INTRODUCTION
Background of the Problem
1.1.1 An overview of writing approaches proposed by theorists and practitioners
Over the past two decades, significant transformations have occurred in writing instruction, driven by three key movements: "Focus on Form," "Focus on the Writer," and "Focus on the Reader" (Tribble, 2006, p 44) These approaches have led to extensive research aimed at enhancing the practicality of writing education, emphasizing both the process of writing and the importance of genre.
A genre-aware approach to writing emphasizes the importance of understanding writing situations and principles, as highlighted by Matsuo and Bevan (2012) Anderson (1993) asserts that genre-awareness is essential for effective written communication, challenging the outdated notion that writing is solely about grammar and translation Successful writing involves mastering both rhetorical structure and grammar (Hyland, 2009) The researchers argue that fostering genre-consciousness among learners empowers them in their writing endeavors The genre approach, alongside the process approach, is recognized as a valuable method that equips students with insights into the nature of writing, as well as the social, cultural, and contextual factors influencing their work.
In Vietnam, the extent and importance of advancements in writing instruction remain unclear, as writing is often the last language skill acquired by foreign and second language learners (Hamp-Lyons & Heasly, 2006) This solitary skill is crucial for effectively conveying messages, but comprehension depends heavily on the organization and presentation of thoughts EFL teachers and learners face the challenge of navigating the rhetorical conventions of English texts (Yan, 2005), requiring them to understand the differences in structure, style, and organization between English and their native language The Vietnamese context of writing instruction has underscored these challenges, particularly in language-focused writing classes.
Many school leavers lack a deep understanding of the nature of writing and the social and cultural contexts that influence it (Matsuo & Bevan, 2012) This issue is particularly evident in the Vietnamese high school setting, where English as a Foreign Language (EFL) students often focus on exam-oriented writing rather than engaging with a diverse range of real-world readers outside the classroom (Luu, 2011, p.1471).
Many students possess extensive linguistic knowledge but often struggle to apply it effectively in writing tasks, as they are typically required to focus on assignments dictated by their teachers rather than topics of personal relevance (Luu, 2010, p.81) Luu (2011) emphasizes that most writing instructors primarily focus on providing students with vocabulary related to the assigned topics and formulating questions to guide their writing.
Teaching writing primarily through a product-oriented approach, as noted by Hoang (2007), focuses on helping students produce error-free texts by following established language models However, this method falls short in enabling students to understand essential text features such as purpose, audience, context, and linguistic conventions As Ly (2007) highlights, the evaluation of writing in Vietnam is often limited to adherence to specific linguistic conventions derived from genre samples, rather than fostering a deeper comprehension of writing as a process.
Ellis (1996) highlights that language teaching principles focusing on processes present a new challenge for Vietnamese EFL teachers Tran (2001; as cited in Ly, 2007) notes that writing is often an isolated activity, with teachers as the sole audience and students remaining passive This reticence may stem from teachers' lack of understanding of writing as a process and their failure to guide students in recognizing the social conventions of specific genres necessary for effective communication Consequently, the insufficient linguistic input and genre-specific writing characteristics lead to superficial ideas that do not meet reader expectations As a result, students may experience declining motivation to write, making it increasingly difficult to improve their writing skills.
Over the past two decades, Vietnam has experienced significant changes in the teaching and learning of English, driven by economic reforms, government mandates, and WTO membership The 1994 decree requiring intermediate English proficiency for government officials and the emphasis on the Common European Framework Reference (CEFR) have heightened the importance of English language skills The Ministry of Education's English Project 2020 highlights the critical role of high school education in enhancing students' language competence, aiming for EFL high school graduates to reach a Pre-Intermediate level (B1) to meet the demands of the integration era Educational settings have increasingly empowered learners' English proficiency for both academic and daily communication Recent years have also brought innovations in teaching methodologies and writing instruction, moving away from traditional grammar and translation approaches However, the extent and impact of these changes in writing instruction remain unclear.
In light of the increasing demands for academic writing and the challenges of modern writing instruction, how can educators effectively assess the impact of current writing strategies on student performance? This question has been a central focus for the researcher, who has dedicated thirteen years to high school education and four years specifically at the research site.
1.1.2 Writing Teaching and Curriculum in the Study Setting
Nguyen Quang Dieu is a gifted high school located in the heart of Cao Lanh city, Dong Thap province This institution, like many other Vietnamese schools, is part of the English Project 2020 initiative.
