INTRODUCTION
Research background and research rationale
In today's rapidly changing society, teachers must engage in continuous professional development, starting from their undergraduate studies They can enhance their teaching skills not only through formal education, such as lectures and workshops, but also through their practical experiences in the classroom Reflective teaching (RT) serves as a valuable method for teachers to learn from their experiences, fostering lifelong learning by enabling them to generate and retain personal insights about English language teaching (ELT) (Çimer et al., 2013; Finlay, 2008).
Reflective teaching (RT) is a continuous process where educators gain insights into their teaching practices by evaluating different aspects of their experiences to enhance their performance (Farrell, 2015; Zeichner & Liston, 1996) Research indicates that RT is particularly advantageous for English teachers as it helps them identify their strengths and weaknesses, fosters critical thinking and examination skills, deepens their understanding of teaching methodologies, and aids in planning future professional development (Al-Ahdal & Al-Ahdal, 2014; Çimer et al., 2013; Malmir, 2018; Rozimela & Tiarina, 2017) Given its significance, numerous studies have investigated in-service English teachers' perceptions of RT and their reflective practices (Moghaddam, 2019; Shukri, 2014; Bell).
2010), impacts of RT on their performance, self-efficacy, teaching effectiveness and
PD (Malmir, 2018; Motallebzadeh et al., 2018; Wichadee, 2011) Those studies generally shared the consistent findings that RT has positive impacts on teachers’ performance and continuous PD
Additionally, a number of significant studies were conducted to examine pre- service English teachers’ RT, such as, their focus of reflections (Albakri et al., 2017;
Astika, 2014), their perceptions towards RT and using reflective journals (Alsuhaibani, 2019; Kim, 2018), impacts of RT on their teaching performance (Rozimela & Tiarina,
Recent studies indicate that pre-service teachers often reflect on their classroom teaching experiences, focusing on their teaching skills, strengths, and weaknesses, while generally maintaining a positive attitude towards the benefits of reflective teaching (RT).
Research on pre-service teachers' perceptions of reflective teaching (RT), the use of reflective tools, and the challenges faced during reflection is limited, particularly in Vietnam Few studies have examined how RT is viewed and utilized by English Language Teaching (ELT) majors in their training As a senior student at the University of Foreign Languages, Hue University (HUFL), I have observed that while RT is promoted in various ELT courses, many of my peers struggle to determine what to reflect on and how to do so effectively Gaining further insights into how students in this environment perceive and implement RT is crucial for enhancing the teacher education program at HUFL and similar institutions.
For the aforementioned theoretical and practical reasons, the research entitled
“An investigation into how ELT majored students learn to teach through reflective teaching” was carried out.
Research aims and research questions
This study aims to examine the perceptions of English Language Teaching (ELT) students regarding reflective teaching (RT) and to investigate how RT enhances their learning process in becoming effective educators.
To achieve these two major aims, this study seeks to answer the following questions:
(1) How do ELT-majored students perceive RT?
(2) In what ways does RT facilitate the process ELT-majored students learn to teach?
Research scope
The study has been carried out for five months, from December 2021 to May
2022 at the context of HUFL – a public university in the central of Vietnam
This study investigates the perceptions of English Language Teaching (ELT) majors regarding reflective teaching (RT) and its role in enhancing their teaching skills It categorizes their understanding of RT into three key areas, providing insights into how these perceptions influence their learning to teach effectively.
The study explores student teachers' perceptions of the benefits and challenges of reflective teaching (RT) within the Methodology 6A – Teaching Practicum course It investigates how these student teachers learn to teach through RT by analyzing their reflective processes, the tools and activities they use, and their reflections on lessons learned Additionally, the research highlights the advantages and difficulties they encounter while writing reflective journals.
Research significance
This study aims to provide empirical evidence on reflective teaching (RT) within teacher training and education The findings will help English Language Teaching (ELT) students better understand their perceptions and experiences of RT, allowing them to develop effective strategies for enhancing their teaching-learning process and reflective competence, which is essential for their professional development Additionally, the insights gained from this research will enable lecturers to understand the challenges and limitations faced by their students in RT, allowing them to tailor their teaching activities to optimize the learning experience for future English teachers.
Thesis structure
The thesis comprises six chapters which are:
Chapter 1 – Introduction: presents the research background and rationale to conduct the study, identifies the research aims and research questions, describes the scope and significance of the study
Chapter 2 – Literature review: provides an overview of the literature related to pre-service English teachers’ RT and learning to teach with critical analysis and synthesis of prior studies and theories, and then states the research gaps
Chapter 3 – Research methodology: justifies the research approaches adopted; describes the participants, data collection tools and procedures; explains the data analysis process as well as the research reliability, validity and ethics
Chapter 4 – Findings: reports the findings related to the two research questions
Chapter 5 – Discussion: analyzes the findings in light of theoretical perspectives on RT and previous research to provide profound insights into the ELT- majors’ process of learning to teach through RT
Chapter 6 – Conclusion and implications: restates the research results, proposes the pedagogical implications, suggests the limitations and orientations for future research
LITERATURE REVIEW
The concept of “Reflective teaching” (RT)
John Dewey (1933), a pioneer in educational reflection, defines it as an "active, persistent, and careful consideration of any belief or supposed form of knowledge" based on its supporting grounds and subsequent conclusions (p.6) His concept highlights two key phases: perceiving and interpreting past experiences, with the former serving as the foundation for the latter (Rozimela & Tiarina, 2017) While Dewey emphasizes the characteristics of reflection for experiential learning, he does not classify its aims or methods Li and Ye (2016) point out that Dewey's definition differentiates between "routine action" and "reflective action."
Dewey asserts that teachers' reflections stem from their past experiences, suggesting that such reflections occur after teaching practices In contrast, Schon (1987) and Killion and Todnem (1991) argue that teachers engage in reflective thinking not only post-teaching but also during and prior to their instructional activities.
Reflective Teaching (RT) is a cognitive process that enables educators to derive new insights from their teaching experiences According to Tice (2004), RT involves examining classroom practices, understanding their purposes, and assessing teaching effectiveness through self-observation and self-evaluation (as cited in Motallebzadeh et al., 2018) Moreover, RT encompasses not only the acquisition of new insights but also their application to enhance teaching practices by identifying specific RT activities.
Pennington (1992, as cited in Al-Ahdal & Al-Ahdal, 2014) and Zeichner and Liston
Reflective Teaching (RT) involves teachers actively engaging in their professional practices by collecting data on their teaching experiences, examining their assumptions, addressing classroom dilemmas, and applying insights for critical reflection Van Manen (1991) emphasizes that RT is a process where teachers utilize critical thinking through careful deliberation, analysis, and decision-making related to their teaching methods.
According to Farrell (2015), reflective teaching (RT) is a cognitive process that involves teachers systematically gathering data about their teaching practices and engaging in discussions with others to make informed decisions regarding their methods both in and out of the classroom This definition emphasizes the primary goal of RT—making informed decisions about teaching practices—while also outlining key activities involved, such as data collection and analysis.
