A Study On Non-Finite Infinitive English In Reference With Vietnamese.pdf

i SINH VIÊN NGUYỄN THỊ NHUNG MÃ SV 1164010042 THUYẾT MINH ĐỀ CƯƠNG KHÓA LUẬN TỐT NGHIỆP Chuyên ngành Kế toán Mã số 401 “Thực trạng và một số giải pháp hoàn thiện kế toán Nguyên vật liệu tại Công ty Cổ[.]

anh Hóa, tháng 04 năm 2015

HONG DUC UNIVERSITY FACULTY OF FOREIGN LANGUAGES

GRADUATION THESIS

A STUDY ON NON-FINITE INFINITIVE ENGLISH IN

REFERENCE WITH VIETNAMESE

Supervisor : DR.Nguyen Thanh Minh

Student : Hoang Thi Loan

from teachers, especially Dr Nguyễn Thanh Minh - my supervisor

First of all, I would like to give my sincere thanks to my supervisor, Dr Nguyễn Thanh - a joyful teacher who always instructs and supports me during the time of doing graduation’s thesis He always gives us warm gestures, helps and supports in my graduation’s thesis His support helps me finish our

graduation’s thesis well

I also would like to take this opportunity to express our gratitude to the teachers of the Department of Foreign Languages who have taught me for 4 years and the teachers in the library school have created the best conditions for

me to have access to extremely valuable resources as well as the management board of Hong Duc University, for supporting me to complete this graduation’s thesis Thank you so much for your support, assistance and cooperation

I would like to express my deepest love and appreciation to my beloved parents, Hoàng Ngọc Tiếp and Lê Thị Liên I could not have finished this thesis without all their love, supports, patience, and neverending prayers My sincere gratitude goes to all my brother, for always encouraging me to finish my study and for their beneficial advice I would like to express thanks to my lover for cheering me up in my bad times

Finally, I would like to express our gratitude to those whose names I cannot mention here one by one May God bless them all

Loan Hoang Thi Loan

ABSTRACT

This study aims to conduct a comparison of the “infinitive” form in

non-finite in English in reference with Vietnamese This study comprises literature

review of the “infinite” form in non-finite and non-finite infinitive in English in

comparison with Vietnamese verb phrases Therefore, I hope that the paper can

bring useful information, especially the “infinite” form to readers who are

concerned

CONTENTS

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS i

ABSTRACT iii

CONTENTS iv

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS vii

PART I: INTRODUCTION 1

1.1 Rationale 1

1.2 Aims of the study 1

The paper sets the aims and objectives as follows: 1

1.3 Research questions 2

1.4 Scope of the study 2

1.5 Methods of the study 2

1.6 Design of the study 3

PART 2: DEVELOPMENTS 4

CHAPTER 1: LITERATURE REVIEW OF THE “INFINITIVE” IN NON-FINITE 4

1.1 Distinction between finite and Non-finite 5

1.1.1 Definition of finite form and Non-finite form 5

1.1.2 The structure of finite and Non-finite verb phrase 5

1.1.3 The “ing” form and the infinitive with the finite form 6

1.1.3.1 Some of the properties of the “infinitive” and the “ing” form fully correspond to those of the finite forms 6

1.1.3.2 Some of the properties of the “infinitive” and the “ing” form coincide only partly 7

1.1.3.3 From the semantic and syntactic point of view, the infinitive and the “ing” form, like the finite forms, can be classed into two groups 10

1.1.3.4 The syntactic functions of the verbals and those of the finite forms do not coincide and therein lies the main difference between them 11

1.1.3.5 In some of their functions, the infinitive and the “ing” form are lexically dependent 12

1.1.3.6 Although the infinitive and “ing” forms have different grammatical purposes than the finite forms, both verbals can be changed by the same

secondary components of the sentence as the predicate verb 13

1.1.3.7 In addition to the traits that the infinitive and the “ing” form share, each of the two verbal forms has its own unique characteristics 14

1.1.3.8 The “ing” form, in its turn, has peculiarities of its own Unlike the infinitives, in certain functions, it may be preceded by a preposition 14

