An investigation into how cooperative learning is used in while writing stage in grade 10 classes at quang trung upper secondary school gia lai province

So, this study has been conducted to investigate the real situation of using cooperative learning activities in while-writing stage at Quang Trung Upper-Secondary school, Gia Lai provinc

TABLE OF CONTENTS Contents Page

STATEMENT OF AUTHORSHIP

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

TABLE OF CONTENTS 1

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS 5

LIST OF TABLES 6

LIST OF CHARTS 7

ABSTRACT 8

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 9

1.1 Background to the study 9

1.2 Statement of the problem 11

1.3 Scope of the study 12

1.4 Objectives of the study 12

1.5 Research questions for the study 12

1.6 Organization of the study 12

CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW 14

2.1 Cooperative Learning (CL) 14

2.1.1 What Is Cooperative Learning (CL)? 14

2.1.2 Elements of Cooperative Learning 16

2.1.2.1 Positive interdependence 17

2.1.2.2 Quality of group interaction process 18

2.1.2.3 Individual accountability 18

2.1.2.4 Interpersonal and small group skills 19

2.1.2.5 Group processing 19

2.1.3 Grouping Arrangements and Grouping Strategies 21

2.1.3.1 Grouping Arrangements 21

2.1.3.2 Grouping Strategies 22

2.1.4 Cooperative Learning and Group Learning 23

2.1.5 Benefits and Limitations of Cooperative Learning 24

2.1.5.1 Benefits of Cooperative Learning 24

2.1.5.1.a Benefits to the Learners 24

2.1.5.1.b Benefits to the Teacher 26

2.1.5.2 Limitations of Cooperative Learning 27

2.1.6 Planning and Conducting Cooperative Learning lessons 28

2.1.6.1 Planning for Cooperative Learning 28

2.1.6.2 Conducting Cooperative Learning Lessons 32

2.1.7 The Role of Teachers in Cooperative Language Learning 33

2.2 Writing Skill 34

2.2.1 The Importance of Writing Skill 34

2.2.2 Definition of Writing 35

2.2.3 Process Writing 36

2.2.4 Principles and Techniques of Writing 39

2.2.5 Unit Components in Teaching Writing 41

2.2.6 Tasks of the Teacher in Teaching Writing 42

CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY 44

3.1 Research design 44

3.2 Participants 44

3.3 Data Collection Methods 46

3.3.1 Questionnaire 46

3.3.1.1 Questionnaire to students 46

3.3.1.2 Questionnaire to teachers 47

3.3.2 Interview 48

3.3.3 Class observation 48

3.4 Procedures of data collection and data analysis 49

3.5 Reliability and Validity 50

CHAPTER 4: FINDINGS AND DISCUSSIONS 51

4.1 CL activities in the EFL writing classes 51

4.1.1 The extent to which CL activities have been applied in the EFL writing classes 51

4.1.1.1 Three stages in teaching writing 51

4.1.1.2 Kinds of organization 53

4.1.1.3 CL activities in while-writing stage 55

4.1.2 How CL activities have been applied in the EFL writing classes 56

4.1.2.1 CL groups 57

4.1.2.2 Kinds of CL groups 59

4.1.2.3 Basic phases 62

4.2 Students’ and teachers’ perceptions of CL activities in while-writing stage 63

4.2.1 Students’ perceptions of CL activities in while-writing stage 64

4.2.1.1 The necessity of CL activities in while-writing stage 64

4.2.1.2 The effects of CL activities in while-writing stage 65

4.2.2 Teachers’ perceptions of CL activities in while-writing stage 66

4.2.2.1 Importance, necessity, and students’ attitudes 66

4.2.2.3 Students’ writing skill 75

4.3 Suggested solutions to improve students’ writing skill 76

4.3.1 Activities to make CL groups more effective 76

4.3.2 Activities to improve students’ writing skill 79

CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSION 83

5.1 Summary of the findings 83

5.2 Pedagogical implications of the study 84

5.3 Limitations of the study 86

5.4 Suggestions for further studies 86

REFERENCES 88

APPENDIX 1: QUESTIONNAIRE FOR STUDENTS (IN ENGLISH) i

APPENDIX 2: QUESTIONNAIRE FOR STUDENTS (IN VIETNAMESE) iv

APPENDIX 3: QUESTIONNAIRE FOR TEACHERS viii

APPENDIX 4: QUESTIONS FOR TEACHER INTERVIEW xiv

APPENDIX 5: OBSERVATION SHEET xvii

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

Cooperative Learning (CL)

Group Investigation (GI)

Student Team Achievement Divisions (STAD)

LIST OF TABLES Table Page

Table 2.1: Differences between Cooperative Learning and Group Learning 24

Table 2.2: Syntax of the CL Model 33

Table 2.3: Process writing 37

Table 3.1: Student information 45

Table 3.2: Teacher information 45

Table 4.1: The number of students in a CL group 57

Table 4.2: Teachers’ perceptions of the importance, the necessity, and students’ attitudes 66

Table 4.3: Advantages of implementing CL activities in while-writing stage 70

Table 4.4: Difficulties of implementing CL activities in while-writing stage 73

Table 4.5: Teachers’ perceptions of students’ writing skill 76

Table 4.6: Some activities to make CL groups more effective 77

Table 4.7: Some activities to improve students’ writing skill 80

LIST OF CHARTS

Chart 4.1: Frequency of pre-writing, while-writing, and post writing stages 52

Chart 4.2: Kinds of organization in while-writing stage 53

Chart 4.3: Kinds of CL activities in while-writing stage 55

Chart 4.4: Frequency of CL activities in while-writing stage 56

Chart 4.5: CL groups assigned by the teacher 60

Chart 4.6: Students’ perceptions of the necessity of the implementing CL activities in while-writing stage 64

Chart 4.7: Students’ perceptions of CL’s effects in while-writing stage 65

Chart 4.8: Students’ interests of using CL activities in while-writing stage 68

Chart 4.9: Some activities to make CL groups more effective 78

ABSTRACT

Implementing cooperative learning has been widely recognized as one of the most essential elements in the process of foreign language learning and teaching It not only helps learners improve their language skills but also develops their creative thinking, interpersonal skills and cooperation in managing group work

Cooperative learning has recently been applied in teaching and learning English in high schools in Vietnam; however, lack of professional instructions makes it difficult for both the teachers of English and the students So, this study has been conducted to investigate the real situation of using cooperative learning activities in while-writing stage at Quang Trung Upper-Secondary school, Gia Lai province with

the aims are to find out whether or not teachers of English have applied cooperative learning activities in while-writing stage, and the perceptions of teachers of English and students in using cooperative learning activities in while-writing stage It is also aimed to put forward some suggestions for further development of how to improve grade-10 students’ writing skill with particular reference to cooperative learning