Ministry of Education (MOET), its mission is to enhance students’ language competence
The Tieng Anh 11 textbook for 11th-grade students emphasizes various text genres, including recounts, narratives, discussions, expository essays, and letter writing Students enrolled in English-major classes receive more intensive training in the language compared to their peers in other subjects While the writing curriculum is set by the Ministry of Education, the choice of English textbooks is determined by school authorities To cater to learners' needs and enhance gifted education, schools often select books from international publishers along with supplementary materials suitable for pre-intermediate learners.
The genre-based approach introduced in recent educational materials has captured the researcher's interest over the past two years; however, concerns remain regarding students' writing performance Despite gaining knowledge of various forms, lexical items, and grammatical rules, students have not shown significant improvement in their writing skills Mini conferences conducted at the beginning and end of each semester indicate that students aspire to enhance their writing abilities but often feel an "invisible pressure" to imitate model texts during the initial stages of writing classes Additionally, they face challenges related to appropriate style, idea development, and time constraints.
The model text plays a crucial role in addressing common writing challenges through tasks that emphasize both "focus on form" and "focus on forms." Reformulation, introduced by Levenston (1978), and reconstruction, proposed by Corder (1971), are effective strategies for enhancing learner engagement and facilitating noticing stimulation, as highlighted by Swain and Lapkin (2002) These approaches contribute significantly to improving writing skills by providing structured support for learners.
According to Ellis (1994), learners who receive formal instruction achieve significantly higher proficiency levels compared to those who do not, as instruction that emphasizes form can accelerate learning However, Montgomery and Eisenstein (1985, as cited in Ellis, 1994) suggest that a combination of "form-oriented" and "meaning-oriented" approaches is essential for effective language acquisition.
Recent studies indicate a shift in writing approaches, highlighting the need for improved Vietnamese writing instruction While reconstruction and reformulation tasks show promise as scaffolding techniques, their effectiveness in the Vietnamese educational context remains unverified due to a lack of research Consequently, the ongoing challenges in writing instruction raise important questions for educators and researchers alike regarding the current state of teaching writing in schools.
1 Which task in genre-based writing instruction is conducive to teaching argumentative genre, reconstruction or reformulation?
2 What happens if students are freed from reading the model essay? Will they better their writing attainment? Will such a release of ideas be effective in argumentation writing?
3 Does the level of grammatical proficiency help much in improving writing skills?
4 Does it really work if EFL high school students are exposed to life-related topics in their daily life?
5 Is implicit instruction conducive to genre-based instruction in general and essay training in particular? Which retains a long-term effect, explicit or implicit instruction?
Aims of the Study
This thesis focuses on three main objectives: first, it investigates how reformulation and reconstruction tasks influence the writing abilities of EFL high school students within a genre-based writing instruction framework Second, it examines the correlation between language proficiency and writing performance among the research participants Lastly, it explores students' perceptions and experiences related to these tasks in their writing development.
6 perspectives on the application of reformulation and reconstruction tasks in the study setting.
Research Questions
The study was conducted to answer the ensuing questions:
1 Is there any difference in writing performance when executing the reconstruction and the reformulation tasks in writing instruction?
2 Is there any correlation between proficiency and writing performance?
3 How do students perceive the effectiveness of the reformulation task stage?
(a) To what extent do they feel confident about reformulation task construction? (b) To what extent do they have anxiety over reformulation task instruction presented?
Research Hypothesis
Based on the basis of the research questions the five hypotheses are formulated as follows:
Research suggests that students excel during the reformulation stage of writing, particularly in their overall performance Additionally, high-proficiency students are expected to surpass their mid- and low-proficiency peers in key areas such as idea development, organization, vocabulary usage, language application, and mechanical accuracy.
- for the second question, there should be a correlation between grammar proficiency and writing ability, which means that a good knowledge of grammar helps students perform well in writing
Recent findings suggest a significant correlation between students' perspectives on reading fluency (RF) and reading comprehension (RC) and their overall performance Learners are expected to articulate their levels of anxiety and confidence regarding these two task types Furthermore, it is believed that implicit instruction can enhance genre-based writing education, with real-world genres playing a crucial role in preparing students for writing effective argumentative essays.