1.1.4 The participle with the finite form in Non-finite 15

1.1.4.1 Some of the properties of the participle fully correspond to those of the finite forms 15

1.1.4.2 Properties of the participle partly corresponding to those of the finite forms 15

2.2 The “infinitive” form in Non-finite 17

2.2.1 Definitions of the “infinitive” in Non-finite 17

2.2.2 Classifications and functions of the “infinitive” form in Non-finite 18

2.2.2.1 The independent “infinitive” form in Non-finite 19

2.2.2.1.1 The “infinitive” form as subject 19

2.2.2.1.2 The “infinitive” form as predicative 21

2.2.2.1.3 The “infinitive” form as parenthesis 24

2.2.2.1.4 The “infinitive” form as predicate 25

2.2.2.2 The independent infinitive 26

2.2.2.2.1 The infinitive as verb adjunct 26

1.3 Summary 40

CHAPTER 2: THE COMAPRISON BETWEEN NONFINITE INFINITIVE IN ENGLISH AND VIETNAMESE VERB GROUPS 40

2.1 Structure and functions of the “infinitive” form in English Non-finite and its expressions in Vietnamese Error! Bookmark not defined 2.1.1 Some properties of Vietnamese verb groups Error! Bookmark not defined 2.1.2 Certain cases of “infinitive” form in Non-finite in English in comparision with Vietnamese verb groups 43

2.1.2.1 Independent “infinitive” form 44

2.1.2.1.1 As subject 44

2.1.2.1.2 As predicative 44

2.1.2.1.3 As predicate 45

2.1.2.1.4 As parenthesis 45

2.1.2.2 The dependent “infinitive” form 46

2.1.2.2.1 As verb adjunct 46

2.1.2.2.2 As noun adjunct 48

2.1.2.2.3 As adjective adjunct 50

2.2 Meaning of “infinitive” form in non- finite in English and its equivalents of its meaning in Vietnamese 52

2.2.1 Meaning of time 52

2.2.1.1 Simultaneous action of predicate verb 52

2.2.1.2 Future time 52

2.2.2 Meaning of purpose 54

2.2.3 Meaning of comparision 55

2.2.4 Meaning of potential actions 55

2.2.5 Meaning of exception 56

2.2.6 Meaning of modal 56

2.2.7 Meaning of cause and result 58

2.3 Summary 58

PART III: CONCLUSION 59

1.1 Conclusions 59

1.1.1 Similarities 59

1.1.2 Differences 60

1.2 Limitations and suggestions for further study 61

REFERENCES 62

PART I: INTRODUCTION 1.1 Rationale

English is now widely spoken all over the world In many nations, it seems

to be the primary and official language Learners frequently pay attention to verb forms in English when learning the language, and the infinitive appears to

be so hard that it has been discussed in numerous seminars as well as research

papers on “Phrasal Verbs” or “English Infinitive or Gerund” The infinitive in

English causes a number of problems for both foreign learners and native speakers alike Because what we do sometimes consists of a sequence of acts taking place at the same moment or one after the other Some behaviors may be recognized by witnesses, while others can be predicted by others based on experience or rules specific to each circumstance Some acts, on the other hand, are hard to detect without addressing the doer or agent because they occur in the speaker’s head, such as the process of thinking and feeling However, whether

or not activities are obvious, they always have a tight relationship: one may be the cause or effect of the other Furthermore, a verb might be preceded or followed by others in a group of verbs, and the relationship between them is contingent on the use of specific verbs and in certain circumstances Furthermore, the infinitive’s meaning and applications vary depending on the

situation In addtion, we clearly analyze the similarities and differences of

non-finite infinitives in English and Vietnamese, helping readers better understand

them and use them correctly in writing and speaking That is why we chose “A

study on English Non-finite infinitive in reference with Vietnamese” as the major

topic of my graduation paper, and we hope that it will be useful to English

readers in terms of the infinitive

1.2 Aims of the study

The paper sets the aims and objectives as follows:

1- To distinguish between finite and non-finite forms

2- Discuss the classifications, functions and the meanings of non-finite in English

3- To compare and contrast the structure, function, and meaning of the finite infinitive verb phrases in English with Vietnamese ones

non-1.3 Research questions

My graduation thesis will not be able to cover all regarding the non-finite

“infinitive” form in English due to space and time constraints As a result, it has

been chosen to focus on only these issues:

1- What is non-finite infinitive in English?

2- What are the differences and the similarities between finite and finite form in English?

non-3- What are the differences and the similarities between non-finite infinitive in English and its expressions in Vietnamese?