Three instruments (1) questionnaires for students and teachers, (2) teacher interviews, and (3) class observations were used to collect both quantitative and qualitative data The participants of the study are eighty-four grade-10 students and eight teachers teaching grade-10 English at Quang Trung Upper-Secondary school, Gia Lai province in the school year of 2010-2011

The results indicate that most teachers have conducted the writing lessons following three main stages of pre-writing, while-writing and post-writing with various activities and cooperative learning activities have frequently been applied by teachers The results also show that all teachers recognize the necessity of implementing cooperative learning activities, and that students have positive attitudes towards cooperative learning activities Based on the findings, additionally, some suggestions to help teachers implement cooperative learning effectively have also been given

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background to the study

In recent years, along with the new curriculum of the English program at the high school level designed by the Vietnamese Ministry of Education and Training, there has been a renovation in methodology of teaching and learning English It can be clearly seen that English teaching has shifted from the traditional grammar translation approach to the communicative approach New textbooks and syllabus that are communication-oriented and learner-centered have been designed and implemented, which all require teachers of English to improve their teaching skills

to be successful in the classroom and learners should not only have a good

command of grammar, but be able to communicate successfully as well In fact,

“Classroom goals are focused on all of the components of communicative competence and not restricted to grammatical and linguistic competence.” and “in the communicative classroom, students ultimately have to use the language productively and receptively, in unrehearsed context” (Richard and Rodgers, 1986)

After attending the training courses, most teachers are eager and enthusiastic to try out the new methods and teaching techniques in their real classroom contexts Of these new areas, cooperative learning (CL) is particularly potential

There are sound reasons to take CL into serious consideration First of all, CL is highly appreciated for their usefulness to students’ achievement Le (2002) points

out that Johnson el al (1990); Slavin (1987); and Kagan (1989) believe “CL seems

to provide an environment in which students’ needs of love, belongingness, power, freedom and fun can be meet in a way that is beneficial for both academic achievement and the development of the learners’ social and learning skills” It is

undeniable that CL is of the most flexible and powerful grouping strategies because

in CL learners work together to accomplish a shared goal Additionally, CL has a strong foundation on research So far, many studies into CL have been conducted The overall findings of the studies of Cohen, 1994b; Johnson, Johnson and Stanne,

that when compared to other instructional approaches, CL group activities are associated with gains of key variables: achievement, higher thinking level, self-esteem, liking for the subject matter, and intergroup relations CL helped significantly

to enhance the learners’ oral communicative competence and their motivation toward learning English

Although CL has not been very popularly applied in Vietnam, there have been some studies on CL in teaching English in general and in teaching the speaking skill in

particular “An Action Research on the Application of Cooperative Learning Structures to Teaching Speaking to the Second-year Students in the Department of English, Gia Lai Teachers’ Training College.” (Le, 2002); “An Investigation into Students' and Teachers' Perception of the Implementation of Cooperative Learning

in English Speaking Class at Can Tho In-service Center.” (Tat, 2007); and “Using some Cooperative Learning Structures to Increase EFL Learners’ Motivation in Speaking and Improve their Speaking Performance: A Case Study of Grade 10 Students at Mang Thit High School, Vinh Long Province.” (Nguyen, 2008) all have

similar major findings These authors shared the same ideas that teachers, who employed CL method, could promote students’ learning On the other hand, well-structured CL activities had positive effects on students’ participation They created more equal participation among the students, decreased the amount of advanced students’ participation, increased weak students’ participation in group activities, and made students’ progress in speaking performance in general From the findings, some practical pedagogical implications were given out for successful CL practice

in teaching and learning English

And even though much has been written about strategies that educators can use to integrate CL into their courses in teaching speaking skill, little research has been actually done in teaching writing skill, and in the specific context like my working place, a school in a mountainous province Therefore, I find the findings about using CL activities in teaching writing skill in such a context significant This investigation will hopefully serve as an advisable supplementation to my knowledge

on CL theory and CL application to English teaching

1.2 Statement of the problem

Of the four skills, writing has long been considered a difficult and boring subject by many language learners It takes much time and energy to make progress in this skill It is a difficult task for writing teachers to get students involved in writing lessons This is also a case at Quang Trung Upper-Secondary school, Gia Lai province due to the following reasons: Firstly, regarding the students, they lack engagement in the writing process, they are very shy to contribute ideas to write and they have mixed levels of writing competence Secondly, regarding the teachers, the way they teach writing does not seem to stimulate students’ interest and they still use the teacher-centered approach in some writing classrooms All of these factors tend to prevent students from improving their classroom interaction and keep them from learning English writing actively Therefore, how to help students be more interested in writing skill has long been a major concern and a challenge to Vietnamese teachers of writing in general and teachers of English at Quang Trung Upper-Secondary school, Gia Lai province in particular

In order to solve the problem, writing teachers should try to create an interesting and motivating learning environment They must become aware of what motivates their students, and then select the best techniques to help them For example, they should organize students in pairs and groups with the purpose of helping students interact with each other to create meaningful learning Practicing writing in pairs or groups is often considered relatively new in Vietnamese writing classrooms (Tran, 2001) Thanks to such writing activities, most students are motivated because they not only learn from one another in terms of linguistic knowledge and linguistic skills but also understand their neighbors’ insights as a human being through each other’s expressions Considering all this, I pursue this study on CL derived from my experience of being a teacher often organizing students to work in pairs and groups

For all the above reasons, it is strongly desirable for me to choose “An investigation into how Cooperative Learning is used in while-writing stage in

grade-10 classes at Quang Trung Upper-Secondary school, Gia Lai province” as

a subject to study

1.3 Scope of the study

As being discussed previously, within a great deal of aspects relating to the implementation of CL in while-writing stage, this research focuses on only how high school teachers of English use CL activities to teach writing skill to grade-10 classes at Quang Trung Upper-Secondary school, Gia Lai province Therefore, the findings of this research might reveal the use of CL activities in teaching and learning writing skill to grade-10 classes but not to other grades at this school

1.4 Objectives of the study

The main objectives of this study are:

- To investigate whether or not teachers of English have applied CL activities

in while-writing stage;

- To investigate the students’ and teachers’ perceptions of using CL activities

in while-writing stage;

- To give some pedagogical implications and suggestions as to improve

grade-10 students’ writing skill with particular reference to CL activities

1.5 Research questions for the study

This study deals with the following questions:

1 To what extent and how have cooperative learning activities been applied in the EFL writing classes?

2 What are the perceptions of students and teachers of English in using cooperative learning activities in while-writing stage?

