multitude of potential uses as proven in These usages are widely known as "affordances" in areas of applied linguistics (Hafner & Candlin, 2007)

Recently in contrast to disagreements over corpus classroom use, pedagogical applications os corpus uses can be categorised into Direct and Indirect corpus applications These two kinds of corpus applications can be seen in figure 10 below (Flowerdew, 2012, p.192)

Figure 2: Types of pedagogical corpus applications (Flowerdew, 2012, p.193)

To explain types of applications above, Römer (2010, p.19) and(Kim, 2019, p.126) noted that indirect applications are refered to work of researchers who compile dictionaries and teaching materials In contrast, direct applications are used by teachers and learners when they actively involve corpora (RÖmer, 2011; Xiao, 2009, p.14) In other words, indirect uses mean to writing books, and direct uses mean to how to use in classrooms

2.2.2 Corpus-driven approach, corpus-based instructions, and data-driven learning

There have been a number of terms, namely corpus-based driven approach, corpus-based approach and data-driven learning, which are difficult to understand This part aims at comparing these terms

To begin with, corpus-driven approach means to look for evidence of linguistic rules in corpus data In fact, corpus-driven approach use data to form hypothesis, then

to check if this hypothesis is true This means corpus-driven approach begins with a hypothesis, and ends with a conclusion regarding whether the hypothesis is true or

Pedagogical corpus applications

Indirect application: hands

on for researchers and materials writers

Effects on the

teaching syllabus

Effects on reference works and teaching materials

Direct applications:

hands on for learners and teachers (data- driven learning DDL)

Teacher-corpus interaction

Learner-corpus interaction

false The nature of corpus-driven approach is for researchers and linguistics, rather than students, to look for new linguistic rules

Look into characteristics of corpus-driven approach Farr (2010, p 29) stated that when a researcher conducts corpus-driven approach, he or she holds no predispositions about linguistic rules He or she will, thus, find evidence of those rules

in corpus data This approach was what SinClair and Tognini-Bonelli refer to a pure inductiveness in learning (Johns, 1991a)

In contrast, corpus-based approach is concerned, Tognini-Bonelli (2001, p.17) notioned that corpus-based approach means an explicitness of language rules, and checking corpus-data is just a way of validation and qualification Corpus-based approach, thus, means a start of explicit linguistic rules, and ends at confirming those rules being true Similarly, corpus-based instructions just "reinforces ideas" that were known beforehands (McCarthy, 1998, p.22) as in Farr (2010, p 29)

There are characteristics of corpus-based approach, instead The term based" means ‘treats the corpus as an adjunct to the development of theoretical positions’ (Butler, 2002, p.2) The word "adjunct" means an additional and secondary part in instruction McCarthy, Matthiessen & Slade (2002, p.70) clarifies two manners of corpus linguistics They are quantitative and qualitative approach While quantitative approach uses the largest size of data to investigate frequencies, patterns, and recurrence, qualitative approach tries to answer "Why" and to find explanations Considering the quantitative and qualitative approach, Biber (1998, p.4-5), however, proposed characteristics of corpus-based approach In this explanation, "corpus-based" term includes both quantitative and qualitative approach Biber (1998, p.9) pointed that corpus-based approach goes beyond quantitative approach, and goes into interpreting why linguistics rules come into existence

"Apparently, there are differences between driven approach and based approach First, in terms of users, corpus-driven approach is used by researchers and linguistics in order to discover new language rules, whilst corpus-

corpus-based approach is used by teachers and students Secondly, in terms of process of human and corpus interaction, corpus-driven approach often adopted the inductive and implicit approach whereas the corpus-based approach often used the deductive and explicity approach Thirdly, in terms of materials, corpus-driven approach exploited a large number of corpora in order to examine the truth and evidence of a language rule ; meanwhile, corpus-based approach uses a specific corpus as an aid to help students check language rules even these rules have been known

Finally, regarding Data-Driven Learning (DDL), DDL is a type of direct applications (Chen and Flowerdew, 2018) which are, as above-mentioned, used by learners themselves; moreover, DDL proposes the way learners both actively learn and research (Cheng, 2010, p.320) Therefore, to be brief, DDL is a type of learning and is conducted in classroom through various steps

To compare, DDL is a type of corpus-based instructions, but it has some specific charateristics For instance, in DDL, learners acts as researchers by looking

at concordance lines, and learn from those lines Besides, DDL is often designed to learn ; therefore, conditions of searching are easier, and are made favorable for learners to absorb language

The matter of how many steps a learning process of DDL can undertake has been under debates In details, there are models of OHE, III, PPP, and IIII These models would be explained as following