1.4 Scope of the study

The research focuses on the non-finite infinitive in English and Vietnamese This research also gives some examples related to some typical infinitive in English Along with that, the comparison of the non-finite infinitive

in English with the Vietnamese verb phrases as conducted in this research is

designed to find out similarities and differences of both languages

1.5 Methods of the study

This study’s main method is comparative analysis to analyze the similarities and differences between non-finite infinitive in English and Vietnamese on the aspects of forms and meanings by giving examples

Firstly, the overview of distinction between finite and non- finite in English and Vietnamese was introduced Secondly, the research describes the

“infinitive” form in non-finite Then we analyze tructures and functions of the

“infinitive” form in English non-finite and its expresions in Vietnamese Finally,

we make comparisons of similarities and differences of non-finite infinitive in two languages

1.6 Design of the study

The graduation paper begins with acknowledgements and table of contents

The thesis is divided into three main parts The part 1 is the “Introduction” The part 2 is the “Development”, which consists of three chapters

The chapter 1 concerns with “Literature review”

The chapter 2 deals with “Non-finite infinitive in English in comparison with Vietnamese verb phrases”

The part 3 is “The conclusion” or summary of the study

perplexing since they still have an “action” sense to them, may take adverbs,

and can have a direct object The finite and non-finite forms of the verb are distinguished in all English grammars The non-finite forms of the verb, also

known as the verbals or non-predicate forms, include the infinitive (to play), gerund (playing), participle I (playing), and participle II (playing), according to most grammars (played) The gerund and the participle I are traditionally

distinguished in English grammar Because there is no formal distinction between them and they are universally accepted as homonyms, the gerund and

participle I will be handled as a single form and referred to as the “ing” form As the phrase “participle I” has become obsolete, there is no need to use the phrase

“participle II” as “II” has also gone obsolete As a result, this non-finite will be referred to as a “participle.” As a result, three verbals will be used: the infinitive, the “ing” form, and the participle

Most grammarians consider verbals to be forms of the verb since they share certain characteristics with finite forms They do, however, have their own characteristics that set them apart from finite forms

To comprehend the nature of the verbals, it is required to compare and contrast them with the finite forms of the verb and identify areas of similarity and difference

It appears logical to compare the infinitives and the “ing” form to the finite

forms first because they share many characteristics Later, the participle, which differs significantly from both of these forms, will be contrasted to the finite forms

1.1 Distinction between finite and Non-finite

1.1.1 Definition of finite form and Non-finite form

According to John Eastwood (1994;76), a finite verb phrase is one that can

be the main verb of a sentence A finite verb phrase can come in a main clause

or a sub clause

Eg: - The police took action

- We were pleased when the police took action

Alexander (1988;84) claims that a non-finite form is a form of the verb that doesn’t show a distinction in tense and can’t stand alone as the main verb in a sentence

1.1.2 The structure of finite and Non-finite verb phrase

According to Tran Huu Manh (2000;42,43), the structure of the verb phrase can be formed below:

Finite verb phrases Non-finite verb phrases

a, Finite VPs (V, V-s and V-ed1, etc.)

have tense and mood of a certain type

Eg: - I sit here very often

- He sits there once a week

(Tense: present; mood: indicative)

- We sat there yesterday

(Tense: past; mood: indicative)

a, Non- Finite VPs (to V, V-ing and V-ed2) do not have tense and mood

Eg: - I want to sit here then

- She likes watching TV with

c, Finite VPs often appear in the simple,

compound or complex sentence (making

up finite clauses)

c, Non-finite VPs often perform the function of S, O, C or A of the main finite clause and make up the complete complex sentence

1.1.3 The “ing” form and the infinitive with the finite form

Some aspects of the “infinitive” and “ing” forms fully correspond to those

of the finite forms, whereas others only partially match

1.1.3.1 Some of the properties of the “infinitive” and the “ing” form fully

correspond to those of the finite forms

The lexical meanings of the two verbals are the same as the corresponding verb

They are valuable because they maintain not just the specific lexical meaning provided by the verb’s root, but also the notion of the verb’s action

The morphological pattern of the “infinitive” and “ing” forms is the same

as that of the finite form

This is useful for both root verbs and derivatives generated with suffixes or prefixes

Eg: - She sits – to sit – sitting

- Hoa studies – to study – studying

- Her son plays – to play – playing The “infinitive” and the “Ing” form also repeat the pattern of all kinds of

compound verbs

Eg: - He takes off – to take off – take off

- The river overflows – to overflow – overflowing

- I stays with – to stay with – staying with

The verbals follow the same structure as the various prepared phrases in English that act as verb phrases

Eg: - She keeps up with – to keep up with – keeping up with

- He takes disadvantages of – to take disadvantages of – taking

disadvantages of

1.1.3.2 Some of the properties of the “infinitive” and the “ing” form

coincide only partly

1, The “infinitive” and “ing” forms only partially correlate to the finite

forms in terms of grammatical categories

a, The “infinitive” and “ing” forms share the category of voice with the

finite forms, which is conveyed through the antagonism of active and passive forms

Eg: - To speak – to be spoken

- Speaking – being spoken

b, The “infinitive” and the “ing” form lack the category of person and

number inherent in the finite forms

c, The category of mood is expressed only by the finite forms

d, The “infinitive” and the “ing”, like the finite forms, can express tense

distinctions We find two forms that are diametrically opposite to one another: the basic form and the perfect form