Significance of the Study
This study holds significant importance for both teachers and students at the research site, as it emphasizes the critical role of writing as a productive skill A strong writing ability not only enhances students' English learning and academic performance but also allows them to effectively communicate and adapt to the latest developments in business, science, and their professions The findings are expected to improve students' argumentation writing skills and boost their confidence through various tasks For teachers, the study aims to facilitate the sharing of perspectives and the introduction of effective teaching methods for writing skills, while also reinforcing the direction of writing instruction within a gifted high school context Overall, the study promises to be valuable, informative, and applicable to the specific needs of the research site.
Organization of the Study
The study comprises six chapters, starting with Chapter 1, which outlines the background, research aims, questions, hypothesis, significance, and thesis organization Chapter 2 engages in a scholarly discussion of relevant issues, supported by theoretical concepts, empirical studies, and a conceptual framework Chapter 3 details the research design and methodology, including the research site, participants, instruments, procedures, and analysis methods Chapter 4 presents the results derived from proficiency data, post-tests, questionnaires, and student journals Chapter 5 focuses on discussing the findings, while Chapter 6 concludes with implications, recommendations for future research, and acknowledges the study's limitations.
Definition of Terms
For the sack of clarity, the following terms used in this study gives particular meanings as explained below:
Reconstruction : a forms-focused approach and bottom-up process with explicit instruction to focus on accuracy through three stages of Presentation-Practice-Production
Reformulation: a form-focused and top-down process with implicit instruction to focus on both accuracy and fluency through three stages of Composing-Recast-Revising
Recast: the reformulated and native-like text by teacher and the starting point for learners to first expose and then reconstruct
Explicit instruction: the instruction directed at enabling learners to achieve the rules during the learning process
Implicit instruction: the instruction directed at enabling learners to infer rules without awareness
EFL learner: The term EFL learner refers to those who learn English as a foreign language
The genre-based approach emphasizes the social nature of writing, highlighting the interaction between writers and readers It posits that texts serve specific purposes, and effective communication relies on the reader's ability to recognize these intentions Without this understanding, the success of communication is compromised (Tribble, 1996, p.37).
LITERATURE REVIEW
Views and Trends in Teaching Writing
The traditional perspective on writing viewed it mainly as a method for recording speech, recognizing it as a secondary communication medium (Morris 1996: 24) However, contemporary views emphasize writing as a vital communication skill and a complex cognitive process that demands sustained effort over time (Nunan 1999) This shift has led to a greater appreciation of writing's role in language teaching and learning.
Writing in a second language is a valuable endeavor (Weigle, 2002) Hyland (2003) emphasizes the intricate relationship between the writer, the reader, and the audience in the writing process.
10 text and the context (reality) Writing, therefore, is no longer a means of speech learning but a means of linguistic expression and communication
The three most significant trends in teaching writing over the last 30 years are focusing on the structures, focusing on the process and focusing on the genre Such trends as
The concepts of "Focus on Form," "Focus on the Writer," and "Focus on the Reader" highlight different aspects of writing The first two approaches emphasize the importance of grammatical structure and the writer as an independent creator of text (Tribble, 2006; Hyland, 2003) In contrast, the reader-focused approach prioritizes the audience's needs and the conventions necessary for a written piece to be effectively received (Muncie, 2002).
All writing-related issues mentioned above can be seen as fundamental background for forming writing approaches in L2 composition teaching which are discussed one after another in the following section.
Writing Approaches in the History of L2 Composition Teaching
The traditional product-based approach, also known as the controlled-to-free approach, text-based approach, and guided composition, has been discussed by various scholars (Raimes, 1983; Silva, 1990; as cited in Tangpermpoon, 2008) Brown highlights its significance in the field of writing instruction.
(1994), the approach focuses on the final piece of writing by criteria measurement of grammar, syntax, and mechanics (as cited in Yan, 2005) Badger and White (2000, p
The product-based approach to writing emphasizes the importance of understanding language structure, viewing writing development primarily as a process of imitating texts provided by the teacher.
Obviously, the approach is deemed to be supportive to student writers, especially those who are at low level of proficiency Students are supported by knowledge of grammar,
Utilizing a vocabulary-rich model text before students begin their writing can significantly enhance the quality of their work, resulting in error-free pieces This approach not only aids in sentence transformation and grammar exercises but also benefits both teachers and students in writing-based tasks Consequently, it boosts students' confidence while aligning with the demands of exam-driven teaching.
Product writing has its limitations, primarily due to the reliance on model imitation, which can mislead students about the true purpose of writing This often results in a focus on creating texts primarily for teacher evaluation rather than for meaningful communication with others in real-world contexts Consequently, the lack of motivation and excessive imitation can lead to discouragement and a loss of interest in writing among students.