Reflective teaching (RT) has been defined in various ways, emphasizing its characteristics as a method of learning from experiences (Dewey, 1933), its cognitive activities (Tice, 2004), and its processes and objectives (Van Manen, 1991; Zeichner & ).
According to Farrell (2015), Reflective Teaching (RT) is defined as a continuous process where educators gain valuable insights into their teaching practices This involves examining and evaluating different aspects of their teaching experiences, ultimately aiming to make informed decisions for performance improvement.
Different models to classify reflection in teaching
The existing literature highlights diverse models of reflection in teaching, examining reflective thinking (RT) from multiple perspectives, including the duration and dimensions of reflection, as discussed by Jay & Johnson (2002), Killion & Todnem (1991), Schön (1983), and Van Manen (1977).
2.2.1 Three chronological types of reflection
Considering the period when RT practice takes place, Schon (1983) categorizes reflection into two types that are reflection-in-action and reflection-on-action Later,
Killion and Todnemadded (1991) added another type named reflection-for-action, which is proactive in nature (Fakazli, 2021; Rozimela & Tiarina, 2017)
Reflection-in-action, often referred to as thinking-while-doing, occurs when unexpected challenges arise during lesson delivery (Afshar & Farahani, 2014) According to Çimer et al (2013), this process involves real-time monitoring of actions and the application of prior knowledge to comprehend the situation and make necessary adjustments promptly.
Reflection-on-action, also known as after-the-event reflection, involves critically analyzing past events to evaluate strengths and weaknesses in teaching practices (Afshar & Farahani, 2014) This process allows educators to identify challenges, explore potential solutions, and make informed decisions for future teaching strategies.
As a result, new insights may occur and teachers are likely to gain personal knowledge about the situation or experience (Çimer et al., 2013)
In reflection-for-action, teachers plan future actions by analyzing their past experiences (Rozimela & Tiarina, 2017) This process follows reflection-in-action and reflection-on-action, enabling educators to determine appropriate classroom strategies, prepare for upcoming tasks, anticipate potential challenges, and devise effective management techniques (Afshar & Farahani, 2014; Karnieli-Miller, 2020).
Jay and Johnson (2002) build a typology of reflection involving three dimensions for RT (Fat’hi & Behzadpour, 2011; Finlay, 2008), including descriptive reflection, comparative reflection, and critical reflection
The first dimension of reflective practice is descriptive reflection, which involves identifying, describing, and recognizing problems (Fat’hi & Behzadpour, 2011) In this dimension, teachers engage in self-reflection by asking questions such as, “What is happening? Is this working, and for whom? How am I feeling? What do I not understand?” (Finlay, 2008, p.8).
In the process of reflective practice, teachers actively seek to understand diverse perspectives and alternative viewpoints that may differ from their own (Fat’hi & Behzadpour, 2011) To enhance their reflective thinking, educators should consult others for insights on event descriptions, explanations, and potential solutions to address issues that are not functioning effectively (Finlay, 2008).
Critical reflection requires teachers to consider various perspectives surrounding a situation or problem, including those of students, educators, the school, and the broader society (Farrell, 2004, as cited in Fat’hi & Behzadpour, 2011) This process fosters new insights by examining the implications of the issue through alternative viewpoints, personal morals and ethics, as well as the political aspects of the educational environment (Finlay).
Van Manen (1977) developed a reflective model encompassing three domains: technical rationality, practical rationality, and critical rationality Each domain addresses a distinct aspect of education (Al-Ahdal & Al-Ahdal, 2014; Bell, 2010; Kửmỹr & Gỹn, 2016).
Technical rationality in the classroom focuses on the efficiency of instruction, emphasizing the importance of classroom practices and events to achieve predetermined objectives (Al-Ahdal & Al-Ahdal, 2014; Bell, 2010) This reflection on classroom practices aligns with the concept of descriptive reflection as outlined by Jay and Johnson (2002).
Secondly, practical rationality involves the interpretation of assumptions and educational goals in practice, it focuses on understanding the learning experiences of students (Al-Ahdal & Al-Ahdal, 2014; Kửmỹr & Gỹn, 2016)
Critical rationality addresses the values and ethical dimensions within the teaching context, focusing on the moral and social implications of classroom practices (Al-Ahdal & Al-Ahdal, 2014; Kửmỹr & Gỹn, 2016) This concept is also integrated into Jay and Johnson's (2002) model (refer to section 2.2.2).
In this current study, the model of Jay and Johnson (2002) and Van Manen
(1977) would be adopted to discuss the domain and aspects reflected by the ELT- majored students to understand their reflections and how they learn to teach through
Process of reflective teaching
According to Çimer et al (2013), the process of reflective teaching (RT) should be structured into four stages, drawing on experiential learning theory This theory posits that effective learning, including the development of teaching skills, relies on the combination of personal experiences and reflective practices.
According to Çimer et al (2013), the RT process begins with a problem, unexpected event or a troublesome experience that the teacher steps back to describe and examine
The second stage involves observation and reflection, where the teacher monitors and assesses the problem by gathering data on beliefs, values, attitudes, feelings, ideas, and actions of both themselves and the students This analysis is crucial for the teacher to evaluate the issues at hand, enabling informed decision-making and sound judgments.
In the third stage, the teacher explores various alternative perspectives and approaches by seeking out new information, techniques, or processes to tackle the problem This process is designed to formulate new hypotheses that can clarify the events and provide direction for action.
In the final stage of the cycle, the teacher deliberately chooses to experiment with new theories, assumptions, or knowledge This process is cyclical, as after testing these ideas, the teacher initiates the next cycle by revisiting the four steps once again.
In the same vein, Islam (2015) suggests a process of RT with four stages that take place continuously, as illustrated in Figure 1
Stage 1: Collecting information The teacher gathers information about what happens in the class by various ways such as taking notes, observing other classes, recording lessons, and students' feedback
Stage 2: Thinking about the areas identified and the problems addressed The individual teacher has to think carefully about the teaching aspects that need to be refined The teacher can discuss the findings with his or her colleagues and consider their opinions to trigger evaluation and decision-making
Figure 1: Reflective teaching cycle (Islam, 2015, p.85)
Stage 3: Plan for implementation After making decisions on the necessary changes, the teacher needs to design and organize the plan for implementation of the changes properly and carefully to avoid confusion and uncertainty for students
Stage 4: Final implementation The teacher implements the solutions or changes with proper vigilance and sophistication in his or her classroom
Stage 1 of the next process: The teacher recollects information and analyzes the effect or result of the changed action, such as, considering its effectiveness and outcomes
Abakri et al (2017) propose a four-step process for RT, which involves describing the event, analyzing and interpreting the occurrences, inferring the overall meaning and application, and suggesting implications for future actions.
Prior research identifies four key stages in the reflective thinking (RT) process, which forms a continuous cycle: gathering information, analyzing experiences, developing alternative plans, and implementing solutions or changes, followed by further information collection.
Tools for reflective teaching practice
To enhance reflective teaching (RT), educators are encouraged to utilize diverse methods and tools for capturing their thoughts and responses to teaching experiences (Richards & Lockhart, 2007) Effective RT can be achieved through a variety of individual or collaborative approaches, including teaching journals, diaries, lesson reports, critical friends groups, classroom observations, and action research (Farrel, 2018; Islam, 2015; Fakazli, 2021; Nguyen, Trinh & Vo, 2018).