Eg: - To begin – to have begun

- Beginning – having beginning

e, Only in the infinitive is there a distinction between the noncontinuous and continuous aspects, which is conveyed by the contrast of the simple and continuous forms

Eg: - To eat – to be eating

In comparison to the finite form of the verb, where the opposition between the non-continuous and continuous forms appears to be rather apparent, the opposition between the non-continuous and continuous forms is not well defined The continuous infinitive may be used to stress the concept of time and process, making the sentence more vivid and costly The complete continuous shape is an uncommon occurrence If used at all, it serves to express an action, which began before the moment denoted by the action of the predicate verb and

continued up to or into that moment

Eg: - She expected the boy to have been gone to school safely

The “Ing” form has no special forms to express aspect distinctions, but generally, it tends to show, like all continuous forms, that the action is not

accomplished (Frank, M Modern English (1972;45,46)

(To) have been eaten

(To) be eaten

Having been eaten Being eaten

The “infinitive” and the “ing” lack those categories that are essential to

prediction, namely mood, tense, person, and number, as shown in the instances above of the forms of the two verbals This can’t help but influence their ability

to function in the sentence

2, Like the finite forms of the verb, the “infinitive” and “ing” are always

linked with a subject However, their subject is stated in a very different way than the finite forms

The person or object denoted by the subject of the sentence and, as a result,

of the finite form, is the subject of the verbal in a variety of functions

Eg: a, He tried to complete his performance

b, I used to learn English everyday

However, the subject of a verbal is also expressed through a sentence’s secondary parts

Eg: a, She makes me a call to be absent in the class

b, There is something in his mind that leaves his doing this job

The subject of the infinitive and the Ing-form can sometimes be located in

a separate phrase or even a different sentence

Eg: - It is no use persuading her I leave her house without saying

good-bye

Because the subject is not indicated by any particular grammaticalmethod in any of the cases above, the relationship between the verbal action and its subject is established on the semantic plane

Thomson, A.J & Martinet (1986;55) says, the infinitive and the “ing” form

also differ from the finite verbs with regard to the subject of their action Like the finite forms, they are always associated with a subject is expressed differs greatly from that of finite forms

Because finite forms serve as the sentence’s predicate, it follows to reason that their subject is always the sentence’s grammatical subject However, the verbals’ subject might be expressed in a variety of ways

The subject of the verbals is the same as the subject of the sentence and, as

a result, of the finite verb in a number of functions

Eg: - She struggled to find the first word of their story

- He wasn’t used to being miserable without doing something

about it

But in certain other functions, the subject of the verbals is frequently expressed by some secondary part of the sentence

Eg: - She gave him permission to leave

- Seeing him there made me remember what we had to do together Furthermore, the subject of the infinitives as well as the “ing” form may

appear in a subsequent phrase or even in a separate phrase

Eg: - Knowledge is not something to boast about

- Writing essays is not easy

Finally, a verbal may have its own subject, which is expressly stated in the

phrase The topic is represented differently in the infinitives and the “ing” form

in this situation

The infinitive’s subject is represented by a noun or an indefinite pronoun in the common case, or a personal pronoun in the objective case, and the complete

structure is introduced by the preposition “for”

Eg: - It was difficult for her to finish her deadlines before Monday This kind of construction may be called the “for” phrase

The possessive pronoun, a personal pronoun in the objective case, a noun

in the genitive case, and a noun or an indefinite pronoun in the common case

can all be used to convey the subject of the “ing” form

Eg: - He suggested her going to school

- He could be the cause of her losing the job

- I was happy with Maria’s going to university

The “ing” complex refers to the “ing” form and its subject However, the

four complexes differ in terms of frequency of recurrence and stylistic coloring Possessive pronouns are now in use, but personal pronouns in the objective case are less prevalent and distinctive colloqui in the genitive case are by and large typical of literary style

Verbals, like finite forms, can be employed in both active and passive constructions As a result, their topic might be either the performer of the verbal action or the one who is acted upon by it

Eg: - The sudents left the classroom without being seen

- I have not come here to be insulted, but to talk to you as a friend The active subject of infinitives and the active subject of the “ing” form are

two separate sorts of subjects

1.1.3.3 From the semantic and syntactic point of view, the infinitive and the

“ing” form, like the finite forms, can be classed into two groups

They can be used as notional verbals

Eg: - It amused him to tease the girl

- He went down the stairs, holding the English book

- They may also serve as structural words

Some of them, mainly the verb to be, may be used as link-verbs

Eg: - John is reported to be a good pupil

- John said something about it being pretty late

The verb to have may be used as a modal verb

Eg: - I am sorry to have to tell you that

- I want to talk about having to be off

The infinitive and the “ing” form may alsobe used as auxiliary verbs to build up analytical forms (eg: to be playing, to have played,to have been

playing, to be played, having played, being played, etc…)