Many students struggle to identify their target audience and often lack a comprehensive understanding of the writing process, which is essential for crafting effective pieces This approach neglects key aspects of writing, including content analysis and idea development, leading to a gap in their writing skills.
The product-based approach to writing hinders creativity by prioritizing teacher-led decisions and designs, forcing students to practice and reproduce specific language patterns instead of encouraging them to generate their own ideas This method contradicts the essence of writing as a productive and communicative skill, as it limits opportunities for students to negotiate meaning and engage in discussions during class activities Consequently, the emphasis on reproducing texts devoid of creative input diminishes the relevance of the product-based approach compared to other educational methods.
The mid-1970s witnessed the spreading of process-based approach which emphasizes revision and feedback as well as the process of composing The four stages included are
(1) pre-writing, (2) composing/drafting, (3) revising, and (4) editing (Tribble, 1996) In
The new approach emphasizes enhancing linguistic skills like planning and drafting, while downplaying the importance of linguistic knowledge related to grammar and text structure (Badger and White, 2000, p.154).
In other words, process approach seeks to promote students’ writing skills through enhancing their use of effective composing processes
Writing instructions and processes enhance student learning through valuable feedback exchanges By engaging in peer and teacher reviews, students improve their writing skills and gain a better understanding of their target audience This iterative writing process helps them develop effective communication strategies Moreover, creating multiple drafts and receiving constructive feedback significantly contributes to the quality of their final written products.
Process writing, as noted in 2004, is characterized as a recursive rather than a linear approach, emphasizing the significance of revision and the iterative nature of drafting This method, illustrated by the process wheel in Figure 2.2, underscores the necessity of revisiting earlier stages to make essential adjustments, ultimately leading to a polished final product intended for a specific audience.
Figure 2.2.2: The process wheel proposed by Harmer (2004, p.6)
A process-based approach to L2 writing instruction offers significant advantages, particularly through its writer-focused methodology This approach enhances students' skills in planning their writing, addressing rhetorical challenges, clarifying their writing objectives, and assessing potential solutions.
Student writers have the opportunity to explore ideas, negotiate meaning, and enhance their understanding of the audience (Murray, 1985) Collaborating with teachers as facilitators fosters a dynamic and creative environment, allowing students to engage more effectively in the writing process.
Process writing emphasizes language skills over linguistic knowledge, which has sparked some debate and highlighted certain drawbacks While this approach alleviates the pressure on students to replicate a specific model, it can also lead to its own challenges Rodrigues (1985; as cited in Nunan, 1999, p.272) critiques this method, pointing out its potential shortcomings.
Effective writing requires a clear structure, as students benefit from having models to guide their practice and enhance their mechanical skills They also need adequate time to contemplate their ideas, revise their work, and write for genuine audiences According to Badger and White (2000), simply having linguistic knowledge is not enough for learners, as it may not result in successful writing outcomes.
The writing process is often viewed as a uniform set of procedures, leaving student writers unaware of their target audience and the content requirements This approach neglects the social and cultural dimensions of writing, focusing primarily on skills and processes (Atkinson, 2003) As a result, non-proficient L2 learners struggle with understanding genre structures, text formats, and relevant ideas, which hinders their ability to meet readers' expectations Therefore, a genre-based approach is crucial for L2 learners to enhance their writing skills effectively.
2.2.3.1 The concept of genre in the SFL view
In the 1980s, the genre-based approach, rooted in systemic functional theory, gained popularity for its effectiveness in teaching students various written text types This approach follows a teaching and learning cycle that includes modeling a text, joint construction, and independent construction The "Focus on Writer" method encourages writers to connect their personal experiences with new insights on the topic (Yan, 2005) While it emphasizes linguistic skills in writing instruction, genre approaches also highlight the social contexts that influence writing Swales (1990) defines genre as a category of communicative events sharing specific purposes, and Badger and White (2000) assert that genre-based approaches view writing as fundamentally linked to language knowledge and social objectives.
A comparison of writing approaches
Both traditional and modern approaches to writing instruction offer valuable benefits for teachers and students Badger and White (2000) highlight the strengths and weaknesses of these methods, noting that the traditional approach effectively enhances learners' awareness of the learning process.
The "focus on form" approach often undervalues learners' existing knowledge and skills, whereas the process approach offers a more nuanced evaluation, enhancing writing competence However, it has limitations, such as applying the same processes across different writing types and providing insufficient linguistic input In contrast, genre-based approaches recognize the social context of writing and emphasize its purpose, allowing for conscious learning through imitation and analysis, as noted by Badger and White (2000).
