complex variables and applications 8e brown,churchill

Preface xSums and Products 1 Basic Algebraic Properties 3 Further Properties 5 Vectors and Moduli 9 Complex Conjugates 13 Exponential Form 16 Products and Powers in Exponential Form 18 A

Eighth Edition

James Ward Brown

Professor of Mathematics The University of Michigan–Dearborn

Ruel V Churchill

Late Professor of Mathematics The University of Michigan

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Brown, James Ward.

Complex variables and applications / James Ward Brown, Ruel V Churchill.— 8th ed.

p cm.

Includes bibliographical references and index.

ISBN 978–0–07–305194–9— ISBN 0–07–305194–2 (hard copy : acid-free paper) 1 Functions of complex variables I Churchill, Ruel Vance, 1899- II Title.

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.9— dc22

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JAMES WARD BROWN is Professor of Mathematics at The University ofMichigan– Dearborn He earned his A.B in physics from Harvard University and hisA.M and Ph.D in mathematics from The University of Michigan in Ann Arbor,where he was an Institute of Science and Technology Predoctoral Fellow He is

coauthor with Dr Churchill of Fourier Series and Boundary Value Problems, now

in its seventh edition He has received a research grant from the National ScienceFoundation as well as a Distinguished Faculty Award from the Michigan Associa-

tion of Governing Boards of Colleges and Universities Dr Brown is listed in Who’s

Who in the World.

RUEL V CHURCHILL was, at the time of his death in 1987, Professor Emeritus

of Mathematics at The University of Michigan, where he began teaching in 1922 Hereceived his B.S in physics from the University of Chicago and his M.S in physicsand Ph.D in mathematics from The University of Michigan He was coauthor with

Dr Brown of Fourier Series and Boundary Value Problems, a classic text that he first wrote almost 70 years ago He was also the author of Operational Mathematics.

Dr Churchill held various offices in the Mathematical Association of America and

in other mathematical societies and councils

iii

JWB

Preface x

Sums and Products 1

Basic Algebraic Properties 3

Further Properties 5

Vectors and Moduli 9

Complex Conjugates 13

Exponential Form 16

Products and Powers in Exponential Form 18

Arguments of Products and Quotients 20

Roots of Complex Numbers 24

The Exponential Function 89

The Logarithmic Function 93

Branches and Derivatives of Logarithms 95

Some Identities Involving Logarithms 98

Examples with Branch Cuts 133

Upper Bounds for Moduli of Contour Integrals 137

Cauchy Integral Formula 164

An Extension of the Cauchy Integral Formula 165

Some Consequences of the Extension 168

Liouville’s Theorem and the Fundamental Theorem of Algebra 172

Maximum Modulus Principle 175

Absolute and Uniform Convergence of Power Series 208

Continuity of Sums of Power Series 211

Integration and Differentiation of Power Series 213

Uniqueness of Series Representations 217

Multiplication and Division of Power Series 222

Isolated Singular Points 229

Zeros of Analytic Functions 249

Zeros and Poles 252

Behavior of Functions Near Isolated Singular Points 257

Jordan’s Lemma 272

Indented Paths 277

An Indentation Around a Branch Point 280

Integration Along a Branch Cut 283

Definite Integrals Involving Sines and Cosines 288

Mappings of the Upper Half Plane 325

The Transformation w = sin z 330

Mappings by z2and Branches of z 1/2 336

Square Roots of Polynomials 341

Transformations of Harmonic Functions 365

Transformations of Boundary Conditions 367

Potential in a Cylindrical Space 386

Two-Dimensional Fluid Flow 391

The Stream Function 393

Flows Around a Corner and Around a Cylinder 395

11 The Schwarz–Christoffel Transformation 403

Mapping the Real Axis Onto a Polygon 403

Schwarz–Christoffel Transformation 405

Triangles and Rectangles 408

Degenerate Polygons 413

Fluid Flow in a Channel Through a Slit 417

Flow in a Channel With an Offset 420

Electrostatic Potential About an Edge of a Conducting Plate 422

12 Integral Formulas of the Poisson Type 429

Poisson Integral Formula 429

Dirichlet Problem for a Disk 432

Related Boundary Value Problems 437

Schwarz Integral Formula 440

Dirichlet Problem for a Half Plane 441

This book is a revision of the seventh edition, which was published in 2004 Thatedition has served, just as the earlier ones did, as a textbook for a one-term intro-ductory course in the theory and application of functions of a complex variable.This new edition preserves the basic content and style of the earlier editions, thefirst two of which were written by the late Ruel V Churchill alone.