3 What are the suggested solutions to teaching writing skill in order to improve students’ writing skill?

1.6 Organization of the study

The study consists of five chapters as follows:

- Chapter 1, Introduction, presents Introduction to the study, Statement of

the problem, Scope and Objectives, Research questions, and Organization of the study

- Chapter 2, Literature Review, is concerned with literature review and

theoretical background with particular reference to Cooperative Learning and the Nature of teaching Writing

- Chapter 3, Methodology, presents the study methods, participants, the

procedures of the study, methods of data collection, and methods of data analysis

- Chapter 4 presents Findings and Discussions

- Chapter 5, Conclusion, presents a summary of the main results of the

research in terms of original hypothesis It also discusses the theoretical and practical implications of these findings to teaching and learning English writing skill by using CL activities Finally, the limitations of the research and recommendations for further research are mentioned

CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW

This chapter is concerned with some key terms related the study The first part is

about the term Cooperative Learning, which includes Elements of Cooperative Learning, Grouping Arrangement and Grouping Strategies, Cooperative Learning and Group Learning, Benefits and Limitations of Cooperative Learning, Planning and Conducting Cooperative Learning Lessons, the Role of Teacher in Cooperative Language Learning The second part reviews the literature related to concept of writing such as Definition of Writing, Process Writing, Principles and Techniques

of Writing, Unit Components in Teaching Writing, and the Tasks of the Teacher in Teaching Writing

2.1 Cooperative Learning (CL)

2.1.1 What Is Cooperative Learning (CL)?

Cooperative learning is by no means a new idea The history of CL has been presented on http://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search? The history of

cooperative learning It is said that there were many concepts of CL years ago Quintillion, who lived in the first century, argued that students could benefit from

teaching one another The Roman philosopher, Seneca advocates cooperative learning through such statements as, "Qui Docet Discet" (when you teach, you learn twice) Johann Amos Comenius (1592-1679) believes that students can benefit both

by teaching and being taught by other students For thousands of years, having recognized the value of CL, human beings have done a great deal of research and practical work on discovering how best to implement CL activities in classrooms Therefore, as regards the term “Cooperative Learning”, so far there have been a lot

of definitions from many authors Different researchers may define CL in different ways I hereby present some of the definitions by some famous scholars

According to Deutsch (1962), cooperative learning exists when students work together to accomplish shared learning goals It means each student can achieve his

or her learning goal only if the other group members achieve theirs

Johnson and Johnson (1989) seem to be more specific in their definition of

cooperative learning: “Cooperative learning is the instructional use of small groups

so that students work together to maximize their own and each other’s learning.” The

idea of CL is described in a very simple way like this: Class members are organized into small groups after receiving instructions from the teacher; they then work through the assignment until all the group members successfully understand and complete it Cooperative efforts result in participants striving for mutual benefit so that all group members gain from each other’s efforts, recognizing that all the group members share

a common fate (we all sink or swim together here), knowing that one’s performance is mutually caused by oneself and one’s colleagues (we can not do it without you), and feeling proud and jointly celebrating when one group member is recognized for achievement because a group member’s success depends on both individual effort and the efforts of the other group members who contribute needed knowledge, skills, and resources

Also Kagan (1992) defines “Cooperative Learning is group learning activities organized so that learning is dependent on socially structured exchange of information between learners in group and in which each learner is held accountable for his or her own learning and is motivated to increase learning of others”

Having the same idea of CL with the above scholars, Macaulay and Gonzalez (1996) maintain that CL is a generic term for various small group interactive instructional procedures Students working together on academic tasks in small groups will help

themselves and their teammates learn together and complete the tasks as well “so that learners are able to work together in a manner that enhances both group and individual learning.”

In addition, David and Johnson (2001, cited in Nguyen, 2008:9) define CL as a successful teaching strategy in which small team students of different levels of ability use a variety of learning activities to improve their understanding of a subject Each member of a team is responsible for not only learning what is taught but also for

work through the assignment until all group members successfully understand and complete it

It can be clearly seen from these definitions that the key to CL is the careful structuring of learning groups CL is one kind of teaching and learning devices or strategies that can help teachers organize and develop classroom activities And generally, as its name implies, CL methods share the following characteristics:

• Students work together to master learning goals

• CL can benefit high-, average-, and low- achieving students who work together on academic tasks

• Students are positively interdependent; activities are structured so that students need each other to accomplish their common tasks or learning activities

• Students are individually accountable or responsible for their work

In order to use CL activities effectively, it is very necessary for every language teacher to know CL’s elements, which will be presented in the next section

2.1.2 Elements of Cooperative Learning

Cosio (1998) finds that to make a lesson cooperative, it is very important for teachers to plan and structure the strategy in the classroom That is, besides mastering the content knowledge of the discipline they teach, the teachers should

know and put into practice the main features that lead to the success of CL

Johnson, Johnson, and Holubec (1991) assert that there are five major factors that

define CL and to make CL successful: (1) Positive interdependence, (2) Quality of group interaction process, (3) Individual accountability, (4) Interpersonal and small group skills, and (5) Group processing Each of these five elements will be

discussed in the following sections

2.1.2.1 Positive interdependence

It is successfully structured when group members perceive that they are linked with

each other in a way that one cannot succeed unless everyone succeeds It is the “All for one, one for all” feeling that leads group members want to help each other

achieve a common goal Johnson and Johnson (1994, cited in Liang, 2002:31) indicate that if there is no positive interdependence, there is no cooperation When positive interdependence is clearly understood, it establishes that: (1) Each group member’s efforts are required and indispensable for group success (no “free-riders”); (2) Each group member has a unique contribution to make to the joint effort because of his or her resources and / or role and task responsibilities

There are a number of ways of structuring positive interdependence within a learning group:

- Positive goal interdependence is structured when students perceive that they can

achieve their learning goals only if all the members of their group also attain their goals The group is united around a common goal Positive goal interdependence may be structured by informing group members They are responsible for: (1) all members scoring above a specified criterion when tested individually, (2) the overall group score being above a specified criterion, and (3) one product successfully completed by the group

- Role interdependence is structured when each member is assigned complementary

and interconnected roles (such as reader, recorder, checker of understanding, encourager of participation, and elaborator of knowledge) that specify responsibilities that the group needs in order to complete the joint task