Seen as an advanced improvement of good features of “focus-on form” approach and
The "focus-on-writer" and genre-based approaches effectively bridge previous writing methodologies by highlighting the essential relationship among the final product, reader expectations, and linguistic conventions This approach underscores the social purposes of a text and outlines necessary steps for writers to achieve their goals, as noted by Christie & Rothery (1987) Key steps include exploring context, drafting, receiving feedback, and revising prior to publication While similar to the process approach, the genre approach emphasizes a multi-step process rather than a single attempt to create a finished product (Nunan, 2000) The teaching-learning cycle comprises three main stages: modeling, joint construction, and independent construction, all aimed at enhancing form-focused knowledge such as grammar and organization within specific text types These stages guide students in understanding how to structure their writing to fulfill social functions while encouraging them to apply their learned skills independently.
21 function in product writing and process writing was balanced by applying a genre-based approach
However, there remain different features between genre-based approach in relation to the two counterparts
The product-based approach to writing emphasizes habit formation and imitation, often neglecting contextualization, whereas the genre-based approach prioritizes the relationship between text and context (Butt et al, 2003) While both methodologies recognize the significance of linguistic conventions, they differ in their focus The product-based approach values formal correction and grammatical rules but does not incorporate these elements into its writing instructions.
Genre-based writing emphasizes a strong connection between form and function, contrasting with product-based writing where students are often passive recipients and teachers are seen as knowledge providers In genre-based approaches, students are encouraged to engage actively, fostering a collaborative relationship with their teachers This method motivates students to express and negotiate ideas throughout the learning process Initially, the genre-based writing teacher acts as an instructor and facilitator, gradually stepping back as students gain confidence and independence in mastering the necessary forms and functions for their writing.
The genre-based approach to writing significantly differs from the process-based approach, which views writing primarily as an individual cognitive activity While the process-based method emphasizes solitary brainstorming and internal reflection without interaction, the genre-based approach fosters social engagement among students In genre-based writing, collaboration and communication are integral, allowing students to interact more frequently as they develop their ideas and receive feedback from peers and teachers throughout the writing process.
22 ideas in the first two stages of modeling and joint construction They are once again motivated to share the ideas and comments after finishing their independent construction
In other words, genre-based approach creates more interactions between teacher and students, among students and students compared with process-based approach
The process-genre approach integrates process models and genre theories to address writing practices and learners' needs effectively This combined method enables teachers to adopt flexible strategies in writing classes, fostering innovative thinking about writing By engaging in nonlinear processes such as pre-writing, drafting, revising, and editing, students explore the relationship between purpose and form According to Yan (2005), this approach increases students' awareness of different text types and the composing process.
The genre-based approach emphasizes the significance of context in language use for specific text types In L2 writing classes, it is essential to teach students about context, audience, purpose, and linguistic conventions to align with readers' expectations Engaging in reconstruction and reformulation tasks can effectively enhance these critical factors The following section will describe these tasks and their role in genre writing instruction.
Reconstruction and Reformulation
The concept introduced by Corder in 1971 involves substituting a learner's unique sentence containing grammatical errors with a grammatically correct sentence that conveys the same meaning (Qui & Lapkin, 2001, p.281) This process, known as reconstruction, primarily focuses on addressing grammatical errors at the sentence level.
Reformulation activities center around a teacher's native-like text, which serves as the foundation for students to first engage with and then reconstruct This process involves matching their reformulated text with the original, fostering interaction and collaboration among learners Unlike traditional comprehension activities, reformulation emphasizes a top-down, task-based approach that encourages students to focus on producing the target language Swain and Lapkin (1995; cited in Thornbury, 2007) highlight that L2 learners can enhance their language skills through this extra effort, as they become more aware of linguistic challenges and actively engage with their second language.
Among “tried-and-true classroom activities” which “fall within this generic type” (Thornbury 1997, p.330) such as copying, memorization and recitation of text, dictation,
“rhetorical transformation”, translation and re-translation, Storyboard-type computer games, linguistic heterogeneity may be superior in case of using authentic texts
The concept of rewriting an L2 learner's composition by a native speaker, first proposed by Levenston in 1978, emphasizes the transformation of the text during the writing process (Barjesteh, 2014) This approach maintains the original draft's content while addressing issues such as awkwardness, rhetorical inadequacy, logical confusion, style, and grammatical errors (Qui & Lapkin, 2001) A key advantage of this method is that it encourages learners to effectively utilize their language skills, enabling them to encode their intended meanings to achieve their desired outcomes, as noted by Willis in 1990 (cited in Tribble, 1996).