The first objective of the book is to develop those parts of the theory that are prominent in applications of the subject The second objective is to furnish an intro-

duction to applications of residues and conformal mapping With regard to residues,special emphasis is given to their use in evaluating real improper integrals, findinginverse Laplace transforms, and locating zeros of functions As for conformal map-ping, considerable attention is paid to its use in solving boundary value problemsthat arise in studies of heat conduction and fluid flow Hence the book may beconsidered as a companion volume to the authors’ text “Fourier Series and Bound-ary Value Problems,” where another classical method for solving boundary valueproblems in partial differential equations is developed

The first nine chapters of this book have for many years formed the basis of athree-hour course given each term at The University of Michigan The classes haveconsisted mainly of seniors and graduate students concentrating in mathematics,engineering, or one of the physical sciences Before taking the course, the studentshave completed at least a three-term calculus sequence and a first course in ordinarydifferential equations Much of the material in the book need not be covered in thelectures and can be left for self-study or used for reference If mapping by elementaryfunctions is desired earlier in the course, one can skip to Chap 8 immediately afterChap 3 on elementary functions

In order to accommodate as wide a range of readers as possible, there are notes referring to other texts that give proofs and discussions of the more delicateresults from calculus and advanced calculus that are occasionally needed A bibli-ography of other books on complex variables, many of which are more advanced,

foot-is provided in Appendix 1 A table of conformal transformations that are useful inapplications appears in Appendix 2

x

urged that sections which can be skipped or postponed without disruption be moreclearly identified The statements of Taylor’s theorem and Laurent’s theorem, forexample, now appear in sections that are separate from the sections containingtheir proofs Another significant change involves the extended form of the Cauchyintegral formula for derivatives The treatment of that extension has been completelyrewritten, and its immediate consequences are now more focused and appear together

in a single section

Other improvements that seemed necessary include more details in argumentsinvolving mathematical induction, a greater emphasis on rules for using complexexponents, some discussion of residues at infinity, and a clearer exposition of realimproper integrals and their Cauchy principal values In addition, some rearrange-ment of material was called for For instance, the discussion of upper bounds ofmoduli of integrals is now entirely in one section, and there is a separate sectiondevoted to the definition and illustration of isolated singular points Exercise setsoccur more frequently than in earlier editions and, as a result, concentrate moredirectly on the material at hand

Finally, there is an Student’s Solutions Manual (ISBN: 978-0-07-333730-2;

MHID: 0-07-333730-7) that is available upon request to instructors who adopt thebook It contains solutions of selected exercises in Chapters 1 through 7, coveringthe material through residues

In the preparation of this edition, continual interest and support has been vided by a variety of people, especially the staff at McGraw-Hill and my wifeJacqueline Read Brown

pro-James Ward Brown

C H A P T E R

1

COMPLEX NUMBERS

In this chapter, we survey the algebraic and geometric structure of the complex

number system We assume various corresponding properties of real numbers to be

known

1 SUMS AND PRODUCTS

Complex numbers can be defined as ordered pairs (x, y) of real numbers that are to

be interpreted as points in the complex plane, with rectangular coordinates x and y,

just as real numbers x are thought of as points on the real line When real numbers

x are displayed as points (x, 0) on the real axis, it is clear that the set of complex

numbers includes the real numbers as a subset Complex numbers of the form (0, y)

correspond to points on the y axis and are called pure imaginary numbers when

y
= 0 The y axis is then referred to as the imaginary axis.

It is customary to denote a complex number (x, y) by z, so that (see Fig 1)

z = (x, y).

(1)

The real numbers x and y are, moreover, known as the real and imaginary parts of

z, respectively; and we write

x = Re z, y = Im z.

(2)

Two complex numbers z1and z2are equal whenever they have the same real parts

and the same imaginary parts Thus the statement z1= z2 means that z1 and z2

correspond to the same point in the complex, or z, plane.

1

Note that the operations defined by equations (3) and (4) become the usual operations

of addition and multiplication when restricted to the real numbers:

(x1, 0) + (x2, 0) = (x1+ x2, 0),

(x1, 0)(x2, 0) = (x1x2, 0).

The complex number system is, therefore, a natural extension of the real number

system

Any complex number z = (x, y) can be written z = (x, 0) + (0, y), and it is

easy to see that (0, 1)(y, 0) = (0, y) Hence

z = (x, 0) + (0, 1)(y, 0);

and if we think of a real number as either x or (x, 0) and let i denote the pure

imaginary number (0,1), as shown in Fig 1, it is clear that∗

sec 2 Basic Algebraic Properties 3

Because (x, y) = x + iy, definitions (3) and (4) become

(x1+ iy1) + (x2+ iy2) = (x1+ x2) + i(y1+ y2),

(7)

(x1+ iy1)(x2+ iy2) = (x1x2− y1y2) + i(y1x2+ x1y2).