Richards & Lockhart, 2007; Robinson et al., 2001)
Richards and Lockhart (2007) describe a reflective journal as a written account by teachers or student teachers responding to teaching experiences They emphasize that maintaining a journal fulfills two key functions: it records events and ideas for future reflection, and it stimulates insights into teaching by facilitating a discovery process through writing.
Teachers can enhance their reflective practice by maintaining journals through two key stages The first stage involves dedicating five to ten minutes after each lesson to consistently document their thoughts, ideally on a daily or weekly basis The second stage focuses on the regular review of these journal entries to identify and clarify teaching challenges.
Journal writing offers significant benefits for both in-service and pre-service teachers, enhancing their reflective practices (Farrell, 2018; Richards & Lockhart, 2007) Regularly engaging in reflective journaling helps educators clarify their thoughts, examine their beliefs and practices, and increase their awareness of their teaching styles, ultimately allowing them to monitor their own practices more effectively (Farrell, 2013) Additionally, research by Abednia et al (2013) supports this view, demonstrating that reflective journaling fosters self-awareness and deepens personal understanding of the teaching profession.
Journal writing offers valuable insights into classroom experiences by documenting teachers' responses to classroom events, identifying challenges in the teaching process, highlighting key elements of lessons or school activities, generating ideas for future reflection, and serving as reminders for necessary actions (Richards and Lockhart).
2007) Writing reflective journals, hence, can promote teachers’ reflective ability and
12 reasoning skills, and engaging in dialogue with teacher educators (Abednia et al.,
Keeping reflective journals enhances peer collaboration in teacher education, fostering collegial interactions and diverse perspectives on teaching This practice contributes significantly to professional development as a whole (Richards and Lockhart, 2007).
Journal writing presents inherent challenges, as maintaining a reflective journal can be time-consuming and demanding (Fakazili, 2021) Additionally, educators often struggle with a lack of understanding regarding reflective thinking and the process of writing effective reflective journals (Abednia et al., 2013).
2.4.2 Other tools and ways for reflective teaching
In addition to writing RT journals, various tools and methods can enhance RT practice, including video record analysis, peer observation, feedback exchange, surveys, action research, and critical friend groups, all of which will be examined.
Reflective video analysis, as defined by Fakazli (2021), allows teachers to record and review their teaching performances to enhance teaching quality These recordings enable repeated viewings, capturing intricate details of lessons, including the actual language used by both teachers and learners, which may not be easily observed through other methods (Richards & Lockhart).
Reflective video analysis offers several benefits for teachers, such as promoting reflective thinking, enhancing awareness of teaching practices, and facilitating detailed evaluations of performance (Fakazli, 2021) However, this method also has drawbacks, including limited recording range, time-consuming review processes, potential disruptions caused by recording devices, and the extensive setup and analysis time required (Richards & Lockhart, 2007).
Peer observation is a process where educators visit each other's classrooms to gather insights on teaching practices, rather than to evaluate performance (Richards & Lockhart, 2007) According to Pacheco (2005), such observations enhance teachers' understanding of classroom dynamics, facilitating informed decision-making and fostering stronger relationships among colleagues However, challenges exist in this practice Truong and Truong (2012) identify several issues, including the potential for unrealistic lessons due to over-preparation, reluctance from both teachers and students to be observed, and challenges in providing constructive feedback Additionally, student teachers face their own obstacles, such as limited language skills and a lack of effective observation techniques and tools.
Notably, the crucial reflective activity related to peer observation is feedback, which is considered as an integral part in pre-service teachers’ micro-teaching
Research indicates that pre-service English teachers generally hold positive views on the roles and effectiveness of feedback in micro-teaching (Koc & Ilya, 2016) However, many participants feel that their peer feedback lacks effectiveness A study by Erdemir and Yeşilỗınar (2021) found that while the instructor's feedback was deemed useful, peer feedback was often criticized for being undetailed, inefficient, and subjective.
Surveys and questionnaires are effective tools for exploring various aspects of teaching and learning, as noted by Richards and Lockhart (2007) They enable educators to gather valuable insights into students' attitudes regarding teaching methods, facilitating reflection and improvement in instructional practices (Al-Ahdal & Al-Awaid, 2014; Islam, 2015).
Action research, as defined by Richards and Lockhart (2007), is a teacher-initiated investigation within the classroom aimed at enhancing the teacher's understanding of teaching and learning processes This approach provides a foundation for implementing changes in classroom practices and usually involves small-scale studies.
14 investigative projects in the teacher's own classroom, and consists of a number of phases which often recur in cycles: Planning Action Observation Reflection
A critical friend group, as defined by Farrell (2018), consists of teachers who engage in collaborative discussions aimed at enhancing the quality of language teaching and learning This relationship fosters reflection and awareness of classroom dynamics, allowing teachers to receive advice in a supportive manner rather than as mere consultancy Such groups provide a platform for teachers to articulate their thoughts, gain constructive feedback, and explore challenges, ultimately enriching their professional development and fostering a sense of collegiality (Fakazli, 2021; Farrell, 2018; Pacheco, 2005).
Teaching aspects to be reflected and learned
The literature highlights five essential areas for pre-service English teachers to focus on: effective classroom management, thorough lesson planning and preparation, essential teaching skills, the appropriate use of instructional materials and teaching aids, and the effective use of language by teachers (Kavoshian, 2013; Richards, 2011; Wichadee, 2011).
Farrell, 2007) However, there are differences in the literature about the sub-categories
This section examines existing literature to identify sub-categories within the five teaching aspects, which will be utilized to analyze students' reflections in this study.
Classroom management, as defined by Duke (1979), encompasses the strategies and procedures essential for creating and sustaining an effective learning environment (Nguyen, Tran & Luu, 2016) Its significance in teaching practice is paramount, as it facilitates the effective implementation of the curriculum and enables teachers to cultivate optimal teaching practices, ultimately fostering a successful learning atmosphere (Isuku, 2018).
To et al (2008, as cited in Nguyen, Tran & Luu, 2016) identify seven key domains of effective classroom management: time management, spatial organization (including work arrangement and movement), instruction delivery and verification, assessing student comprehension, addressing misbehavior, providing feedback, and student motivation Scrivener endorses these essential aspects of classroom management.
This study will utilize the sub-categories suggested by Richards (2011) and others from 2005 to analyze participants' reflections on classroom management in English language teaching.
Classroom management is a difficult task for pre-service English teachers
Nguyen, Tran, and Luu (2016) investigated the challenges in classroom management faced by pre-service English teachers at a university in Hanoi The primary difficulties identified included time management, student motivation, addressing misbehavior, instructional checking, and providing feedback These challenges were attributed to the disparity between lesson plans and actual teaching experiences, a lack of experience, and large class sizes Conversely, the pre-service teachers reported fewer issues with work arrangement and non-verbal communication.