- Resource interdependence is structured when each member has only a portion of

the information, materials, or resources necessary for the task to be completed and members’ resources have to be combined in order for the group to achieve its goal Cohen (1994b, cited in Liang, 2002:31-32) also confirms that without positive interdependence, students sometimes fall into the trap of “hitchhiking,” where one

2.1.2.2 Quality of group interaction process

According to Liang (2002), to provide abundant verbal, face-to-face interaction, where learners explain, argue, elaborate, and link current material with what they have learned previously is important in CL Students need to do real work together,

in which they promote each other's success by sharing resources and helping, supporting, encouraging, and applauding each other's efforts to achieve Johnson and Johnson (1989) assert that groups should begin small for students to work together and develop their skills

Liang (2002) finds that the quality of interaction depends on the grade and frequency in which the students cooperate among themselves in their academic tasks, give feedback to each other in their learning activities, and share learning experience and life experience Under this perspective, Johnson and Johnson (1990) and Slavin (1987) state that placing students in groups to work together, even under the name of CL or task structure, does not ensure that they engage in the kinds of positive interactions that promote learning

In addition, Aschettino (1993, cited in Liang, 2002:33) find that a positive classroom environment is also associated with the quality of group interaction The implementation of an appropriate interaction process constitutes a major component that helps to improve the student outcome in many academic and behavioral problems, and helps to establish a greater academic environment in the classroom

2.1.2.3 Individual accountability

Kagan (1990, cited in Liang, 2002:32) maintains that this element provides students

with the belief that it is important for him / her to learn the material Each team member is in charge of their own and their classmates’ learning and makes an active contribution to the group Individual accountability exists when the performance of each individual is assessed and the result is given back to the group and the individual in order to ascertain those who need more assistance, support, and encouragement in learning The purpose of CL group is to make each member a

stronger individual in his or her right Students learn together so that they can

subsequently gain greater individual competence

Kagan (1989, cited in Liang, 2002:33) also points out that the teacher must have a way of determining what each individual has learned, as well as what the group has accomplished There are a number of ways of accomplishing individual accountability; for example, random selection of student papers if each student is doing work within the group, random oral quizzes of students, or written quizzes or examinations at the culmination of the work

2.1.2.4 Interpersonal and small group skills

It is essential to teach cooperative skills Johnson and Johnson (1994) stress that placing socially unskilled students in a group and telling them to cooperate does not guarantee that they have the ability to do so effectively Students must learn the task and skills for the groups to run smoothly Students may not know those social skills; therefore, they must be taught explicitly how to cooperate with others Social skills like leadership, decision-making, trust-building, communication, and conflict-management skills have to be taught to students just as purposefully and precisely

as academic skills If group members lack the interpersonal and small-group skills

to cooperate effectively, CL will not be productive

Cowei, Smith, Boulton, and Laver (1994, cited in Liang, 2002:34) mention that the teacher’s role in this teaching method is as a friend, a coordinator, a director who guides his/her actors how to perform, and an advisor in the academic tasks and in the psychosocial and cognitive development of the students

2.1.2.5 Group processing

According to Johnson and Johnson (1999), group processing exists when group members discuss how well they are achieving their goals and maintaining effective working relationships Groups needed to describe what member actions are helpful and unhelpful and make decisions about what behaviors to continue or change Students must also be given the time and procedures for analyzing how well their

purpose of group processing is to clarify and improve the effectiveness of the members in contributing to the collaborative efforts to achieve the group’s goals The following purposes of group processing are stated by Johnson, Johnson, and Holubec (1993)

• Allow the group to improve its work together continuously over time

• Focus attention on group members' contributions in order to increase individual accountability

• Make the learning process simpler through streamlining

• Reduce or eliminate actions that do not contribute positively to the group's learning

Johnson and Johnson (1999) suggest that there are two levels of processing: small group and whole class In order to ensure that small-group processing takes place, the instructor allocates some time at the end of each class session for each cooperative group to process how effectively members worked together Groups need to describe what member actions are helpful and unhelpful in completing the group's work and make decisions about what behaviors to continue or change In whole-class processing, when CL groups are used, the instructor observes the groups, analyzes the problems, and gives feedback to each group on how well they are working together The instructor systematically moves from group to group and observes them at work A formal observation sheet may be used to gather specific data on each group At the end of the class period the instructor can then conduct a whole-class processing session by sharing with the class the results of his or her observations

There is no real limitation to the way in which teacher can group students in a classroom, though certain factors, such as over-crowding, fixed furniture and entrenched student attitudes, may make things problematic Nevertheless, teaching

a class as a whole, getting students to work on their own, or having them perform tasks in pairs or groups are all more or less appropriate for different lessons

Grouping arrangements and grouping strategies, therefore, will be presented in the next section

2.1.3 Grouping Arrangements and Grouping Strategies

2.1.3.1 Grouping Arrangements

According to Richards and Lockhart (1996:146-154), most teachers use the following learning arrangements depending on the kind of lesson they are teaching though teachers use some more frequently than others

- Whole-class teaching: The teacher leads the whole class through a learning task

For example, the teacher conducts a class discussion of an article from a newspaper, asking questions about it and eliciting comments around the class Good and Brophy (1987:353, cited in Richards and Lockhart, 1996:147) indicate that in whole-class activities the teacher typically begins a lesson by reviewing prerequisite material, introduces and develops new concepts or skills, leads the group in a recitation or supervised practice or application ability, and then assigns seatwork or homework for students to do on their own

- Individual work or “seatwork”: Each student in the class works individually on a

task without interacting with peers or without public interaction with the teacher For example, students complete a grammar exercise by going through a worksheet

- Pair work: Students work in pairs to complete a task In pair work, students can

practice language together, study a text, research language or take part in information-gap activities

- Group work: Students work in groups on learning tasks

Successful group work activities involve decisions about the following factors:

+ Group size: Although group size will vary depending on the kind of tasks

students are carrying, the optimum size for CL is between three and four students For students unaccustomed to this learning style, keep the group size to about two

or three students If the group is too large, students’ interaction is affected; only a

+ Purpose: Group activities need a goal, procedures, and a time frame to

accomplish them if they are to be focused and productive

+ Roles: Decisions need to be made concerning the different roles of group

members Will they all have the same role? Are a group leader and secretary required? Will students take on different personas in completing a task?