(8)

Observe that the right-hand sides of these equations can be obtained by formally

manipulating the terms on the left as if they involved only real numbers and by

replacing i2by−1 when it occurs Also, observe how equation (8) tells us that any

complex number times zero is zero More precisely,

z · 0 = (x + iy)(0 + i0) = 0 + i0 = 0 for any z = x + iy.

2 BASIC ALGEBRAIC PROPERTIES

Various properties of addition and multiplication of complex numbers are the same

as for real numbers We list here the more basic of these algebraic properties and

verify some of them Most of the others are verified in the exercises

The commutative laws

follow easily from the definitions in Sec 1 of addition and multiplication of complex

numbers and the fact that real numbers obey these laws For example, if

According to the commutative law for multiplication, iy = yi Hence one can

write z = x + yi instead of z = x + iy Also, because of the associative laws, a

sum z1+ z2+ z3 or a product z1z2z3 is well defined without parentheses, as is the

case with real numbers

The additive identity 0= (0, 0) and the multiplicative identity 1 = (1, 0) for

real numbers carry over to the entire complex number system That is,

z + 0 = z and z · 1 = z

(4)

for every complex number z Furthermore, 0 and 1 are the only complex numbers

with such properties (see Exercise 8)

There is associated with each complex number z = (x, y) an additive inverse

−z = (−x, −y),

(5)

satisfying the equation z + (−z) = 0 Moreover, there is only one additive inverse

for any given z, since the equation

(x, y) + (u, v) = (0, 0)

implies that

u = −x and v = −y.

For any nonzero complex number z = (x, y), there is a number z−1 such that

zz−1 = 1 This multiplicative inverse is less obvious than the additive one To find

it, we seek real numbers u and v, expressed in terms of x and y, such that

(x, y)(u, v) = (1, 0).

According to equation (4), Sec 1, which defines the product of two complex

num-bers, u and v must satisfy the pair

The inverse z−1 is not defined when z = 0 In fact, z = 0 means that x2+ y2= 0 ;

and this is not permitted in expression (6)

6 Complex Numbers chap 1

in Sec 2 Inasmuch as such properties continue to be anticipated because they

also apply to real numbers, the reader can easily pass to Sec 4 without serious

disruption

We begin with the observation that the existence of multiplicative inverses

enables us to show that if a product z1z2is zero, then so is at least one of the factors

z1 and z2 For suppose that z1z2= 0 and z1
= 0 The inverse z−11 exists; and any

complex number times zero is zero (Sec 1) Hence

z2= z2· 1 = z2(z1z−11 ) = (z1−1z1)z2= z−11 (z1z2) = z−11 · 0 = 0.

That is, if z1z2= 0, either z1= 0 or z2= 0; or possibly both of the numbers z1and

z2 are zero Another way to state this result is that if two complex numbers z1 and

z2 are nonzero, then so is their product z1z2

Subtraction and division are defined in terms of additive and multiplicative

x22+ y2 2

, y1x2− x1y2

x22+ y2 2

(4)

(z2
= 0) when z1= (x1, y1) and z2= (x2, y2)

Using z1= x1+ iy1 and z2= x2+ iy2, one can write expressions (3) and (4)

+ i y1x2− x1y2

x22+ y2 2

(7)

110

5 Prove that multiplication of complex numbers is commutative, as stated at the

begin-ning of Sec 2

6 Verify

(a) the associative law for addition of complex numbers, stated at the beginning of

Sec 2;

(b) the distributive law (3), Sec 2.

7 Use the associative law for addition and the distributive law to show that

z(z1+ z2+ z3) = zz1+ zz2+ zz3.

num-ber 0= (0, 0) is unique as an additive identity.

(b) Likewise, write (x, y)(u, v) = (x, y) and show that the number 1 = (1, 0) is a

unique multiplicative identity

addi-tive inverse of a complex number z = x + iy can be written −z = −x − iy without

ambiguity

(x, y)(x, y) + (x, y) + (1, 0) = (0, 0) and then solving a pair of simultaneous equations in x and y.

Suggestion: Use the fact that no real number x satisfies the given equation to



.