Reformulation tasks play a crucial role in writing development by immersing learners in the target behavior after the initial drafting process, rather than providing a model beforehand This approach allows learners at different stages and with varying needs to notice and explore diverse language features By reversing the traditional instruction model of Presentation, Practice, and Production, reformulation tasks—such as composing, contrasting, and revising—offer immediate and effective input for enhancing second language writing skills.
2.4.3 Properties of “Focus on Form” ( RF) and Focus on Forms (RC)
Long (1991, as cited in Ellis 1994) emphasized the crucial difference between "focus-on-form" and "focus-on-forms." Focus-on-forms is associated with a structural syllabus where linguistic forms are taught and assessed in isolation, alternating between meaning and form In contrast, focus-on-form promotes task-based instruction that directs learners' attention to specific linguistic features during communicative activities, leading to faster learning and improved proficiency, while focus-on-forms is considered counterproductive.
In Doughty’s (1991) study, a comparison was made between a meaning-oriented group, a rule-oriented group, and a control group The findings revealed that both the meaning-oriented and rule-oriented groups significantly outperformed the control group in their ability to understand relativity Notably, the meaning-oriented group demonstrated superior comprehension of the text content compared to the others.
From empirical study of Alamari (1982), Carroll Swain and Roberge (1992), Schachter
(1991) The Lightbrown and Spada (1990), Ellis (1994, p.835) concluded that a form-
The focused approach has demonstrated its appeal by effectively integrating fluency and accuracy work in language learning While some argue that a form-focused approach may be prematurely dismissed, there is substantial evidence supporting its practicality in classroom instruction This approach not only aids learners in enhancing their accuracy but also complements the goals of fluency and accuracy established in formal instruction.
In conclusion, the focus-on-form approach encourages learners to prioritize the formal properties of language while attempting to communicate Through meaning negotiation and corrective feedback, this form-focused strategy appears to enhance language acquisition, as supported by Lightbrown and Spada (1990) and cited in Ellis (1994, p 646).
N Ellis (1991), Fotos (1993), Van Pattern and Cadierno (1993) adaptation, proved that this approach should be implemented with some care Firstly, it should go with explicit presented rules and supported examples Secondly, the instruction is aimed at
“developing explicit knowledge through consciousness-raising activities” Lastly, it is connected to making learners’ establish form-meaning connection during
2.4.4 Studies on RC and RF
Tribble (1996) discusses two approaches to argumentation in writing: the bottom-up approach exemplified by “the Jordan materials,” which emphasizes writing activities leading to text, and the top-down approach represented by “the White and McGovern materials,” which focuses on deriving writing activities from existing text These concepts are closely linked to the notions of “reformulation” and “reconstruction” explored in the study.
Thornbury (1997) realized the potential for focusing learners’ attention on form (that is noticing both what is present in input and absent in output) has not received much
The article examines the role of attention in English Language Teaching (ELT) methodology, specifically focusing on techniques that enhance both meaning-driven and form-focused aspects of reformulation and reconstruction A case study by Qui and Lapkin (2001) explored the relationship between noticing, composing, and feedback processing among L2 learners The study involved two Mandarin-speaking EFL learners with varying proficiency levels, who produced texts based on picture prompts and compared their drafts with reformulated versions Findings indicated that language noticing significantly influences learners' writing quality, emphasizing the importance of noticing over the quality of the output itself The study suggests that awareness-raising activities could benefit low-proficiency students by helping them identify gaps between their original texts and recasts Additionally, interactions with teachers and peers could enhance the noticing process However, the study's conclusions may be limited by its small sample size.
A study by Hanaoka (2007) explored the noticing process of 37 Japanese students through four stages In the first stage, participants created picture-prompted stories, while in the second stage, they compared their initial drafts to two models of native-like writing This investigation aimed to understand how the noticing of differences influenced their immediate writing skills.