But the verbals differ from the finite forms with regard to their role in building up analytical tense-aspect form, it is always the verbals that are used as the second component of an analytical tense-aspect form

Eg: - She will be there

- She is cooking

1.1.3.4 The syntactic functions of the verbals and those of the finite forms

do not coincide and therein lies the main difference between them

According to Gordon E.M & Krilova (1973;18,19), the finite forms have just one function in the sentence: that of the predicate The verbals can serve a

variety of purposes The infinitives and the “ing” form are notable for having

roles that are typical of many components of speech They can also serve as nouns in some cases (eg: the function of the subject and the object)

Eg: - To know whether it is good or not is difficult

- Everything you want to know is not clear

- Writing letters is a waste of time

The infinitive and the “ing” forms may also have adjective functions (eg:

the function of an attribute)

Eg: - Singing people, arm in arm, filled the street

- She is not a worker to do rubbish things

The two verbals can also operate as adverbs (eg: the function of an adverbial modifier of purpose, consequence, time, manner)

Eg: - I came here to see him off

- They began to learn a language by listening to the new sounds The infinitive and the “ing” form can likewise be used for purely verbal

purposes This happens in two situations

They may occasionally function as the sentence’s predicate in certain sentence patterns

Eg: - Why not play with me?

- What about cleaning the door?

Although the predicate is stated by a finite verb, the infinitive and “ing”

forms may be used to convey a second action in addition to the predicate verb’s action

Eg: - I work to find Mary cooking (~ and found)

- He took a seat next to mine, watching my action (~ and watched) The infinitive and the “ing” form may also serve as parenthesis

Eg: - To tell the truth, I don’t understand what you said

- Frankly speaking, I am good at English

1.1.3.5 In some of their functions, the infinitive and the “ing” form are

lexically dependent

That is, they must be used by very specific verbs, nouns, and adjectives

The verb “to want” for example, requires an infinitive as an object (eg: They wants to go shopping at once), while “to avoid” requires an “ing” form in this

function (eg: She avoided mentioning their wages)

The adjectives “ready” and “busy” which both require an infinitive and a

“ing” form, are the same way

Eg: - She was ready to do anything for her family

- She’s busy writing out the wedding invitations

(https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/busy)

On addition, the infinitive and the “ing” form are structurally reliant in certain roles and appear in very specific phrase patterns The infinitive and “ing”

forms are only used after a number of definite verbs, nouns, and adjectives in

sentences with a formal “it” as subject

Eg: - It is no need to be in the house

- It is no use going to the restaurant

All of the functions of the two verbals will be covered in the following sections The functions that are lexically and structurally dependent on the

infinitive and the “ing” form will be highlighted in particular

1.1.3.6 Although the infinitive and “ing” forms have different grammatical

purposes than the finite forms, both verbals can be changed by the same secondary components of the sentence as the predicate verb

Eg: - She told me about it herself

- She wanted to tell me about it herself

When a verb requires a prepositional object, the verb retains the preposition even if the object is detached from it

Eg: - We have got a lot to talk about

- We are not accustomed to being spoken to

However, there is a distinction between the two verbals and the finite forms The secondary components of the sentence in finite forms normally come after the predicate, although they can alternatively come beforehand

Eg: - To relieve my feeling, I wrote a letter to Robert

The negatives “not” and “never” always appear before the finite forms or

within the analytical forms of certain compound predicates

Eg: - She was not here

- She did not seem tired

However, the negatives “not” and “never” always precede the verbals, even

if they are analytical forms

Eg: - I had learnt not to speak English

1.1.3.7 In addition to the traits that the infinitive and the “ing” form share,

each of the two verbal forms has its own unique characteristics

The infinitive is usually preceded by the particle “to” although it can also

be used without “to” in some cases, and particle use is optional in others The

presence or absence of the particle will be assessed in relation to each of the infinitive’s functions

If there are two or more infinitives in the same function following each

other, the participle “to” is normally used before the first one and need not be

repeated before others

Eg: - They admired him because he could do many things, for example:

to dance and skate

Sometimes, however, the particle is repeated for emphasis, to make the action of infinitive more prominent

Eg: - The hero, when the heroine hurts his feeling, is said to fell for a

moment a wild desire of the cave man, the longing to seize her, to drag her with him, to give her a good beating

The infinitive may be sometimes represented by the participle “to” alone

This happens when the infinitives are easily supplied from the previous context Eg: - Mary said, “I do not think you will cat any fish” John said, “I

never expect to”