3 FURTHER PROPERTIES

In this section, we mention a number of other algebraic properties of addition and

multiplication of complex numbers that follow from the ones already described

sec 3 Further Properties 7

multiplying out the products in the numerator and denominator on the right, and

then using the property

The motivation for starting with equation (7) appears in Sec 5

EXAMPLE. The method is illustrated below:

which is equation (2) when z1= 1 Relation (9) enables us, for instance, to write

equation (2) in the form

z1

z2 = z1

1

Finally, we note that the binomial formula involving real numbers remains

valid with complex numbers That is, if z1 and z2 are any two nonzero complex

5i (1− i)(2 − i)(3 − i); (c) (1 − i)4.Ans (a) −2/5; (b) −1/2; (c) −4.

4 Prove that if z1z2z3= 0, then at least one of the three factors is zero

Suggestion: Write (z1z2)z3= 0 and use a similar result (Sec 3) involving two

8 Use mathematical induction to verify the binomial formula (13) in Sec 3 More

pre-cisely, note that the formula is true when n= 1 Then, assuming that it is valid

when n = m where m denotes any positive integer, show that it must hold when

+

sec 4 Vectors and Moduli 9

Finally, show how the right-hand side here becomes

4 VECTORS AND MODULI

It is natural to associate any nonzero complex number z = x + iy with the directed

line segment, or vector, from the origin to the point (x, y) that represents z in the

complex plane In fact, we often refer to z as the point z or the vector z In Fig 2

the numbers z = x + iy and −2 + i are displayed graphically as both points and

radius vectors

z = (x, y)

z = x + iy

–2 +

i

x O

corresponds to the point (x1+ x2, y1+ y2) It also corresponds to a vector with

those coordinates as its components Hence z1+ z2 may be obtained vectorially as

shown in Fig 3

x O

Although the product of two complex numbers z1 and z2 is itself a complex

number represented by a vector, that vector lies in the same plane as the vectors for

z1and z2 Evidently, then, this product is neither the scalar nor the vector product

used in ordinary vector analysis

The vector interpretation of complex numbers is especially helpful in extending

the concept of absolute values of real numbers to the complex plane The modulus,

or absolute value, of a complex number z = x + iy is defined as the nonnegative

real number x2+ y2 and is denoted by|z|; that is,

|z| = x2+ y2.

(1)

Geometrically, the number |z| is the distance between the point (x, y) and

the origin, or the length of the radius vector representing z It reduces to the usual

absolute value in the real number system when y = 0 Note that while the inequality

z1< z2 is meaningless unless both z1 and z2 are real, the statement |z1| < |z2|

means that the point z1 is closer to the origin than the point z2is

EXAMPLE 1. Since |− 3 + 2i| =√13 and |1 + 4i| =√17, we know that

the point−3 + 2i is closer to the origin than 1 + 4i is.

The distance between two points (x1, y1) and (x2, y2) is |z1− z2| This is

clear from Fig 4, since |z1− z2| is the length of the vector representing the

number

z1− z2= z1+ (−z2);

and, by translating the radius vector z1− z2, one can interpret z1− z2as the directed

line segment from the point (x2, y2) to the point (x1, y1) Alternatively, it follows

from the expression

z1− z2= (x1− x2) + i(y1− y2)

and definition (1) that

|z1− z2| = (x1− x2)2+ (y1− y2)2.

x O

The complex numbers z corresponding to the points lying on the circle with

center z0 and radius R thus satisfy the equation |z − z0| = R, and conversely We

refer to this set of points simply as the circle |z − z0| = R.

EXAMPLE 2. The equation |z − 1 + 3i| = 2 represents the circle whose

center is z0= (1, −3) and whose radius is R = 2.

sec 4 Vectors and Moduli 11

It also follows from definition (1) that the real numbers |z|, Re z = x, and

Im z = y are related by the equation

We turn now to the triangle inequality, which provides an upper bound for the

modulus of the sum of two complex numbers z1and z2:

|z1+ z2| ≤ |z1| + |z2|.

(4)

This important inequality is geometrically evident in Fig 3, since it is merely a

statement that the length of one side of a triangle is less than or equal to the sum of

the lengths of the other two sides We can also see from Fig 3 that inequality (4)

is actually an equality when 0, z1, and z2are collinear Another, strictly algebraic,

derivation is given in Exercise 15, Sec 5

An immediate consequence of the triangle inequality is the fact that

This is inequality (5) when|z1| ≥ |z2| If |z1| < |z2|, we need only interchange z1

and z2in inequality (6) to arrive at

|z1+ z2| ≥ −(|z1| − |z2|),

which is the desired result Inequality (5) tells us, of course, that the length of one

side of a triangle is greater than or equal to the difference of the lengths of the other

two sides

Because|− z2| = |z2|, one can replace z2by−z2in inequalities (4) and (5) to

summarize these results in a particularly useful form:

EXAMPLE 3. If a point z lies on the unit circle |z| = 1 about the origin, it

follows from inequalities (7) and (8) that

|z − 2| ≤ |z| + 2 = 3

and

|z − 2| ≥ ||z| − 2| = 1.