Harmer (2007:127) believes that many teachers see mixed-ability classes as especially problematic Yet in a real sense all classes have students with a mixture

of different abilities and language levels Therefore, setting up a CL group in the right way can help to make it a successful teaching and learning experience

2.1.3.2 Grouping strategies

According to Harmer (2007:130), the skill of a mixed-ability teacher is to draw all

of the students into the lesson; therefore, it is very necessary for teachers to have

flexible groupings depending on a number of tasks Students might be put in

different groups to do different tasks At other times, however, teachers might put students at different levels in the same group because the weaker students will benefit from working with students at a higher linguistic level and because, at the same time, the higher-level students will gain insights about the language, for example, by having to explain it to their colleagues

Harmer (2007:170) also points out random grouping can be especially effective with experienced cooperative learners or if the teacher plans to change group membership often There are many ways to group students at random He gives

some random grouping For example, teachers can organize groups by giving each

student in the class (the order they are sitting) a letter from A to E, then ask all the

As to form a group together, all the Bs to be a group, all the Cs to be a group and so on; or teachers can also ask their students to get out of their chairs and stand in the order of their birthdays (with January at one end of the line and December at the other).

According to Murray (2000:49, cited in Harmer, 2007:171), one point that needs stressing is that the teacher should not always have students working with the same

partners or group members She argues persuasively that mixing students is good for classroom atmosphere and for individual engagement

In reality, some teachers asking students to work in groups believe that they have implemented CL in their classrooms There are some misconceptions about CL and group learning The following sections will, therefore, review relevant literature

regarding the differences between CL and group learning

2.1.4 Cooperative Learning and Group Learning

Not all groups are cooperative Teachers should distinguish CL from group learning A crucial difference exists between simply putting students in groups to learn and in structuring cooperation among students Johnson, Johnson, and

Holubec (1991) confirm that in principle, CL has five basic elements: (1) Positive interdependence, (2) Quality of group interaction process, (3) Individual accountability, (4) Interpersonal and small group skills, and (5) Group processing

Roger and Johnson (1988) find that putting students into groups does not necessarily gain positive interdependence and/or individual accountability In group learning, few students are appointed or put in charge of the group; each is seldom responsible for others’ learning, which is different from CL First, cooperation is not having students sit side by side at the same table and talk with each other as they do their individual assignments Second, it is not having students do a task individually with instructions; the ones who finish first are to help the slower students Finally, it

is not having them assign a report to a group where one student does all the work and others put their name on it Cooperation is much more than being physically near other students, discussing material with other students, helping other students,

or sharing materials with other students, and each of these is very important

Johnson and Johnson (1986) summarize the differences between CL and traditional group learning in Table 2.1

Table 2.1: Differences between Cooperative Learning and Group Learning

(Source: Johnson and Johnson, 1986)

1.Positive interdependence with structured

goals

2 A clear accountability for individual’s

share of the group’s work through role

assignment and regular of the assigned role

3 Heterogeneous ability grouping

4 Sharing of leadership roles

5 Sharing of the appointed learning task

8 Teaching of collaborative skills

9.Teacher observation of students

Few being put in charge of the group Each member being seldom responsible Focusing on accomplishing the learning Frequent neglect of good looking relationship, product-oriented

Assuming that students already have the required skills

Little, if any at all, teacher observation Rare structuring of procedures and time

It is clear from Table 2.1 we can conclude that not only should teachers know how

to organize class into different groups but also make these groups be really cooperative However, in implementing CL activities in classrooms, teachers may face a number of advantages and disadvantages

2.1.5 Benefits and Limitations of Cooperative Learning

2.1.5.1 Benefits of Cooperative Learning

According to Johnson and Johnson (1999), Johnson, Johnson, and Stanne (2000), and Slavin (1995), CL is extremely beneficial The benefits are on two levels: to the learners and to the teachers

2.1.5.1.a Benefits to the Learners

Panitz (1996) points out a number of benefits of CL to the students These benefits can be summarized into four major categories: social, psychological, academic and

assessment

First, CL promotes social interactions By following the appropriate structuring for

CL, students are able to develop and practice skills that will be needed to function

in society and the workplace These skills include: leadership, decision-making, trust building, communication and conflict-management Additionally, the cooperative environment also develops a social support system for students Other students, the instructor, administrators, other school staff, and potential parents become integral parts of the learning process, thus they supply multiple opportunities for support to the students

Second, students also benefit psychologically from CL Johnson and Johnson

(1989) claim, “cooperative learning experiences promote more positive attitudes”

toward learning and instruction than other teaching methodologies CL also helps to develop interpersonal relationships among students The opportunity to discuss their ideas in smaller groups and receive constructive feedback on those ideas help to build student self-esteem CL creates a safe, nurturing environment because solutions come from the group rather than from the individual Errors in conclusions and thought processes are corrected within the group before they are presented to the class

Third, CL provides several academic benefits for students Discussions within the groups lead to more frequent summarization because the students are constantly explaining and elaborating, which in turn validates and strengthens thoughts CL calls for self-management from students because they must prepare with completed assignments and they must understand the material which they have compiled As a result, a more complete understanding of the material is developed

Last, students can benefit from the aspect of assessment It provides instant feedback to the students and instructor because the effectiveness of each class can

be observed As the instructor moves around the room and observes each group of students interacting and explaining their theories, he / she is able to detect mistakes

early enough to correct them Only a few minutes of observation during each class session can provide helpful insight into students' abilities and growth

2.1.5.1.b Benefits to the Teacher

Hamm and Adams (1992:8) note that teachers who begin using CL "became more cooperative in their own professional interactions and more willing to collaborate with their peers" In fact, using CL effectively also brings teachers some benefits

First of all, CL releases teacher’s burden in controlling classes Lander (1995) points out that an obvious advantage of CL is that six groups are easier for a staff member to supervise than thirty individual students Groups may be monitored for their progress through the use of worksheets or exercises, which require an end product Millis (2005, cited in Tat, 2007) finds that with this technique the role of the teacher changes from a controller to a facilitator Ur (1981) also states that while students are working in groups or pairs, the teacher moves around the class, gives help where needed, assesses the performance of individual students, notes language mistakes, and devotes a little more to slower learners It cannot be denied that teachers may feel their time be spent more effectively thanks to dividing the class into groups

The second benefit of implementing CL activities is that teachers feel teaching and classroom management become easier and exciting CL groups have the freedom to generate their own ideas and to make their own decisions This makes the classroom’s atmosphere more exciting The teachers modify their activities and adopt new structures to deal with different classroom situations (Hamm and Adams, 1992)

Without doubt, CL provides advantages to both teachers and learners Many of these advantages arise from the intrinsic motivational strengths of CL and the extent

to which CL fosters student interest, behavioral and opportunities for success Though CL has been recommended for language teaching and learning, there are, like all other teaching methods, limitations in CL