It is supposed that lesson planning and preparation is an essential part of teaching skills that should be reflected on and learned by teacher trainees (Richards,
2011) Supporting this claim, Yıldırım (2003) states that “lesson planning is an
The process of gaining experience is crucial for teacher trainees, as it compels them to reflect on their teaching methods, content delivery, and evaluation techniques (Gülten, p 1409) Recognizing the significance of lesson planning and preparation in the teaching-learning process, this study aims to explore the participants' reflections on these aspects.
Richards (2011) emphasizes the importance of "teaching strategies" in classroom observation, highlighting key components such as task presentation, practice organization, and teaching techniques These elements are integral to the framework proposed by Kavoshian.
Selecting suitable teaching methods and techniques is a complex task that involves considering various factors, including teaching goals, perceptions of teacher and learner roles, typical interaction forms, attitudes towards errors, and the use of instructional materials Teaching skills, particularly the application of effective strategies, are essential yet intricate elements that will be analyzed through students' reflections in this study.
D Use of instructional materials and teaching aids
Teaching materials are an integral part of the language teaching process
The use of instructional materials and teaching aids in English education offers numerous benefits, including clarifying teachers' instructions, enhancing lesson engagement and effectiveness, fostering student motivation and interest, improving retention through sensory involvement, and saving time and energy for both teachers and learners.
According to Kavoshian (2013), teaching and learning materials and teaching aids are two categories that are worth reflecting on when practicing RT First,
Richards (2011) emphasizes that textbooks and other teaching materials are essential for teaching English effectively The advantages of utilizing textbooks include offering a structured syllabus, standardizing instruction for teachers, delivering effective language models and input, and aiding in teacher training (Richards, 2001) However, challenges may arise when relying solely on textbooks.
Teachers must assess and modify educational materials to better fit their specific contexts (Richards, 2001) Additionally, the effective use of teaching aids is crucial, as Patel and Jain (2008) categorize them into three primary types: visual aids (such as boards, charts, maps, and pictures), audio aids (including radios and audio cassette players), and audio-visual aids (like videos and film projectors).
It can be seen that the significance of using materials and teaching aids in language teaching is highlighted in ELT literature (Patel & Jain, 2008; Richards, 2001,
2011) Therefore, this study would analyze the participants’ reflections on using materials and teaching aids to explore how they learn these aspects to teach English through RT
E Teacher identity – how a good teacher is
Pre-service teachers' reflections on their teacher identity are crucial in the learning-to-teach process According to Yazan (2018), "teacher learning and teacher identity development are two intimately connected contours which are both driving forces underpinning teacher conditions’ professional growth” (p.31) Therefore, understanding how pre-service teachers perceive their teacher identity is essential for exploring their learning experiences through reflective teaching.
Teacher identity, as defined by Yazan (2018), is a dynamic self-conception that evolves through participation in various communities and interactions with others This study specifically examines pre-service teachers' reflections on their identities, focusing on their self-imagination and definitions of what constitutes a good teacher Additionally, it considers the influence of community participation and contextual factors on teacher identity development.
2018), are not included as they are more relevant to in-service teachers than pre- service ones
A good teacher is depicted in various alternative terms, such as an effective teacher, a competent teacher, a professional teacher (Tajeddin & Alemi, 2019)
According to Minor et al (2013), good teachers are described as knowledgeable, self-
18 confident, enthusiastic, with strong communication and management skills, clear instructional focus, and high expectation of self and students Good teachers also
Effective teachers are often perceived by pre-service teachers as patient, kind, friendly, and knowledgeable, yet there is a notable lack of emphasis on the importance of understanding learners' needs (Tajeddin & Alemi, 2019) This highlights the necessity for educators to reflect on their practices and engage in continuous professional development within learning communities (Minor et al., 2013).
Benefits of reflective teaching
Research indicates that reflective teaching (RT) serves as a powerful instrument for teacher development and professional learning, offering numerous advantages for educators (Al-Ahdal & Al-Ahdal, 2014; Çimer et al., 2013; Farrell, 1999; Karnieli-Miller, 2020; Richards & Lockhart, 1999; Robinson et al., 2001; Rozimela & Tiarina, 2017).
RT empowers educators to recognize and articulate their teaching values and beliefs As noted by Robinson et al (2001), it allows teachers to gain awareness of their teaching philosophy, providing valuable insights into their emotions and attitudes towards education.
Reflection plays a crucial role in enhancing teachers' self-awareness and understanding, as noted by Karnieli-Miller (2020) Through engaging with reflective questions, educators can deepen their insights into themselves and gain a richer understanding of others and various situations.
RT enables educators to explore how their personal beliefs and understanding of teaching and learning influence their instructional practices According to Robinson et al (2001), it is crucial to analyze the connection between theoretical knowledge and practical application in education.
The RT process can lead to enlightenment and emancipation, enabling teachers to bridge the gap between theoretical beliefs and actual teaching practices It empowers educators to implement personal and creative changes in their teaching methods and learning environments.
Lockhart (1999) suppose that it can facilitate the process of gaining better insights into teaching from both theoretical and practical perspectives (Al-Ahdal & Al-Ahdal,
RT enhances teachers' abilities to analyze and evaluate language teaching issues by encouraging a comprehensive view of their instructional practices This reflective process allows educators to assess lesson effectiveness and delve into the dynamics of teaching and learning through various methods and tools (Çimer et al., 2013) As a result, teachers improve their inquiry skills, reflective thinking, and critical analysis, which enriches their understanding of subject matter, student needs, teaching strategies, and classroom challenges (Rozimela, 2015, as cited in Rozimela & Tiarina, 2018).
Fourth, RT supports teachers to make necessary changes on the basis of logic analysis RT helps free teachers from impulse, and routine behaviors (Farrell,
In 1999, Pacheco emphasized the importance of reacting to, examining, and evaluating teaching methods to enhance educators' attitudes, beliefs, and practices (Malmir, 2018) Farrell (2007) further argues that a lack of reflection in teaching results in conformity and routine, preventing teachers from developing innovative insights.
Last but not least, RT contributes to teachers’ continuous PD PD is the overall value that teachers gain from RT, Çimer et al (2013) argue that through a
The reflective process is crucial for teachers to develop their educational perspectives, gain new insights, and create effective teaching strategies According to Day (1999), this process is vital for fostering teachers' professional growth throughout their careers Similarly, Shukri (2014) found that reflective teaching (RT) enhances professional development by enabling teachers to self-observe and evaluate their practices, leading to a deeper understanding of their teaching styles and improved effectiveness For pre-service teachers, RT offers significant benefits, including enhanced teaching competencies, better integration of theory and practice, constructive feedback, preparation for future teaching, and the development of strategies for ongoing professional growth (Rozimela, 2015; Rozimela & Tiarina, 2017; Seitova, 2019).
Challenges in reflective teaching
While RT offers many benefits, teachers inevitably face challenges stemming from both personal factors and external influences, including training programs and their working environment.
One significant barrier to reflective teaching (RT) stems from the teachers themselves, primarily due to their insufficient knowledge and understanding of how to effectively implement the RT process (Pekkarinen & Hirsto, 2017) Furthermore, a lack of time and an unwillingness to reflect on their own performance further hinder teachers from engaging in RT (Ahdal & Al-Awaid, 2014; Pekkarinen & Hirsto, 2017).