The triangle inequality (4) can be generalized by means of mathematical

induc-tion to sums involving any finite number of terms:

|z1+ z2+ · · · + z n | ≤ |z1| + |z2| + · · · + |z n| (n = 2, 3, ).

(10)

To give details of the induction proof here, we note that when n= 2, inequality

(10) is just inequality (4) Furthermore, if inequality (10) is assumed to be valid

when n = m, it must also hold when n = m + 1 since, by inequality (4),

Suggestion: Reduce this inequality to ( |x| − |y|)2≥ 0

5 In each case, sketch the set of points determined by the given condition:

(a) |z − 1 + i| = 1; (b) |z + i| ≤ 3 ; (c) |z − 4i| ≥ 4.

geometric argument that

(a) |z − 4i| + |z + 4i| = 10 represents an ellipse whose foci are (0, ±4) ;

(b) |z − 1| = |z + i| represents the line through the origin whose slope is −1.

sec 5 Complex Conjugates 13

5 COMPLEX CONJUGATES

The complex conjugate, or simply the conjugate, of a complex number z = x + iy

is defined as the complex number x − iy and is denoted by z ; that is,

z = x − iy.

(1)

The number z is represented by the point (x, −y), which is the reflection in the real

axis of the point (x, y) representing z (Fig 5) Note that

z = z and |z| = |z|

for all z.

x O

The sum z + z of a complex number z = x + iy and its conjugate z = x − iy

is the real number 2x, and the difference z − z is the pure imaginary number 2iy.

An important identity relating the conjugate of a complex number z = x + iy

to its modulus is

z z = |z|2

,

(7)

where each side is equal to x2+ y2 It suggests the method for determining a

quotient z1/z2 that begins with expression (7), Sec 3 That method is, of course,

based on multiplying both the numerator and the denominator of z1/z2 by z2, so

that the denominator becomes the real number|z2|2

See also the example in Sec 3

Identity (7) is especially useful in obtaining properties of moduli from properties

of conjugates noted above We mention that

|z1z2| = |z1||z2|(8)

EXAMPLE 2. Property (8) tells us that|z2| = |z|2and |z3| = |z|3 Hence if

z is a point inside the circle centered at the origin with radius 2, so that|z| < 2, it

follows from the generalized triangle inequality (10) in Sec 4 that

|z3+ 3z2− 2z + 1| ≤ |z|3+ 3|z|2+ 2|z| + 1 < 25.

EXERCISES

1 Use properties of conjugates and moduli established in Sec 5 to show that

(a) z + 3i = z − 3i; (b) iz = −iz;

(c) (2 + i)2= 3 − 4i; (d) |(2z + 5)(√2− i)| =√3|2z + 5|.

2 Sketch the set of points determined by the condition

(a) Re(z − i) = 2; (b) |2z + i| = 4.

sec 5 Exercises 15

3 Verify properties (3) and (4) of conjugates in Sec 5.

4 Use property (4) of conjugates in Sec 5 to show that

(a) z1z2z3= z1z2z3; (b) z4= z4

5 Verify property (9) of moduli in Sec 5.

|z2||z3|.

7 Show that

|Re(2 + z + z3)| ≤ 4 when|z| ≤ 1.

be zero Give an alternative proof based on the corresponding result for real numbers

and using identity (8), Sec 5

show that if z lies on the circle |z| = 2, then

z4− 4z12+ 3

≤ 13.

10 Prove that

(a) z is real if and only if z = z;

(b) z is either real or pure imaginary if and only if z2= z2

(a) z1+ z2+ · · · + z n = z1+ z2+ · · · + z n; (b) z1z2· · · z n = z1z2· · · z n

12 Let a0, a1, a2, , a n (n ≥ 1) denote real numbers, and let z be any complex number.

With the aid of the results in Exercise 11, show that

(b) Point out why

Let r and θ be polar coordinates of the point (x, y) that corresponds to a nonzero

complex number z = x + iy Since x = r cos θ and y = r sin θ, the number z can

be written in polar form as

z = r(cos θ + i sin θ).