The study examined the impact of revision and delayed revision in stages 3 and 4, revealing two key differences compared to Qi and Lapkin (2001): the use of note-taking to measure noticing and the implementation of two native-like models instead of reformulated texts Participants demonstrated significant success in noticing lexical features and integrating them into their subsequent revisions Additionally, more proficient learners exhibited greater noticing capabilities than their less proficient counterparts The findings indicate that only the features noticed through outputs were frequently included and retained better than unrelated features Lastly, the study highlighted a lack of attention to students' perceptions regarding the treatment applied.
Mayo (2002) examined the effectiveness of two form-focused tasks, dicto-gloss and text construction, among advanced EFL learners The findings revealed that learners' focus varied depending on the task, with linguistic features being specifically targeted in the text construction task The study emphasized the importance of thoughtfully selecting tasks and the methodologies used to engage with them.
Matsuo and Bevan (2002) conducted a comparative study to evaluate the effectiveness of a micro-level innovation in teaching methodology, specifically a genre-based process approach, for second-year English majors at a Japanese university The research utilized two distinct syllabi: one featuring single genre texts and qualitative data derived from observations and student feedback, to analyze syllabus design choices and student achievement Recommendations for pedagogy and curriculum development were also provided In Class A, students engaged with a sample academic essay to prevent genre imitation, employing brainstorming and discussion techniques alongside mind-mapping to enhance essay organization and loop writing to reduce redundancy Conversely, Class B students, who did not view the sample text, were tasked with conceptualizing inventions aimed at improving customer lives and were required to write about these inventions in four different genres, such as business letters and catalog copy, directed towards an imaginary audience, a company owner.
The genre-based approach applied in the study
2.5.1 Writing teaching in the study setting
Writing was historically seen as a secondary skill in language learning, often overshadowed by grammar, dictation, and reading exercises Initially, it was utilized primarily at the sentence level However, the introduction of MOET textbooks in 2007 elevated the importance of all four language skills and emphasized integrated-skill learning Consequently, writing began to be taught as a distinct skill, focusing on paragraphs, recounts, and letters Despite its significance, essay writing remains the most challenging aspect and is often given less attention in high school curricula.
In today's high school environment, students are expected to reach a B1 level by the end of twelfth grade, with essay writing being a crucial component of the English gifted writing curriculum and a requirement for the annual MOET examination Candidates face the challenge of crafting a 350-word persuasive essay within a limited timeframe, prompting both teachers and students to seek effective strategies for academic writing As Tribble (1996) questions what distinguishes one piece of writing from another, it becomes essential to consider the role of contextual knowledge, the necessary writing skills, and the effective approaches to producing acceptable written work Ultimately, a student's ability to meet the demands of argumentative essays relies heavily on the writing strategies employed.
2.5.2 The Sydney School applied in the study setting
The writing approach conducted in the study setting is the Sydney School mentioned above, which involves not simply activities in a writing process, but also writing purpose,
In educational settings, writing is often perceived as a process where students replicate texts based on the genres provided by instructors This approach emphasizes that learning occurs through imitation and exploration of various models By engaging with multiple examples of a specific genre, learners enhance their writing skills within that genre The wheel model introduced by Hammond (1992) aids students in recognizing the unique features of different genres, allowing them to draw on their previous reading and writing experiences when tasked with creating new works in familiar styles (Badger & White, 2000, p 155-156).
Modeling is the time when the target genre that students should construct is introduced to them At this stage, discussion focuses on the text structure and language Hammer
According to 2004, planning is a crucial phase in the writing process where writers must consider the purpose of their writing, identify their target audience, and organize the content structure effectively.
Joint negotiation of text involves learners engaging in exercises that manipulate language forms, fostering a collaborative process between teachers and students This stage includes reading, researching, and sharing information, akin to collaborative writing as described by Hammer (2004) It encourages drafting, reflection, and revision, ultimately leading to the creation of a successful final product.
Independent construction of text is the final phase in which learners produce actual texts through activities such as choosing a topic, researching and writing (Hammon, 1992, p
Reconstruction and reformulation tasks are utilized to compare traditional writing teaching methods with innovative approaches Despite their differing characteristics, both task types show promise for effective application in the educational context.