Kuswandono (2012) claims that RT is so “time consuming” that “many teachers would avoid” and “not want to ruminate themselves on past experiences” (p.151)
Many pre-service teachers lack the motivation and sense of autonomous learning necessary to effectively engage in reflective teaching (Kuswandono, 2012).
The second set of challenges faced by teachers in RT practice relates to the institutional and working environment As noted by Pekkarinen and Hirsto (2017), insufficient recognition of teaching and a lack of support from academic leaders and colleagues are significant deterrents to professional development activities.
A significant barrier to reflective teaching (RT) for educators is the lack of adequate RT modules in numerous teacher education programs According to Kuswandono (2012), the curriculum design in these programs often fails to integrate reflective practice into various courses, which hinders teachers' ability to engage in effective reflection.
Briefly, there are certain barriers in RT for teachers owing to themselves as well as the training program and working environment as Maghaddam (2019) states that
“workload, limited time, limited autonomy, lack of critical thinking, lack of support in their teaching program are frequently the main obstacles to RT” (p.226).
Micro-teaching in teacher education
Micro-teaching, introduced by Dwight Allen and colleagues at Stanford University in 1963, is a training program aimed at enhancing teachers' verbal and nonverbal communication skills (Otsupius, 2014) According to Bell (2007), it involves students in educational-method courses teaching lessons to their peers, providing valuable experience in lesson planning and delivery Otsupius (2014) further describes micro-teaching as a technique that deepens teacher trainees' understanding of teaching skills This method is characterized by its individualized training approach, experimentation within teacher education, and the simplification of real teaching complexities, typically lasting between five to ten minutes with focused lesson content (Otsupius, 2014).
Micro-teaching is a valuable activity that helps pre-service teachers translate theory into practice, enhancing their teaching skills (Karỗkay & Sanli, 2009) It allows them to understand the complexities of teaching while fostering connections between theory and practice (Pringle et al., 2003, as cited in Zhang & Chen, 2011) Additionally, micro-teaching boosts their confidence, exposes them to various lecturing styles, and enables them to learn and practice providing constructive feedback (Otsupius, 2014; Zhang & Chen).
2011) Ogeyik (2009) explored that Turkey pre-service English teachers perceived that micro-teaching had benefits in motivating them in the course, preparing them for
The article emphasizes the importance of preparing future educators by enhancing their understanding of teaching methods, material production, and lesson planning It encourages collaboration among peers and promotes self-evaluation of their teaching performance.
Micro-teaching has notable limitations, including its focus on only a few teaching skills due to time constraints, a lack of opportunities for re-teaching and re-planning, and a deviation from traditional classroom teaching methods (Otsupius, 2014).
Micro-teaching offers unique advantages for pre-service teachers, enhancing their learning experience, yet it also presents certain limitations and challenges that may affect the process of becoming effective educators.
Previous studies and research gaps
Research on the reflective thinking (RT) of pre-service English teachers, while less extensive than that of in-service teachers, has yielded several significant studies These investigations primarily focus on the reflections of pre-service English teachers and their views on the benefits of RT.
2.9.1 Studies on pre-service teachers’ perceptions towards RT and writing reflective journals
Students’ perceptions towards RT has been a noticeable research problem that previous studies shed a light on to explore the effectiveness of RT in pre-service teachers’ learning to teach English
Kim (2018) discovered that Korean pre-service English teachers greatly benefited from writing reflective journals during their practicum, as it enhanced their reflective practice, deepened their understanding of teaching theories, and improved their English language skills This aligns with the findings of Alsuhaibani (2019), which also emphasized the advantages of reflective journaling among Saudi Arabian pre-service English teachers.
Rozimela and Tiarina (2017) conducted action research to assess how RT enhances the teaching skills of pre-service English teachers Their study involved collecting data from 12 Indonesian pre-service teachers during their teaching practicum at various junior high schools The findings indicated significant improvements in their teaching abilities.
Performance tests and interviews demonstrated that RT practice significantly enhanced student teachers' teaching skills, as evidenced by improved scores over three teaching cycles They acknowledged advancements in various areas, including teaching techniques, materials, media, classroom management, language use, and assessment Furthermore, observations and journal entries revealed that reflective practices alleviated challenges faced in real teaching contexts.
Previous studies by Alsuhaibani (2019), Kim (2018), and Rozimela and Tiarina (2017) found that pre-service teachers viewed reflective teaching (RT) and writing reflective journals as beneficial for enhancing their teaching competence However, these studies did not investigate the potential challenges students face in RT or journal writing, nor did they explore students' understanding of RT to clarify their perceptions Additionally, while these studies focused on students during their internships, they did not address RT in the context of micro-teaching within training courses Therefore, this current study aims to examine the perceptions of English Language Teaching (ELT) majors regarding RT by clarifying their insights, as well as identifying the benefits and challenges associated with RT.
2.9.2 Studies on pre-service English teachers’ focus of reflections
Another significant research problem that previous studies (Astika, 2014;
Research by Albakri et al (2017), Kim (2018), and Yaacob et al (2014) focused on the reflections of pre-service English teachers These studies were carried out in various contexts, including both English as a Second Language (ESL) settings in Malaysia and English as a Foreign Language (EFL) environments in Korea and Indonesia.
Yaacob et al (2014) utilized a qualitative approach to examine the reflective thoughts of 37 Malaysian students majoring in Teaching English to Young Learners, employing reflective journals as their sole data collection tool The study's findings revealed various aspects of the students' reflections, particularly their evaluations of the lessons.
The effectiveness of teaching tools and techniques significantly impacts the success and challenges educators face in their careers Understanding the roles and personalities of teachers is crucial for addressing these teaching-related issues By increasing awareness of these factors, educators can enhance their teaching strategies and improve student outcomes.
Manen’s (1977) three-level model of reflection (practical, technical, and critical), the student teachers’ reflections were evaluated that they demonstrated technical level
Pre-service English teachers often engage in reflective practices related to their teaching, primarily focusing on personal and contextual aspects, as highlighted in studies by Yaacob et al (2014) and Astika (2014) Their reflections typically encompass their feelings, learning experiences, and evaluations of their teaching methods, but they tend to neglect the interpersonal domain, which includes relationships with mentor teachers and students, as well as critical issues like ethics in education Additionally, research by Albakri et al (2017) revealed that these teachers concentrate on three main areas: managing the learning environment, pedagogical effectiveness, and their own attributes as educators, including their identities and roles in the classroom.
Kim (2018) found that Korean pre-service English teachers primarily focused on teaching preparation, demonstration, and self-reflection, with minimal attention given to contextual factors such as interactions with fellow interns, mentor discussions, and student behaviors Similarly, Alsuhaibani (2019) reported that Saudi Arabian students' reflections were often general and descriptive, concentrating on time and classroom management, student participation, and administrative concerns, while neglecting social and moral values in their teaching practices.
Previous studies indicate that pre-service English teachers often focus on reflecting their teaching performance and personal development as educators However, they rarely consider the contextual factors that influence their learning-to-teach process.