(1)

If z = 0, the coordinate θ is undefined; and so it is understood that z
= 0 whenever

polar coordinates are used

In complex analysis, the real number r is not allowed to be negative and is the

length of the radius vector for z ; that is, r = |z| The real number θ represents the

angle, measured in radians, that z makes with the positive real axis when z is

inter-preted as a radius vector (Fig 6) As in calculus, θ has an infinite number of possible

values, including negative ones, that differ by integral multiples of 2π Those values

can be determined from the equation tan θ = y/x, where the quadrant containing the

point corresponding to z must be specified Each value of θ is called an argument

of z, and the set of all such values is denoted by arg z The principal value of arg z,

denoted by Arg z, is that unique value  such that −π <  ≤ π Evidently, then,

has principal argument−3π/4 That is,

Arg( −1 − i) = − 3π

4 .

sec 6 Exponential Form 17

It must be emphasized that because of the restriction−π <  ≤ π of the principal

argument , it is not true that Arg( −1 − i) = 5π/4.

According to equation (2),

arg( −1 − i) = − 3π

4 + 2nπ (n = 0, ±1, ±2, ).

Note that the term Arg z on the right-hand side of equation (2) can be replaced by

any particular value of arg z and that one can write, for instance,

arg( −1 − i) = 5π

4 + 2nπ (n = 0, ±1, ±2, ).

The symbol e iθ , or exp(iθ ), is defined by means of Euler’s formula as

e iθ = cos θ + i sin θ,

(3)

where θ is to be measured in radians It enables one to write the polar form (1)

more compactly in exponential form as

z = re iθ

(4)

The choice of the symbol e iθ will be fully motivated later on in Sec 29 Its use in

Sec 7 will, however, suggest that it is a natural choice

EXAMPLE 2. The number−1 − i in Example 1 has exponential form



.

(5)

With the agreement that e −iθ = e i( −θ), this can also be written−1 − i =√2 e −i3π/4

Expression (5) is, of course, only one of an infinite number of possibilities for the

Note how expression (4) with r = 1 tells us that the numbers e iθ lie on the

circle centered at the origin with radius unity, as shown in Fig 7 Values of e iθ

are, then, immediate from that figure, without reference to Euler’s formula It is, for

instance, geometrically obvious that

e iπ = −1, e −iπ/2 = −i, and e −i4π = 1.

x O

is a parametric representation of the circle|z| = R, centered at the origin with radius

R As the parameter θ increases from θ = 0 to θ = 2π, the point z starts from the

positive real axis and traverses the circle once in the counterclockwise direction

More generally, the circle |z − z0| = R, whose center is z0and whose radius is R,

has the parametric representation

z = z0+ Re iθ

(0≤ θ ≤ 2π).

(8)

This can be seen vectorially (Fig 8) by noting that a point z traversing the circle

|z − z0| = R once in the counterclockwise direction corresponds to the sum of the

fixed vector z0 and a vector of length R whose angle of inclination θ varies from

θ = 0 to θ = 2π.

x O

y

z

z0

FIGURE 8

7 PRODUCTS AND POWERS IN EXPONENTIAL FORM

Simple trigonometry tells us that e iθ has the familiar additive property of the

expo-nential function in calculus:

e iθ1e iθ2 = (cos θ1+ i sin θ1)( cos θ2+ i sin θ2)

= (cos θ1cos θ2− sin θ1sin θ2) + i(sin θ1cos θ2+ cos θ1sin θ2)

= cos(θ1+ θ2) + i sin(θ1+ θ2) = e i(θ1+θ2)

sec 7 Products and Powers in Exponential Form 19

Thus, if z1= r1e iθ1 and z2= r2e iθ2, the product z1z2has exponential form

z1z2= r1e iθ1r2e iθ2= r1r2e iθ1e iθ2 = (r1r2)e i(θ1+θ2)

Expressions (1), (2), and (3) are, of course, easily remembered by applying the usual

algebraic rules for real numbers and e x

Another important result that can be obtained formally by applying rules for

real numbers to z = re iθ is

z n = r n e inθ (n = 0, ±1, ±2, ).

(4)

It is easily verified for positive values of n by mathematical induction To be specific,

we first note that it becomes z = re iθ when n= 1 Next, we assume that it is valid

when n = m, where m is any positive integer In view of expression (1) for the

product of two nonzero complex numbers in exponential form, it is then valid for

n = m + 1:

z m+1= z m z = r m e imθ re iθ = (r m r)e i(mθ +θ) = r m+1e i(m +1)θ .