Another feature of infinitives is that they may be used in conjunction with

the conjunctive pronoun or adverbs “what, who, whom, when, where, how, and

how long” This type of infinitive group is known as the “wh” group since the

majority of them begin with “wh”

Eg: - I do not know what to do

1.1.3.8 The “ing” form, in its turn, has peculiarities of its own Unlike the

infinitives, in certain functions, it may be preceded by a preposition

Eg: - He is very good at addressing difficult problems

There’s another quirk with the “ing” form It’s possible that it’ll lose its linguistic quality and become adjectivized In this scenario, the “ing” form loses

its sense of action, and its lexical meaning is occasionally altered in comparison

to the meaning of the corresponding verb

Eg: - They found her opinions very upsetting

- His erect, rather forbidding figure made him look old fashioned

In the second example, “forbidding” is quite different from “to forbid” Adjectivized “ing” form may be preceded by adverbs of degree, such as

“very, rather ”

1.1.4 The participle with the finite form in Non-finite

The participle differs from the finite forms, as well as the infinitive and ing forms, in a significant way On the other hand, it has several unique characteristics that limit its usefulness even more The participle, like the infinitive and the ing form, has certain qualities that exactly match those of the finite form and others that only partially match them

1.1.4.1 Some of the properties of the participle fully correspond to those of the finite forms

The participle has the same lexical meaning as the corresponding verb The participle has the same morphological pattern as the corresponding verb This holds good for root-verbs (a), derivatives (b) all kinds of compounds (c), and set phrases that serve as verb equivalents (d)

Eg: - (a) She plays - played

- (b) My teacher organizes - organized

- (c) His father takes over - taken over

- (d) The nurse takes care of - taken care of

1.1.4.2 Properties of the participle partly corresponding to those of the finite forms

1, Because the participle has just one form, it lacks all of the grammatical categories associated with the finite form

Transitive verbs’ participles have passive meanings, whereas intransitive verbs’ participles have active meanings Participles can be made from both

terminative and durative verbs A condition arising from a previously completed action is denoted by the participant of a terminative verb A durative verb’s participle suggests an activity The participle of a durative verb denotes an action It is also simultaneous with the action of the predicative verb

Eg: - He stood up, unable to sustain his anger, poised on the table

2, The participle, like the finite forms and the two other verbal forms, is always coupled with a subject; nevertheless, the options of expressing the participle’s subject are more restricted

+ The person or object specified by the sentence’s subject might be the subject of the participle

Eg: - Although, I were clearly aware of the danger of night when allowed to go out with my friends, I never came back home until 12 o’clock + The subject of the participle might be the same person or thing as the sentence’s object

Eg: - I heard my name called

+ The subject of the participle may be its head – noun

Eg: - The man with an anonymous face shaved as smooth as marble stood at the top of the stairs

+ Finally, when employed in an absolute form, the participle, like the other verbal, can have its own subject

Eg: - In the library, Hong, revived, her face less drawn, went through the minuet of grumbles

3, Although the distribution of the participle is identical to that of the finite forms and the two other verbals in theory, we discover considerable differences between them in practice

+ Complements can be added to the participle, though they are usually put after it Only certain adverbs can come before it

Eg: - Words thus strung together fall on the ear like music

+ The negative “not” is always placed before the participle

Eg: - Lan, not placated, was scolding me for saying “yes”

+ The participle accepts fewer complements than the infinitive or Ing-form The complements it can have are mainly limited to indicating the location, time,

or who is doing the activity The participle is used alone far more frequently than the infinitive or the Ing of form

Eg: - The man gave her a keen glance when introduced

4, In its function in the phrase, the participle differs significantly from not just

the finite forms, but also the infinitive and the “ing” form

+ First and foremost, the participle cannot be employed as a link-verb, a model verb, or an auxiliary verb

+ Second, the participle’s syntactical roles in the phrase are more limited than those of the other verbs It can only be used as a verb adjunct, a close verb adjunct, or a loose verb adjunct, as well as a noun adjunct, a close noun adjunct,

or a loose noun adjunct

Eg: - The sunning buzzards sat hunched on what remained of the roof (close verb adjunct)

- I was anxious to see how I should feel when exposed to the danger (loose verb adjunct)

- I thought quite a lot about John’s promised fortune, (close noun adjunct)

+ The participle may have another verbal as its head- word

Eg: - The editor took advantage of my youth, my inexperience to have the book published

2.2 The “infinitive” form in Non-finite

2.2.1 Definitions of the “infinitive” in Non-finite

According to Swan (1995; 259) “Infinitives are forms like (to) Write, (to)

Stand” Unlike verb tenses (eg: writes, stood), infinitive do not usually show the

actual times of the actions or events They usually refer to actions and events in

a more general way For example:

- I saw him stand out - side the room

- I wanted him to write an assignment

And Alexander (1988; 299) considers the infinitives in terms of bare

infinitive (the base form of verb without “to”) and “to”- infinitive (where “to” is

always used in front of the base form of verb)

Bare infinitive: Play, Go, Write ?