While previous studies have clarified aspects of reflections among pre-service English teachers, they have not addressed what these teachers can learn to enhance their teaching from their reflections Additionally, there is a lack of examination regarding the specific activities they engaged in during this process.
This study addresses the lack of research on pre-service English teachers' reflective thinking (RT) during micro-teaching in ELT methodology courses It aims to explore how RT enhances their learning to teach by examining their reflective processes, focal points of reflection, lessons learned, and the effects of writing reflective journals during their teaching practicum.
Chapter summary
This chapter outlines the theoretical framework and literature review for the current study, focusing on reflective teaching (RT) by defining its concepts, models, processes, tools, and reflection aspects It also highlights essential features of micro-teaching in teacher education Additionally, the chapter reviews previous studies on students' reflections and perceptions of RT, identifying research gaps that this study aims to address Consequently, this research investigates the perceptions of English Language Teaching (ELT) majors regarding RT and explores how RT enhances their learning-to-teach process.
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Research approach
This study utilized a mixed-method approach to investigate the perceptions of English Language Teaching (ELT) majors regarding reflective teaching (RT) and its role in enhancing their teaching skills By combining qualitative and quantitative data collection and analysis, the research aims to provide a comprehensive understanding of how RT supports ELT majors in their learning to teach.
The mixed-method approach utilized in this study offers significant advantages for exploring research problems at multiple levels, facilitating a deeper understanding of complex phenomena through the integration of quantitative and qualitative data (Dürnyei, 2007) According to Creswell and Creswell (2018), this strategy allows for a comprehensive insight by comparing diverse perspectives and elucidating quantitative findings with qualitative follow-up data In this research, after analyzing numerical data from questionnaires regarding students’ perceptions of the benefits and challenges of RT, qualitative interview data were used to clarify these perceptions Additionally, the triangulation of qualitative and quantitative methods enhanced the reliability and validity of the findings, as supported by Denscombe (2014), who notes that the mixed-method approach can improve data accuracy and reduce bias in research (as cited in Cohen et al.).
The study utilized a quantitative approach to gather and analyze numerical data through a questionnaire focused on participants' perceptions of rehabilitation therapy (RT), including their understanding of RT, its benefits and challenges, and the activities they engaged in during the RT process However, the quantitative method has limitations in its exploratory capacity, as it cannot fully capture the depth of participants' experiences and insights related to RT.
“uncovering the reasons for particular observations or the dynamics underlying the examined situation or phenomenon” (Dửrnyei, 2007, p.35) This limitation was tackled by the combination of the qualitative approach
The qualitative approach was employed to gather data from reflective journals, allowing for an examination of participants' reflections on the strengths and weaknesses of micro-teachings and the lessons learned Additionally, in-depth interviews provided further insights and follow-up explanations based on the qualitative data collected.
Research setting and research participants
Thirty-two students majoring in English Language Teaching (ELT) participated in this study by writing reflective journals on their micro-teachings and those of their peers, followed by completing an online questionnaire Out of these, nine students engaged in in-depth interviews All participants were fourth-year students enrolled in the same ELT bachelor's program at HUFL, where the study took place over five months The group consisted of 28 females (87.5%) and four males (12.5%), with self-assessed English proficiency levels of B2 (75%) and C1 (25%) according to the Common European Framework.
Before participating in the data collection for this study, all participants completed courses in practical English skills, linguistics, education studies, and educational psychology They also undertook six courses focused on English Language Teaching (ELT) methodology, gaining essential knowledge and skills in areas such as classroom management, teaching techniques, material development, language assessment, and the integration of technology in ELT Additionally, they engaged in micro-teachings, peer observations, and feedback exchanges.
The ELT-majors were invited to participate in this study due to their advanced knowledge and skills in teaching the English language, as well as their shared experiences in RT within the same ELT Methodology courses Additionally, our four-year camaraderie as classmates fostered a trusting environment, facilitating reliable data collection through easy interaction.
This study explored the experiences of participants in the online course ELT Methodology 6A - Teaching Practicum, which focuses on developing teaching skills, classroom management, observation, feedback, and reflective writing Students collaborated in groups of three to select a lesson from a high school English textbook, create a lesson plan, and conduct a 30-minute micro-teaching session, with each student teaching for approximately 10 minutes Additionally, groups provided oral feedback to peers and completed observation sheets for another group's lesson, followed by writing a teaching journal reflecting on their observations All activities were conducted online via Zoom due to the Covid-19 pandemic.
Data collection tools and procedure
To obtain the findings about ELT-majored students’ perceptions of RT and how
RT facilitates them to learn to teach English language, data was collected from the participants by three tools respectively, including reflective journals, a questionnaire and semi-structured interviews
Reflective journals serve as valuable tools for educators to engage in reflective teaching (RT) practices, as highlighted by Farrell (2018) and Richards & Lockhart (2007) These journals allow teachers to examine various facets of the learning and teaching process, including the nature of teaching activities, their responses to challenges in the classroom, and their underlying teaching philosophies.
29 has also been used in previous studies to explore pre-service teachers’ focus of reflections in their internship (Astika, 2014; Rozimela & Tiarina, 2018; Yaacob et al.,
In this study, sixty-four reflective journals written in English were collected from thirty-two students, with each student contributing two journals ranging from 400 to 700 words The aim was to explore their reflections and insights gained from the RT process, addressing the research question: "How does RT facilitate the learning of ELT majors in their teaching?"
Participants were required to complete reflective journals, referred to as Journals 1, to evaluate their peers’ micro-teachings as part of the ELT Methodology 6A course in their teacher training program Each participant filled out an observation sheet for a three-member group’s teaching and subsequently composed a reflective journal based on these observations, guided by a set of provided writing instructions (see Appendix A) At the conclusion of the course, all Journals 1 were collected and voluntarily submitted for this study by the participants (see Appendix B for a sample of Journal 1).
Participants maintained reflective journals (Journals 2) to evaluate their own teaching practices According to Fakazli (2021), teachers should engage in a continuous cycle of self-observation and self-evaluation of their reflective teaching (RT) to gain a deeper understanding of their actions This emphasizes the importance of not only observing and reflecting on the teaching of others but also critically assessing their own instructional methods.
Thirty-two ELT majors were invited to write reflective journals on their teaching experiences in the Methodology 6A - Teaching Practicum course immediately after completion They received specific guidelines for writing these journals, which were developed by me and reviewed by my supervisor.
According to Dửrnyei (2007), questionnaires can provide valuable data regarding respondents' facts, behaviors, and attitudes This study employed a questionnaire to collect information on students' perceptions of RT and the various ways in which RT enhances their learning experience.
30 learning to teach The questionnaire has an outstanding advantage in “gathering a large amount of information quickly in a form that is readily processible” (Dửrnyei,
In 2007, it was noted that online questionnaires, such as those created using Google Forms, allow respondents ample time to reflect and share their opinions without the pressure of a researcher’s presence Additionally, this method simplifies the process for researchers to design and distribute surveys via Gmail, making it an effective data collection tool.
The questionnaire for this study was developed based on the methodology outlined by Cohen et al (2018), incorporating insights from relevant literature and prior research It took into account the specific context of the research, including the activities undertaken by students in their English Language Teaching (ELT) course, as well as guidance from my supervisor However, due to the limited number of participants in a single class of fourth-year ELT students, the questionnaire was not piloted.