Expression (4) is thus verified when n is a positive integer It also holds when

n = 0, with the convention that z0= 1 If n = −1, −2, , on the other hand, we

define z n in terms of the multiplicative inverse of z by writing

r e

i( −θ) m

=

1

r

m

e im( −θ)=

1

r

−n

e i( −n)(−θ) = r n e inθ (n = −1, −2, ).

Expression (4) is now established for all integral powers

Expression (4) can be useful in finding powers of complex numbers even when

they are given in rectangular form and the result is desired in that form

EXAMPLE 1. In order to put (√

3+ 1)7in rectangular form, one need onlywrite

(√

3+ i)7= (2e iπ/6

)7= 27

e i 7π/6 = (26

e iπ )( 2e iπ/6) = −64(√3+ i).

Finally, we observe that if r = 1, equation (4) becomes

(e iθ ) n = e inθ (n = 0, ±1, ±2, ).

(5)

When written in the form

( cos θ + i sin θ) n = cos nθ + i sin nθ (n = 0, ±1, ±2, ),

(6)

this is known as de Moivre’s formula The following example uses a special case

of it

EXAMPLE 2. Formula (6) with n= 2 tells us that

( cos θ + i sin θ)2= cos 2θ + i sin 2θ,

or

cos2θ− sin2

θ + i2 sin θ cos θ = cos 2θ + i sin 2θ.

By equating real parts and then imaginary parts here, we have the familiar

trigono-metric identities

cos 2θ = cos2

θ− sin2

θ , sin 2θ = 2 sin θ cos θ.

(See also Exercises 10 and 11, Sec 8.)

8 ARGUMENTS OF PRODUCTS AND QUOTIENTS

If z1= r1e iθ1 and z2= r2e iθ2, the expression

z1z2= (r1r2)e i(θ1+θ2)

(1)

in Sec 7 can be used to obtain an important identity involving arguments:

arg(z1z2) = arg z1+ arg z2.

(2)

This result is to be interpreted as saying that if values of two of the three

(multiple-valued) arguments are specified, then there is a value of the third such that the

equation holds

We start the verification of statement (2) by letting θ1and θ2denote any values

of arg z1 and arg z2, respectively Expression (1) then tells us that θ1+ θ2 is a

value of arg(z z ) (See Fig 9.) If, on the other hand, values of arg(z z ) and

sec 8 Arguments of Products and Quotients 21

x O

Statement (2) is sometimes valid when arg is replaced everywhere by Arg (see

Exercise 6) But, as the following example illustrates, that is not always the case.

EXAMPLE 1. When z1= −1 and z2= i,

of arg(z1z2) , we find that equation (2) is satisfied.

Statement (2) tells us that

and, since (Sec 7)

Statement (3) is, of course, to be interpreted as saying that the set of all values

on the left-hand side is the same as the set of all values on the right-hand side

Statement (4) is, then, to be interpreted in the same way that statement (2) is

EXAMPLE 2. In order to find the principal argument Arg z when

3 Use mathematical induction to show that

e iθ1e iθ2· · · e iθ n = e i(θ1+θ2+···+θ n ) (n = 2, 3, ).

(see Sec 4), give a geometric argument to find a value of θ in the interval 0 ≤ θ < 2π

that satisfies the equation|e iθ− 1| = 2

Ans π

sec 8 Exercises 23

5 By writing the individual factors on the left in exponential form, performing the needed

operations, and finally changing back to rectangular coordinates, show that

(a) i(1−√3i)(√

3+ i) = 2(1 +√3i); (b) 5i/(2 + i) = 1 + 2i;

(c) ( −1 + i)7= −8(1 + i); (d) (1+√3i)−10= 2−11(−1 +√3i).

6 Show that if Re z1> 0 and Re z2>0, then

Arg(z1z2) = Arg z1+ Arg z2,

where principal arguments are used

write z = re iθ and m = −n = 1, 2, Using the expressions

z m = r m e imθ and z−1=

1

r



e i( −θ) ,

verify that (z m )−1= (z−1) m and hence that the definition z n = (z−1) min Sec 7 could

have been written alternatively as z n = (z m )−1

if there are complex numbers c1 and c2 such that z1= c1c2and z2= c1c2

Suggestion: Note that

1+ cos θ + cos 2θ + · · · + cos nθ =1

2+sin[(2n + 1)θ/2]

2 sin(θ/2) ( 0 < θ < 2π ).