2.1.5.2 Limitations of Cooperative Learning

Kagan (1995, cited in Liang, 2002:41) realizes that most of the limitations of CL come from not being able to implement the cooperative structure carefully If the teachers just put the students into groups to learn and do not structure the positive interdependence and individual accountability, then it will not be a cooperative group It is also considered time-consuming to teach materials in a cooperative way, especially in the beginning when CL is new to the teacher and to the students Another concern, according to Turco and Elliott (1990, cited in Liang, 2002:41), is that the educational rationale for CL techniques tends to be developed more from socialization needs than from achievement needs Several possible disadvantages may emerge from this perspective Slavin et al (1985, cited in Liang, 2002:41) suggest that first of all, there is an inherent danger for low-achievers to be belittled

by high-achievers if they have nothing or little to contribute Secondly, Turco and Elliott (1990, cited in Liang, 2002:41) point out some of the CL strategies, like STAD, and Jigsaw, seem to ignore the importance of individual education Thirdly,

as Pigot, Pantuzzo, and Clement (1986, cited in Liang, 2002:41) note, the group contingencies may cause peer pressures that could be either facilitative or detrimental

Tsai (1998, cited in Liang, 2002:41) adds that another limitation of CL lies in the differences of opinion regarding encouraging conflict or achieving consensus among group members Dipardo and Freeman (1988, cited in Liang, 2002:41) find that there is an underlying establishment in CL to encourage consensus and thereby arousing unnecessary peer pressure to suppress individual differences and comply with the decisions of the group

Cheng, 2000; Yu, 1995; and Lai, 2002 (cited in Liang, 2002:41) summarize that the above limitations of CL can be reduced to a great extent or even avoided completely

if the teachers have much experience of teaching

We all know that there are many CL strategies and each has its own features Being

2.1.6 Planning and Conducting Cooperative Learning lessons

2.1.6.1 Planning for Cooperative Learning

CL strategies can be used to organize interaction between students Some structures regulate interaction between pairs, some are better for group work, and others involve in the entire class One of the major planning tasks is deciding which CL approach to teach a CL lesson Liang (2002) and Richard (2007) in their study related to CL emphasize that four variations of the basic model that most commonly

used in language class are Student Team Achievement Divisions, Jigsaw, Group Investigation, and the Structural Approach

- Student Team Achievement Divisions (STAD)

Richard (2007) confirms that STAD is developed by Robert Slavin and his colleagues at the Johns Hopkins University and it is perhaps the simplest and most straightforward of the CL approach In the STAD model of CL, students in heterogeneous teams help each other by using a variety of cooperative study methods and quizzing procedures

Liang (2002) notes that Slavin (1987) identifies two types of motivation involved in STAD: (1) intrinsic motivation flowing which flows from within a person, and (2) extrinsic motivation that comes from outside the person While not denying the importance of intrinsic motivation, he strongly believes that extrinsic motivation has

to be used because students receive about 900 hours of instruction every year Intrinsic interest and internal motivation will keep them enthusiastically working day in and day out is unrealistic

Liang (2002:39) presents that in STAD, the teacher first lectures on the topic Then, he/she assigns students to work in heterogeneous teams Each student’s grade is based on his or her own score on the quiz But, at the same time, each student can contribute to a group score by making improvements Each student’s contribution to their group’s score is based on how well they do on the quiz compared to their own average score on past quizzes Thus, a relatively low achiever can contribute as much to their team as a high achiever without doing as well on the quiz as their

higher-achieving teammate The group score is used to determine which groups receive rewards

- Jigsaw

According to Richard (2007:352), Jigsaw is developed and tested by Elliot Aronson and his colleagues Using Jigsaw, students are assigned to five or six member heterogeneous study team In the Jigsaw model, each team member is responsible for mastering part of the learning materials and then teaching that part to the other team members

This activity is characterized by participants within a cooperative group Each student is assigned a different role as an "expert." There are the following steps of Jigsaw:

 Step 1: Before presenting and teaching to the cooperative group, students

form Expert Groups, comprised of individuals from different cooperative

groups who have the same assigned topic

 Step 2: Together, expert partners study their topic and plan effective ways to teach important information when they return to their cooperative groups

 Step 3: One way of teaching is for the expert group to display their information on paper

 Step 4: Participants return to their cooperative groups and then take their cooperative group on a Gallery Tour (walk around the room) to each display

Or participants can return to their cooperative groups and teach all members

of their group as they are now the experts

Thanks to this form, students have a chance to be “teachers” and every member is

- Group Investigation

According to Richard (2007), many of key features of the Group Investigation (GI) approach were originally designed long time ago Richard (2007) stresses that Sharan (1984) and his colleagues at Tel Aviv University have extended and refined this approach recently GI is perhaps the most complex of the CL approaches and the most difficult to implement In GI, students not only work together but also help plan both the topics for study and the investigative procedure used Richard (2007) also mentions that Sharan (1984) and his colleagues describe the six steps of the GI approach:

 Step 1: Topic selection: Students choose specific subtopics within a general

problem area, usually delineated by the teacher Students then organize into small two to six members task-oriented groups Group composition is academically and ethnically heterogeneous

 Step 2: Cooperative planning: Students and the teacher plan specific learning

procedures, tasks, and goal consistent with the subtopics of the problem selected in step 1

 Step 3: Implementation: Students carry out the plan formulated in step 2

Learning should involve a wide variety of activities, skills and should lead students to different kinds of sources both inside and outside the school The teacher closely follows the progress of each group and offers assistance when needed

 Step 4: Analysis and synthetic: Students analyze and evaluate information

obtained during step 3 and plan how it can be summarized in some interesting fashion for possible presentation to classmates

 Step 5: Presentation of final product: Some or all of the groups in the class

give an interesting presentation of the topics studied to get classmates involved in each other’s work and to achieve a broad perspective on the topic Group presentations are coordinated by the teacher

 Step 6: Evaluation: In cases where groups pursued different aspects of the

same topic, the students and the teacher evaluate each group’s contribution to the work of the class as a whole Evaluation can conclude either individual or group assessment, or both

- The Structural Approach

Richard (2007) believes that the structural approach was developed mainly by

Kagan (1992, 1998) over the past decade In this approach, teams may have from

two to six members, and the tasks structure may emphasize either social or

academic goals Think-Pair-Share and Number Heads Together are two examples

of structures teachers can use to teach academic content or to check on students’ understanding of particular content