“To” infinitive: To play, To go, To write ?

We can see from the preceding definitions of infinitives that infinitives can

be bare infinitives or “to” infinitives Additionally, infinitives might be active or

passive For example:

Active: - I’ like to eat something

Passive: - He seems to have been forgotten

There are also progressive infinitives (eg: to be playing or be playing), perfect infinitives (eg: to have played), and passive infinitives, in addition to basic infinitives like to play or play (eg: to be played or be played)

2.2.2 Classifications and functions of the “infinitive” form in Non-finite

According to Collins Colbuid (1990;56), there are two types of infinitives: active and passive infinitives, as well as present or simple infinitives, perfect infinitives, and perfect continuous infinitives

From these, we can come to the form of the infinitives

“to”

infinitive

Bare infinitive

To do

To be doing

To have done

To have been done

Be done

Be being done Have been done Have been being done

To be done

To be being done

To have been done

To have been being done

2.2.2.1 The independent “infinitive” form in Non-finite

The independent “infinitive” form may have four different syntactic

functions in the sentence: the subject, the predicative, the parenthesis, the predicate It may serve as:

Eg: - He goes here

- Why not talk to me

- To think that it should come to this!

2.2.2.1.1 The “infinitive” form as subject

In this function, The infinitive is generally used with the participle “to” and

it generally represents an action that occurs after the predicate verb’s action

Eg: - To see my friend’s family again was make me happy

- To meet her was all I desired

In this function, the infinitive frequently requires the extra modal meaning

of condition The inclusion of Conditional Mood in the phrase typically supports this interpretation

Eg: - To take him seriously would be absurd

(If you took him seriously )

- To go to them with an accusation would be absurd

(If you went ) Occasionally, an action expressed by an infinitive and referring to the future acquires an additional meaning of purpose

Eg: - To pursue her can take a long time

However, the above described time reference of the infinitive and the additional meaning associated with it are only a tendency prevailing in the language The simple infinitive may also express actions simultaneous with the action of the predicative verb

Eg: - To take her hand gave me a lot of pleasure

- To walk in the garden and watch the spring returning was like

discovering the world

The passive and the continuous infinitives are hardly ever used in this function

In rare examples, in which a perfect infinitive occurs, it has conditional meaning and serves either to show that the action expressed by it did not happen

in the past or to indicate that its action preceded that of the predicate verb

Eg: - To have done that would have been to suggest that he has no of he

own at all

- To have lived for so many years against such a background was

excuse enough for any crime

One more characteristics of the infinitive is that it is always associated with some subject, passive or active

The subject of the infinitive may generally indicated in the context and its relation with the infinitive

One more characteristic of the infinitive is that it is always associated with some subject, passive or active The subject of the infinitive in this function is always expressed in different ways

The subject of the infinitive may generally indicated in the context and its relations with the infinitive is easily established (i.e: It is often expressed by one

of the secondary of the neibouring sentences)

Eg: - He does not obey his parents To do such a thing will only cause family disunity

The subject of the infinitive may not be mentioned at all In such cases, the action associated with any or every person or with an identifite number of unidentified of persons

Eg: - To run like as habit everyday is quite necessary

+ Sentences with the infinitive as subject have certain structural peculiar

The infinitive as subject may be used only declarative sentences, it is never used in interrogative sentences

The infinitive is always placed at the head of the sentence It is never preceded by any secondary parts

The predicate in sentences with the infinitive as subject has some specific features

+ The most commonly used type of predicate is the nominal predicate with

a predicative expressed by an adjective or noun The predicate has in most cases

a definite meaning - it qualifies the actions expressed by the infinitive

Eg: - To do them is quite natural things

- Not to go back was crazy

+ The predicate may also express by another infinitive, which has appositive meaning

Eg: - To make him happy is to help him

+ The use of the infinitive, as subject is mainly fund in literal English

2.2.2.1.2 The “infinitive” form as predicative

The infinitive in the function of the predicative is usually used with the

particle to

Eg: - His main purpose this morning was to reach the Victoria

The function of predicative is expressed only by the simple infinitive According to the time and aspect relations the simple infinitive is neutral to some extent; in most cases in order to express the actions the simple infinitive is applied