Suggestion: As for the first identity, write S = 1 + z + z2+ · · · + z nand consider

the difference S − zS To derive the second identity, write z = e iθ in the first one

10 Use de Moivre’s formula (Sec 7) to derive the following trigonometric identities:

(a) cos 3θ= cos3θ − 3 cos θ sin2

θ; (b) sin 3θ = 3 cos2θ sin θ− sin3

θ

11 (a) Use the binomial formula (Sec 3) and de Moivre’s formula (Sec 7) to write

Then define the integer m by means of the equations

m=

n/2 if n is even, (n − 1)/2 if nis odd and use the above summation to show that [compare with Exercise 10(a)]



( −1) k x n −2k (1− x2) k

of degree n (n = 0, 1, 2, ) in the variable x.∗

9 ROOTS OF COMPLEX NUMBERS

Consider now a point z = re iθ, lying on a circle centered at the origin with radius

r (Fig 10) As θ is increased, z moves around the circle in the counterclockwise

direction In particular, when θ is increased by 2π , we arrive at the original point;

and the same is true when θ is decreased by 2π It is, therefore, evident from Fig 10

that two nonzero complex numbers

z1= r1e iθ1 and z2= r2e iθ2

x O

sec 9 Roots of Complex Numbers 25

are equal if and only if

r1= r2 and θ1= θ2+ 2kπ, where k is some integer (k = 0, ±1, ±2, ).

This observation, together with the expression z n = r n e inθ in Sec 7 for integral

powers of complex numbers z = re iθ , is useful in finding the nth roots of any

nonzero complex number z0= r0e iθ0, where n has one of the values n = 2, 3,

The method starts with the fact that an nth root of z0is a nonzero number z = re iθ

such that z n = z0, or

r n e inθ = r0e iθ0.

According to the statement in italics just above, then,

r n = r0 and nθ = θ0+ 2kπ, where k is any integer (k = 0, ±1, ±2, ) So r =√n

r0, where this radical denotes

the unique positive nth root of the positive real number r0, and

of the roots that they all lie on the circle|z| =√n

r0about the origin and are equally

spaced every 2π/n radians, starting with argument θ0/n Evidently, then, all of the

distinct roots are obtained when k = 0, 1, 2, , n − 1, and no further roots arise

with other values of k We let c k (k = 0, 1, 2, , n − 1) denote these distinct roots

The number √n

r0 is the length of each of the radius vectors representing the

n roots The first root c0has argument θ0/n ; and the two roots when n= 2 lie at

the opposite ends of a diameter of the circle|z| =√n

r0, the second root being−c0

When n ≥ 3, the roots lie at the vertices of a regular polygon of n sides inscribed

in that circle

We shall let z 1/n0 denote the set of nth roots of z0 If, in particular, z0 is a

positive real number r0, the symbol r01/n denotes the entire set of roots; and the

symbol√n

r0in expression (1) is reserved for the one positive root When the value

of θ0 that is used in expression (1) is the principal value of arg z0( −π < θ0≤ π),

the number c0 is referred to as the principal root Thus when z0 is a positive real

number r0, its principal root is √n

exp

i 2kπ n

The number c0 here can, of course, be replaced by any particular nth root of z0,

since ω n represents a counterclockwise rotation through 2π/n radians.

Finally, a convenient way to remember expression (1) is to write z0in its most

general exponential form (compare with Example 2 in Sec 6)

z0= r0e i(θ0+2kπ) (k = 0, ±1, ±2, )

(5)

and to formally apply laws of fractional exponents involving real numbers, keeping

in mind that there are precisely n roots:

sec 10 Examples 27

The examples in the next section serve to illustrate this method for finding roots of

complex numbers

10 EXAMPLES

In each of the examples here, we start with expression (5), Sec 9, and proceed in

the manner described just after it

EXAMPLE 1. Let us find all values of ( −8i) 1/3, or the three cube roots of

the number−8i One need only write



(k = 0, 1, 2).

(1)

They lie at the vertices of an equilateral triangle, inscribed in the circle|z| = 2, and

are equally spaced around that circle every 2π/3 radians, starting with the principal

root (Fig 12)

c0= 2 expi



−π6

Without any further calculations, it is then evident that c1= 2i; and, since

c2 is symmetric to c0 with respect to the imaginary axis, we know that

sec Roots of Complex Numbers 25

are equal if and only if

r1= r2 and θ1=... at the original point;

and the same is true when θ is decreased by 2π It is, therefore, evident from Fig 10

that two nonzero complex numbers

z1=... inθ in Sec for integral

powers of complex numbers z = re iθ , is useful in finding the nth roots of any

nonzero complex number z0= r0e