Firstly, the term "OHE" or observation-hypothesize-experiment that is used to refer the learning process with corpora is often mentioned when it comes to corpus-based instructions (Huang, 2016, p.5; Johns, 1994, p 297) However, this OHE is obsolete when more models have been proposed so far Except for studies of Johns (1994) and Huang (2016), other instructions regarding DDL have been developed and intertwined with corpus-based approach

Secondly, Sah (2015) used the instructional process 3"I"s strategy: Illustration-Interaction-Induction which afterwards was evolved into 4"I"s with

"intervention" This process was called DDL instruction by Sah (2015) but in Daskalovska (2013), this 3"I"s was repeatedly used with the name of corpus-based instruction The difference of DDL and corpus-based terms can be partially understood because they are on a continuum (Huang, 2016) Disputably, the 4"I"s was called "corpus-based enquiries", not DDL, in Flowerdew (2009) who is the author of the renewed model In brief, although the term "corpus-based" implying using corpora as partial assistance said by Huang (2016) is suitable, application of DDL activities into corpus-based instructions may find out appropriate instructional modes

Thirdly, Sah (2015), Huang (2016), Smart (2012) and Dufour (2017) mentioned PPP as another model of instruction There are agreements of authors that PPP is sufficient to teach in DDL classrooms (Dufour, 2017, p.21-36)

2.2.3 Previous studies into corpus-based instructions and DDL

Romer (2011) had careful literature reviews of most previous studies about corpora research work The following table demonstrates former studies and their themes in various aspects ; and, to end of the table there are some new unresolved issues that need researching more

Table 1

Previous studies about DDL in classrooms (Rӧmer, 2011)

Emphasis on exploratory aspect ;

Considering DDL as being motivating

find out patterns of language and behaviors

2004a

A traveller instead of a learner

p.359-370

Summaries of DDL benefits in classrooms MICAE website ; Tom Cobb’s

Kaszubski (in press); O’Keefe,

McCarthy &Carter (2007);

(2005 ;2007); Gaskell and Cobb (2004) 2004a

Advantages for error correction in second language writing

Authors Years Main content

Advantages of corpus over traditional

To conclude, there are a great number of benefits of DDL These potentials have been gradually discovered due to different research over time

2.2.4 Corpus studies in Vietnamese conditions

Relatable to data-driven learning in Vietnam, important findings were highlighted in Karras (2016) and Cong-lem & Nguyen (2021) with different approaches Karras (2016) conducted the experimental studies with secondary students (grade 6 to 8) in vocabulary sections in an international school, utilizing Compleat Lexical Tutor, comparing British National Corpus and Corpus of Contemporary American English in comparison with the dictionary-based control group Karras (2016)’s findings were positive results especially if with long-term

DDL lessons Secondly, Cong-lem & Nguyen (2021) used a web-based tool for DDL called LambNLP and conducted a TAM-based survey to understand students perception of technology acceptance and intentions to use, for instance the usefulness

of the website Participants of Cong-lem & Nguyen (2021) were major students in Dalat University Although the findings showed positive attitudes from students, the study confirmed the limitations were from limited numbers of participants

Although corpus studies are fairly new areas, there were a quite some studies relating to other different aspects For instance, Huynh, Nguyen & Nguyen (2022) proposed a new corpus for Vietnamese people to facilitate the process of natural learning process Another new corpus designed for Vietnamese people was from Nguyen, Nguyen & Nguyen (2018) to evaluate sentiment, and this corpus was called Vietnamese student feedback’s corpus Apart from this, a bilingual corpus for translation between English and Vietnamese was introduced by Ngo, Winiwater, and Wloka (2013) In addition, Le, Kettle and Pillay (2020) analyzed the student vocabulary needs of Petroleum students in writing emails Furthermore, Huynh and Nguyen (2020) used corpus softwares to compare two sets of Vietnamese English textbooks to extract vocabulary

To be brief, corpus research studies have been becoming increasingly popular

in Vietnam This would lead to more attention needed to elaborate corpus models in Vietnam with different aspects of language learning and teaching

2.2.5 Previous studies into learning difficulties in corpus-based instruction

Without doubt, whilst there exists a growing global trend in researching corpora, researchers have debates over difficulties with corpus-based instruction Some consent with benefits; in contrast, others, nonetheless, cast a doubt on corpora implication

Difficulties in learning with corpus were mentioned in Poole (2012), Huang (2007), Bunting (2013), Breyer (2009), Caliskan & Kuru Gonen (2018), Farr (2008), Lin & Yi (2015), McCarthy (2008), Zavera (2017), Frankenberg –Garcia (2021), (Jeaco, 2017; Wilson, Hertley, Sharoff and Stephenson, 2010, p.776), and Yunus