The survey primarily consisted of closed-ended questions designed for descriptive statistics, with only four open-ended questions allowing participants to elaborate on the benefits and challenges of reflective teaching (RT) and writing reflective journals The closed items utilized a five-point Likert scale, ranging from "strongly disagree" to "strongly agree."
The questionnaire consists of three sections designed to gather essential data for the study The first section introduces the study's objectives and collects demographic information from students, including age, gender, English language proficiency, and completed pedagogy courses The second section focuses on participants' perceptions of RT, while the final section examines how RT supports ELT-majored students in their teaching journey To ensure clarity and maintain participant engagement, the questionnaire was composed in Vietnamese A detailed description of the questionnaire's structure is provided in Table 3.1.
ELT-majored students’ perceptions of RT
Cluster 1: ELT-majored students’ understanding of RT
Cluster 2: ELT-majored students’ perceptions of benefits of RT
Cluster 3: ELT-majored students’ perceptions of challenges in RT
ELT-majored students’ learning to teach
ELT-majored students implemented in RT process
Cluster 5: Aspects of teaching that ELT- majored students learned from the RT process
Cluster 6: Benefits ELT- majored students gained from writing reflective journals
ELT-majored students encountered when writing
Purposes and reasons for using the semi-structured interview
Interviews serve as a versatile data collection method, allowing for flexible and in-depth exploration of issues According to Dửrnyei (2007), interviews are a natural and socially acceptable means of gathering information, making participants feel at ease while addressing various topics to obtain comprehensive data In this study, interviews complemented previously gathered data from questionnaires and reflective journals by clarifying categories, providing specific examples, and explaining participants' choices Additionally, the interviews were utilized to triangulate data regarding students' understanding of RT, previously assessed through questionnaires By employing semi-structured interviews, the researcher could guide the conversation while also encouraging interviewees to elaborate on significant points.
In 2007, researchers emphasized the importance of flexibility in data collection, allowing for a tailored approach to address the specific research problems related to English Language Teaching (ELT) majors' perceptions of Reflective Teaching (RT) and its role in enhancing their learning to teach.
The interview questions primarily served as follow-ups to clarify data from questionnaires and reflective journals, incorporating open-ended questions to triangulate participants' understanding of RT Participants were asked to define RT and share their insights on its aims and activities The interview protocol was developed with careful consideration of the research objectives, interview purposes, findings from the questionnaires and journals, guidance from my supervisor, and insights gained from pilot interviews with two students.
Cohen et al (2018) identify three types of interview questions: open-ended, closed, and dichotomous, all of which were utilized in this study This diverse question format enhances data reliability, mitigates bias, and provides deeper insights into research issues Closed questions promote consistency in measurement, while open-ended questions allow interviewees the flexibility to elaborate and offer unexpected responses.
33 writing reflective journals, the participants were asked these questions: “Did you encounter any difficulties or hindrances when writing reflective journals? (If yes) Which difficulties did you face?”
Pilot interviews were conducted with two willing participants, S2 and S7, to refine the interview protocol (refer to Appendix G) These interviews highlighted the need to clarify several questions to ensure comprehensive data collection For instance, the initial question “In your opinion, what is RT?” was enhanced with more specific probing queries, including “What are the aims of RT? Which activities should we engage in during the RT process? When is RT typically implemented?”
Table 3.2 Interview description Number of interviews
Data analysis
This section is to describe the process of analyzing qualitative and quantitative data collected from three instruments which were reflective journals, the questionnaire and interviews
3.4.1 Analysis of data from reflective journals
Thematic analysis was carried out to analyze students’ reflections collected from sixty-four reflective journals, then, their reflections were quantified to understand their trend and focus of reflections
The reflective journals from each participant were saved electronically in a doc file, organized into individual folders, and anonymized The researcher reviewed all journals to understand the data's overall characteristics, including text length, structure, and common teaching themes, which informed the coding process This process utilized both pre-determined and emerging codes, with the former derived from a literature review and outlined in Section 2.5 The thematic analysis of the journals was conducted using Microsoft Excel 2016, allowing for the identification of sub-categories within each aspect of reflection.
The qualitative data from two types of journals were analyzed and organized into aspects and sub-categories, which were subsequently quantified to identify trends and focal points in their reflections.
3.4.2 Analysis of data from the questionnaire
After collecting data from thirty-two participants via the online questionnaire, the researcher implemented the data analysis process following four principal steps suggested by Dửrnyei (2007)
Stage 1: Preparing the data for analysis
The raw data collected from Google Forms was transformed into an online Excel file for easy downloading Subsequently, the coding process was implemented, which is essential for data analysis, as “quantitative data analysis software handles data in a numerical rather than an alphabetic form” (Dürnyei, 2007, p.199) This was achieved using a coding table in Microsoft Excel, where responses were assigned numerical values (e.g., ‘totally disagree’ = 1, 'disagree' = 2, 'neutral' = 3, 'agree' = 4).
The data from the Excel file was imported into IBM SPSS version 25, following a series of steps that included creating a data file, defining a coding framework for the variables, entering the data, and conducting data screening and manipulation Notably, there were no special cases requiring correction or any missing data.
The internal consistency reliability of the questionnaire was assessed using Cronbach Alpha coefficients in IBM SPSS version 25 Each cluster's Cronbach Alpha values were analyzed to evaluate reliability, alongside the Corrected-Item correlation values, which reflect the relationship of each item with its respective cluster.
Descriptive statistics were employed to analyze participants' responses, offering a professional overview of the data by providing the mean and range (minimum and maximum values) of each variable (Cohen et al., 2018) For every item, the analysis included the number of valid responses (N valid), minimum (Min), maximum (Max), mean (M), and standard deviation (SD).
Stage 4: Presenting and reporting the findings
The results of analyzing data were presented visually in tables and then, the description, interpretation and discussion were reported in Chapter 4
As for several responses for four open-ended questions, these qualitative data were not rich, they were analyzed thematically and arranged into the suitable categories
3.4.3 Analysis of data from semi-structured interviews
The interview data was analyzed thematically based on the main steps suggested by Creswell and Creswell (2018)
The first step involved manually transcribing audio recordings into text, which is essential for data analysis as it helps prevent significant data loss and distortion (Cohen et al., 2018, p.523) To accurately capture the essence of the interviews, I noted various elements, including participants' non-verbal cues and moments of hesitation Additionally, to ensure accuracy, I sent the audio recordings and their transcripts to participants for verification the day after each interview.
All nine transcripts were consolidated into a single doc file for analysis The coding process utilized emerging codes, which were directly applied to the transcripts To maintain consistency, a table of codes was created in a separate file, ensuring that the same codes were used across all transcripts Thematic analysis was conducted using Microsoft Word 2016, with codes noted along the left margin of the transcripts Subsequently, the data was synthesized and organized according to their themes, and relevant quotes were translated into English to meet the thesis requirements.
Chapter 4 presents the findings derived from the analysis of reflective journals, questionnaires, and interviews, organized thematically according to the categories relevant to the two research questions.