+ Think-Pair-Share Richard (2007) notes that Frank Lyman (1985) and his

colleagues at the University of Maryland developed this strategy It has been an effective way to change the discourse pattern in a classroom This form is very simple but it is useful in mental development

Teachers employ the following steps:

 Step 1: Thinking: Students are divided into pairs to discuss The teacher calls

out a discussion topic and students THINK of their own answer Students need to be taught that talking is not part of thinking time

 Step 2: Pairing: Next, students PAIR to discuss their ideas Usually, teachers

allow no more than four or five minutes for pairing

 Step 3: Sharing: Finally, students are then called to SHARE their ideas with

the class It is effective to simply go around the room from pair to pair and continue until about a fourth or a half of the pairs have had a chance to report

+ Numbered Heads Together: Richard (2007) affirms that this approach is

developed by Kagan (1998) Here, more students are involved in the review of

Instead of directing questions to the whole class, teachers use the following four steps structure:

 Step 1: Numbering: Students are asked to work in teams of three or five

members Teachers have them number off so each student on the team has a different number between 1 and 5

 Step 2: Questioning: Teachers call out questions that can vary but be specific

and in question forms

 Step 3: Heads Together: Students put their heads together in teams to discuss

2.1.6.2 Conducting Cooperative Learning Lessons

According to Richard (2007), the syntax for CL models relies on small group work rather than whole class teaching and includes six major phases The teacher begins the lesson by presenting the goals of the lesson, motivating students, and connecting the approaching lesson to previous learning Procedures, timelines, roles and rewards are described Required group processes or social skills may also be taught

at the beginning of a CL lesson In phase 2 the teacher initiates the acquisition of the academic content that is the focus of the lesson This may be done verbally, graphically, or with text The teacher during phase 3 explains how the teams are formed and helps students make transitions into their groups Phase 4 is teamwork Students work together on cooperative tasks and the teacher assists students and groups while reminding them of their interdependence The final phases of a CL

lesson consists of phase 5 (assessment) and phase 6 (recognition) The teacher tests student knowledge or groups present their work Individual students and groups are assessed The six phases of a CL lesson and the teacher behaviors for each phase are described in Table 2.2

Table 2.2: Syntax of the CL Model

( Source: Richard 2007:360)

Phase1: Clarify goals and

establish set

Phase 2: Present information

Phase 3: Organize students

into learning teams

Phase 4: Assist teamwork

and study

Phase5: Test on the materials

Phase 6: Provide recognition

Teacher goes over goals for the lesson and establishes learning set

Teacher presents information to students either verbally or with text

Teacher explains to students how to form learning teams and helps groups make efficient transition Teacher assists learning teams as they do their work

Teacher tests students’ knowledge of learning materials or groups present results of their work Teacher finds the ways to recognize both individual and group effort and achievement

In conducting CL activities in classrooms, we cannot deny the role of teachers, which will be presented in the next literature

2.1.7 The role of Teachers in Cooperative Language Learning

It is necessary to know that the role of the teacher in CL differs considerably from his / her role in traditional teacher-fronted lesson Le (2002) presents that Cohen (1998) points out teachers must know their students well to have an effective CL group Grouping of students can be a difficult process and must be decided with care Teachers must consider the different learning skills, cultural background,

much time to prepare the lesson for CL They also play an important part in teaching students to teach themselves and each other Due to their setting up a good cooperative lesson, students learn from their peers and become less dependent on the teacher for help Another important role of the teacher is that of facilitator of learning In his or her role as facilitator, the teachers must move around the class helping the students and groups as needs arise

Additionally, Harrell (1992, cited in Le, 2002:29) focuses on the role of the teacher during this time such as he / she interacts, teaches, refocuses, questions, supports, expands, celebrates, and empathizes Depending on what problems evolve, the following behaviors are utilized Facilitators give feedback, redirect the groups with questions, encourage the group to solve its own problems, extend activities,

encourage thinking, manage conflicts, observe students, and supply resources

2.2 Writing Skill

2.2.1 The Importance of Writing Skill

Mandal (2009) firmly believes that in English classrooms, the aim of the teacher is

to develop four skills of the learners: listening, speaking, reading and writing Although writing skill occupies the last place in this order, it does not mean

that it is the least important As Ton (2002: 54) stresses “instead of being a last skill taught and instead of being a servant to grammar, writing has now become much more important in the second-language curriculum.” Writing enables man to

communicate with other people in many ways as Coffey (1987:2) believes

“Writing, like speaking, is an important means of communication” In fact, writing

is also a creative art in which the acquired language skills and innate interests are made manifest While it may be argued that the writing skill is mainly for examination purpose; nevertheless, it helps students learn and practice new words and structures as Doff (1988) states that once writing is done slowly and carefully, it helps to focus students’ attention on what they are learning Also, Ton (1998:1)

believes that “through writing, students can consolidate the learning of structures and vocabularies” Hedge (1994:3774, cited in Ton, 1998:1) talks of writing as a

problem-solving activity in which students generate and organize their own arguments and clarify ideas to themselves as they try to communicate them clearly

to their readers Therefore, writing can be viewed as an instrument in the process of learning, and effective writing pedagogy

Gower, Phillips and Walters (1995:113-114) note that writing skill involves many

different aspects: (1) It is handwriting which is a problem for students who are not

familiar with Roman script: Far Eastern and Arabic-speaking students, for example;

(2) Spelling is usually more of a problem for speakers of non-European languages; (3) The conventions of English capital letters and punctuation are not universal so students have to be taught; (4) The teacher should teach the construction of sentences that are grammatically correct, the correct word order to the students; (5) Organizing a text and paragraphing: dividing the information into paragraphs, ordering the paragraphs to present a logical argument, tell a story, etc; (6) Text cohesion: writers know how to use the appropriate linking words and phrases so that the organization of the text is clear to the reader; and (7) Register / style: Using

language (structures and vocabulary) appropriately to the formality and style of the text

In short, writing skill is not simply a connection between words or the correct use of grammar, vocabulary, etc but the way to convey the writer's feelings, thought and

also characteristics as Hughey et al (1983:34) confirm, "Through writing, we express our ideas, our plans, our recommendations, our values, and our commitments"

2.2.2 Definition of Writing

There are many ways of defining of writing According to Klein (1985, cited in Tan, 2009), writing is the ability to put pen and paper to express ideas through symbols This way, representations on the paper will have meaning and content that could be communicated to other people by the writer Oluwadiya (1992:128) confirms that