It can be seen that the first and second stage of the teaching-learning cycle closely connects to Scaffolding The notion of Scaffolding, as Vygotsky (1978) and Bruner
In 1990, it was emphasized that interaction with peers and the experiences of others play a crucial role in advancing learners from their current performance levels to their potential capabilities This concept of scaffolding is evident in genre-based instruction, where teachers and students collaboratively construct texts Two key ideas arise: "shared consciousness," where learners benefit from working together, and "borrowed consciousness," which highlights the enhanced understanding gained from collaborating with knowledgeable peers Trowbridge and Bybee (1990, as cited in Hyland, 2009) introduced the Five E model (Engage, Explore, Explain, Extend, Evaluate), allowing students to enter at any stage based on their prior knowledge of genres and enabling teachers to revisit earlier stages for reinforcement Harmer, in "How to Teach English," presents the ESA (Engage-Study-Activate) framework as a guiding star for teaching language skills He also notes that the writing process involves stages such as planning, drafting, editing, and finalizing, emphasizing that writing is not a linear journey but a recursive one, where re-planning, re-drafting, and re-editing occur in multiple directions to achieve the final draft.
Figure 2.5.2: Demonstration of Teaching and learning cycle (Adopted from Callahagan & Rothery, 1988, p 39)
2.5.3 The argumentative essays in the study
Expository and argumentative writing tasks are cognitively demanding yet less communicative than narrative and descriptive forms While essay writing can be challenging, it is particularly appealing to gifted students who seek to understand and master this skill They recognize that even minimal practice can enhance their abilities for future academic pursuits The treatment includes four types of argumentative essays, specifically the "For and Against" essay.
“Providing Solutions to Problem essay”, “ Opinion essay” and “Discursive essay” These types are challenging to students who are looking for easy-to-grasp approach for their training
2.5.4 The application of genre-based approach to teaching English writing at the study setting
Chapter 1 presented the fact that L2 student writers are in short of the sufficient knowledge in terms of language competence and the process of text composing, which causes them lots of difficulties when interpreting their ideas into a readable text (Richards
The genre-based approach, as noted by Renandaya (2002) and cited in Luu (2011), effectively addresses the gap in students' understanding of text forms and functions by guiding them through the writing process of specific text types This method includes activities such as drafting, peer feedback, teacher feedback, and revision, making it particularly suitable for Nguyen Quang Dieu gifted high school, where many students require exposure to argumentation genres and writing instruction to successfully create their own compositions.
The argumentative essay demands a robust understanding of genre-based knowledge combined with students' original ideas In this study, a genre-based approach facilitates writing instruction through a three-stage teaching and learning cycle, incorporating reconstruction and reformulation tasks that are highly effective in L2 writing instruction Thornbury (1997) highlights the significant potential of these tasks in enhancing writing skills.
“focusing learners’ attention on form”
The study investigates various writing approaches and the challenges students face, such as limited vocabulary related to the topic, insufficient structural knowledge, and the pressure of drafting It highlights the concepts of "process trap" and "instant writing," emphasizing how the time dedicated to the writing process can impact student performance.
Over-planning can hinder a writer's spontaneity and creativity, making the writing process feel restrictive Additionally, dedicating excessive time to revising second and third drafts can lead to an extended cycle of reflection and editing Encouraging instant writing prompts students to write spontaneously, fostering their creative development.
39 students’ writing fluency, a part of writing proficiency In reality, not many students are willing to start writing within a narrow time line or spend much time on writing many times.
The conceptual framework
This article discusses the theoretical aspects of writing approaches, highlighting both shared and conflicting ideas along with their empirical validation The lack of satisfactory answers in previous findings has prompted this research To address potential issues, a well-defined conceptual framework is established to guide the researcher through each step of the investigation, focusing on several core facets.
Research indicates that genre-based instruction significantly enhances writing performance This study focuses on two specific writing instruction methods: reconstruction and reformulation Each of these approaches has unique characteristics that may influence various aspects of writing performance, including idea development, organization, vocabulary, language use, and mechanics.
This study will thoroughly investigate how writers' age and proficiency levels influence writing ability, despite the common focus on concise and informative writing skills Additionally, students may face challenges when comparing two writing tasks, impacting their learning experience These issues will be explored through the use of questionnaires and journals.
Writing performance in Post-test 2
Writing identification problems perceived by students
Writing noticing perceived by teachers
+Form-focused +Top-down process +Accuracy & Fluency-focused +Implicit Instruction
This study will adhere closely to the established theoretical framework to effectively achieve its research objectives.
Chapter summary
This article evaluates three primary approaches to teaching English writing, highlighting their strengths and weaknesses The researcher proposes an innovative method that incorporates reconstruction and reformulation in argumentation, specifically designed for 11th-grade gifted students A conceptual framework is provided to outline the implementation of this new approach within the study's context The subsequent chapter will detail the research site, participants, teaching procedures, data collection methods, and data analysis strategies.