Research reliability and validity
The quality of the research can be assessed with its trustworthiness via the reliability and validity According to Bannigan and Watson (2009), reliability (or
38 consistency) refers to the stability of a measurement scale, such as, how far it will give the same results on separate occasions Besides, validity considers if the instrument
This study effectively measures its claims and ensures logical conclusions from the data (Garson, 2013, p.8) By employing a mixed-methods approach, it utilizes triangulation, a strategy that enhances the credibility of qualitative findings by examining the research question from multiple perspectives Specifically, methodological triangulation was used to explore students' perceptions.
RT through questionnaire and interviews respectively The trustworthiness of each type of approach will now be examined
3.5.1 Reliability and validity in quantitative approach
The reliability and validity of quantitative approach in this study particularly refers to those of the questionnaire
There are different ways to assess the research reliability, namely, test-retest reliability, internal consistency, inter-rater reliability, and split-half reliability
Internal consistency refers to the reliability of a measurement instrument, assessing how well a set of items measures a specific behavior or characteristic This concept is crucial for ensuring that the items within a test yield consistent results, as highlighted by Drost (2011).
In this study, the research reliability of quantitative data from the questionnaire is assessed through internal consistency reliability of Cronbach’s alpha coefficient (α) in SPSS, as illustrated in Table 3.3
Table 3.3 Cronbach’s alpha coefficient of the questionnaire
ELT- majored students’ perceptions of RT
Cluster 1: ELT-majored students’ understanding of RT 792 8
Cluster 2: ELT-majored students’ perceptions of benefits of RT 819 10
Cluster 3: ELT-majored students’ perceptions of challenges in RT 828 9
ELT- majored students’ learning to teach
Cluster 4: Activities ELT-majored students implemented in RT process 874 9
Cluster 5: Aspects of teaching English that ELT-majored students learned from RT 925 16
Cluster 6: Benefits ELT-majored students gained from writing reflective journals 862 10
Cluster 7: Challenges ELT-majored students encountered when writing RT journals 816 7
Cohen et al (2018) provide a framework for assessing reliability using Cronbach’s alpha coefficient (α), categorizing it as follows: α > 0.90 indicates very high reliability, 0.80–0.90 indicates high reliability, 0.70–0.79 indicates reliability, 0.60–0.69 indicates marginal reliability, and α < 0.60 indicates unacceptably low reliability As shown in Table 3.3, the overall α of the questionnaire is 0.937, signifying that it is very reliable.
Moreover, the α values of almost all the clusters are higher than 80, except for the α of cluster 1 (α = 792) Thus, it can be deduced that this questionnaire generally has good reliability
To enhance the internal validity of the questionnaire, careful attention was paid to language aspects, including word choice and phrasing, along with providing examples for clarification According to Cohen et al (2018), it's crucial that the vocabulary and concepts are accessible to participants Additionally, the questionnaire underwent revisions by my supervisor prior to data collection.
3.5.2 Reliability and validity in qualitative approach
In this study, the reliability and validity of the qualitative approach are specifically linked to reflective journals and interviews Key criteria for assessing reliability and validity in qualitative research include dependability, which pertains to reliability, credibility relating to internal validity, transferability concerning external validity, and confirmability.
(objectivity) (Lincoln & Guba, 1985, as cited in Cohen et al., 2018, p.248)
In this study, the dependability of the qualitative approach was ensured by clearly explaining the purposes of collecting reflective journals and conducting interviews to participants, preparing them to provide trustworthy data Reflective journals were collected immediately after the micro-teachings to reduce the risk of forgetting their performances Additionally, during the Teaching Practicum course, participants documented their peers' teaching observations, aiding their ability to recall lesson delivery for reflections The use of various data collection tools at different times further enhanced the consistency of the data.
Credibility, or internal validity, refers to the "true value" of the data collected (Cohen et al., 2018, p.248) and was enhanced through the technique of member checking This method is essential for qualitative researchers to bolster data credibility (Garson, 2013, p.3) After the interviews, transcripts and audio recordings were sent to nine participants via Gmail for verification While most participants confirmed the accuracy of the transcriptions, S24 and S15 pointed out some minor typing errors that needed correction.
Transferability, also known as external validity in qualitative research, pertains to the extent to which research findings can be applied to broader populations, contexts, times, or situations (Cohen et al., 2018, p 254).
Section 3.2 of this chapter provides a detailed description of the research setting, allowing future researchers to assess the applicability of this study's results to their own contexts or to engage in discussions regarding their findings.
Fourthly, authenticity in qualitative research is argued for fairness, ontological authenticity, and educative authenticity (Cohen et al., 2018) Fairness implies that
A comprehensive and balanced portrayal of the various realities and interpretations of a situation is essential, as highlighted by Cohen et al (2018) This can be achieved by neutrally presenting the responses, opinions, and reflections of all participants involved.
Ontological authenticity requires researchers to offer a nuanced understanding of a situation by transitioning from participant to observer (Cohen et al., 2018, p.253) In this study, participants demonstrated greater awareness of RT by articulating their perceptions through questionnaires and interviews Catalytic authenticity was evident as participants were prompted to reevaluate their views and practices regarding RT, leading to suggestions for enhancing their training processes Finally, tactical authenticity addressed ethical considerations, ensuring that the research benefited all participants, who received gifts as a token of appreciation for their contributions to data collection.
Furthermore, concerning the confirmability or the objectivity of the researcher, to validate the findings, Creswell and Creswell (2018) suggest that it is necessary to
It is essential to acknowledge the researcher's inherent bias in the study, as reflexivity is a fundamental aspect of qualitative research I have addressed my potential biases related to data collection and interpretation in section 3.3.3, titled "Problems in Interview."
Ethical considerations
Ethical issues must be taken into account throughout the process of conducting any research, and this present study is obviously no exception
The primary aspect of ethical considerations is research integrity which is believed to be “at the heart of research ethics, lies the moral character of the
In accordance with the fundamental principles outlined by Dửrnyei (2007), I have committed to maintaining integrity in research by avoiding the fabrication, falsification, or misrepresentation of authorship, evidence, data, findings, or conclusions Additionally, I pledge not to knowingly or negligently exploit my professional role for fraudulent purposes.
In accordance with research ethics outlined by Creswell and Creswell (2018), the data collection process prioritized respect for the site and minimized disruption, while ensuring participants were not deceived or exploited Thirty-two ELT majors voluntarily contributed data through reflective journals, questionnaires, and interviews, with no mental or physical harm incurred Prior to the interviews, participants were informed about the research purposes in a neutral manner to avoid biasing their responses.
In data analysis and reporting, ethical considerations are crucial, particularly in avoiding biased discussions that favor participants and ensuring that only positive results are not disclosed Respecting participants' privacy is paramount (Creswell & Creswell, 2018; Dürnyei, 2007) This thesis guarantees the privacy, confidentiality, and anonymity of participants by not revealing their real names, opting instead for designations like S1 and S2.
Chapter summary
This chapter outlines the research methodologies employed, details the participants and research context, and describes the instruments and procedures used for data collection and analysis Additionally, it addresses critical issues related to research reliability, validity, and ethics.