“Writing is basically a process of communicating something (content) on paper to

defines "Writing is a process that occurs over a period of time, particularly if we take into account the sometimes extended periods of thinking that precede creating

an initial draft." Similarly, a third year student (1994, cited in Mandal, 2009:96) points out “Writing is a creative process because it is a process of reaching out for one’s thought and discovering them Writing, as such is a process of meaning making” Furthermore, Grabe and Kaplan (1996, cited in Tan, 2009), in their book

“Theory and Practice of Writing”, explore the meaning of writing in terms of the rhetorical triangle in writing And such triangle consists of the reader, the recipient

of the final product of the writing process; the writer, the originator of the message; and the subject matter and text itself Both the writer and the reader have to consider all these aspects when writing and reading, respectively, for each one plays a significant role in the journey towards meaning

From the above definitions, it can be inferred that writing is a complex process that allows writers to explore thoughts and ideas, and make them visible and concrete Writing encourages thinking and learning for it motivates communication and

makes thought available for reflection

2.2.3 Process Writing

There has been a dramatic shift in teaching writing from the traditional oriented approaches to a process-oriented recently Raimes (1983,

product-http://www.nadasisland.com/ghaith-writing.html#approaches) presents that in a

process approach, students are trained to generate ideas for writing, think of the purpose and audience, and write multiple drafts so as to present written products Teachers give students time to express ideas and feedback on the content of what they write in their drafts As such, writing becomes a process of discovery for the students as they discover and express new ideas Furthermore, learning to write is seen as a developmental process that helps students to write as professional authors

do

Hedge (1988), Harris (1993), Gower, Phillips and Walters (1995), Weigle (2002), Harmer (2004), and Harmer (2007) all consider the process of writing include some stages: pre-writing / planning / assembling strategies, drafting / writing / creating and developing the text, revising and editing / post-writing / publishing Process writing along with some classroom activities is summarized in Table 2.3

Table 2.3: Process writing

(Source: Harris, 1993:61)

1 Assembling strategies

Listing questions Brainstorming Research ( including reading and note-making) Diagrams

Planning ( using grids and planning sheets) Considering text type, purpose and readership

2 Creating and developing

Note: It should be borne in mind that the activities listed under Classroom activities

represent possibilities from which a selection can be made It should also be remembered that in reality the process of producing a written text is neveras schematically neat as can be shown in a diagram

Some process writing activities that the teacher should do in each stage are clearly stated by Hedge (1988), Harris (1993), Gower, Phillips and Walters (1995), Weigle (2002), Harmer (2004), and Harmer (2007) They consider that in the first stage (pre-writing / planning / assembling strategies), classroom activities can be integrated into the writing process to help students generate ideas for their writing

It is important for students to explore ideas for writing topics by using a variety of the following pre-writing strategies such as brainstorming, engaging in peer or teacher-student discussions and conferences, listening to music, reading about and researching the topic, free writing about the topic, viewing media such as pictures, movies, and television, listing and categorizing information, reflecting upon personal experience, examining writing models, role playing and other drama techniques and so on After students have generated some ideas, they must decide what they will say about their chosen topic Students develop an initial plan for the product they will compose In this stage, writers have to think about three main issues First, they have to consider the purpose of their writing since it will influence not only the type of the text they wish to produce, but also the language they use, and the information they choose to include Second, experienced writers think of the audience they are writing for since this will influence not only the shape

of the writing but also the choice of language Third, writers have to consider the content structure of the piece

The researchers confirm that the writers translate plans and ideas into a provisional text in the second stage (drafting / writing / creating and developing the text) To produce a first draft, students record their ideas rapidly in order to capture the essence of what they have to say Students do not have to attempt to revise or edit

at this point To write subsequent drafts, students often accomplish their work by crossing out, adding, and rearranging ideas directly on the page Students’ redrafting does not necessarily require an entire rewrite at this time To reflect upon their own writing, students can conference with self, peers and the teacher Through conferencing, students can get constructive feedback and support that may help them to shape their writing A set of questions or a checklist can be used to

assist writers and conference partners as they strive to help the writer make meaning

evaluation, self/peer evaluation, peer editing, using corrective and feedback system, asking students to rewrite the final draft and choosing the best one and rewarding the winner Another activity which teachers often use is encouraging students to share certain pieces of writing or publish within a set time Regarding editing, Ton (1998:17) explains:

Editing involves going back over the writing and making changes to its organization, style, grammatical and lexical correctness and appropriateness Students can be encouraged to edit through the feedback they get from their friends and the teacher Feedback is, therefore, useful if it is expressed in ways that the students find acceptable and easy to act on

Teachers of languages are unable to teach writing skills if they do not know some teaching principles and techniques

2.2.4 Principles and Techniques of Teaching Writing

In the article “A Balanced Approach to the Teaching of Intermediate - level Writing Skills to EFL Students”, Hobelman and Wiriyachitra (1990) clearly point out the Teaching Principles and Techniques as follows

First, even though language learning is divided into four skill areas, i.e., listening, speaking, reading and writing, they should not be treated in total isolation of each other Thus, the writing skill should always be supported by other skills

Second, the students should do as much of the work as possible, not the teacher The teacher’s role is to advise on procedures and to monitor the work that is going

on

Third, students should work together a lot of the activities through pair and group work Discussion is important in generating and organizing ideas and for discovering what it is that the writer wants to say, even though the actual writing may be done individually

Fourth, when students are working in pairs or groups, the teacher should monitor it carefully to see that it is proceeding smoothly He / she should appropriately provide them with on-the-spot correction and advice Although a lot of self- evaluation should be built in, students will want to have feedback on what they have written However, this should be done after the students have tried to correct their work themselves

Fifth, student should be asked to exchange their compositions so that they become readers of each other’s work While (1987:vii, cited in Hobelman and Wiriyachitra, 1990:124) declares that this is an important part of the writing experience because it

is by responding as readers that students will develop an awareness of the fact that a writer is producing something to be read by someone else Through analyzing and commenting on another person’s work, they will develop their own writing critically

Last, correcting work is also very necessary in writing class Hobelman and Wiriyachitra (1990) present that according to While (1987:ix), the teacher should do the following three things The first thing is that the teacher should introduce a

correction code with symbols for the different types of errors: e.g., p for punctuation errors, voc for poor choice of words, etc This encourages students to use their

communicative competence The second one is focusing on global rather than local errors In general, global errors involve poor sentence and paragraph organization, lack of needed information, omission of sentence linkers and logical connectors, and ambiguity of reference Last but not least, Nolasco (1987: vii, cited in Hobelman and Wiriyachitra, 1990:125) suggests that the teacher should let students know how successful they have been in achieving the aim of the task by including a short overall comment