Being more or less neutral with regard time and aspect relations, the simple infinitive tends, however, to express the actions which follow the time indicated

by the link-verbs (i.e they refer to the future and are unaccomplished as yet) Eg: - The aim of the document is to rally support and discussion for

united action on the many difficulties facing the area

- My first thought was to ask if any of his supporters, high or low,

had turned against him

- The desire that grew upon Harris and me was to fall upon each

other’s necks and weep

But sometimes, depending on the context, the simple infinitive may serve

to express the action simultaneous with the time indicated by the link-verb Eg: - Her idea of making things go was to talk and laugh a great deal

The routine is to meet in the Bar Parlour for a couple of pints, have dinner

upstairs and a couple more pints, then return to the Bar Parlour for some serious drinking

It is essential in the predicative infinitive to have spesific appositive meaning (i.e the meaning of the subject of the statement is defined by the infinitive)

The subject of the predicative infinitive is stated in the same way as that of the infinitive in the function of the subject of the sentence

In general, it is pointed out in the context, either in the same sentence or in one of the neighbouring sentences

Eg: - Our aim should be to keep every elderly person healthy and happy

in his own home

- He knew that there were only two courses open to him The one

course was to act in a strictly professional way

The subject of the infinitive may not be indicated at all and the action is then related to any or each person or an indefinite number of undefined persons

Eg: - The banning of nuclear weapons is an important aim in the

struggle to defend world peace, but the first step is to wrest power from the

imperialists

- The best way to arrive is to arrive with no one to thank for it

The infinitive may have its own subject, expressed particularly The

infinitive for-phrase is used in this case

Eg: - I think the best plan, sir, would be for you to leave England

- Some time ago you realized that the only chance for your

husband’s happiness was for him to leave home

The subject can also be presented by an infinitive, nevertheless it is not commonly observed because it is not typical to use the infinitive in this function Eg: - Was the name of Bursley to be lost to the world?

To ask the question was to give the answer The subject of the sentence can

also be presented by all In fact, words the least and the most also can be applied

in this function only with the verb to do In this case, they are modified by an

attributive clause

Eg: - All I ask you to do is to look at Mary Boland

- Why do you laugh at me when all I wished to do was to help you?

As has been stated above the predicative infinitive is mostly used with the

particle to Nevertheless, after the above stated type of subject there is a variation in the usage of the particle The infinitive can also be used without to,

the examples are mentioned below

Eg: - All I wanted to do was cut the formalities short and get down to

business

- Too many people think that liquor solves problems I think all it does is

confuse them Now if I look at him, all I’m able to do is cry

(http://www.edufind.com)

One more way of expressing the subject is the use of a subject clause

introduced by the word what In most of those subject clauses we also find the verb to do (though other verbs may also be used)

Eg: - What I do is to read a few pages of a stimulating book or

pamphlet and then start the jobs with a good train of thought going

- What I came round for was to ask if you would phone Angela and find out how she reacts to the idea of coming out with me tonight

(http://www.englishgrammar.org)

It is important that statements with the subject presented by all, the least,

the most and a subject clause are not defined in the interrogative form

The independent infinitive in the function of predicative is used not only in the literary language but also in the colloquial English where it seems quite natural and common

2.2.2.1.3 The “infinitive” form as parenthesis

In the function of parenthesis the infinitive is always presented with

particle to

Eg: - To tell the truth, I’m beginning to find her just the tiniest bit of a

bore

content in a fourth-rate job must have something wrong with him

- I wanted to warn him off, so I smiled at him and said: “To put it

mildly, she’s just a bit inquisitive.”

- He sat himself on a high chair and got ready to listen

- It made my position complicated, not to say ludicrous

- Luke, old boy, to put it in a nutshell, I’ll fix you O.K

- I wouldn’t say that I actually believe in ghosts – to put it crudely

In general, the infinitive is usually a set phrase in this function It is used

in the sentence which is grammatically complete without it and in writing it is

distinguished by a comma Stated differently, the infinitive phrase does not perform the function of primary or secondary part of the statement, but it is

an independent and free element of the sentence Its position in the statement

is not concrete either, though indeed the phrase is often placed at the beginning of the sentence

As it is obvious from the above stated examples, the infinitive phrase as parenthesis decribles the approach and point of view of the speaker against the situation presented in the sentence or to draw attention to particular fact or other

or to analyze a situation or an idea The other point is that the infinitive phrase may function as some kind of reservation or condition on the speaker’s part The infinitive as parenthesis is not limited stylistically

2.2.2.1.4 The “infinitive” form as predicate

In the exclamatory sentences the infinitive can be applied in the function of the predicate The main point in the sentence is to state that the person expressed

by the subject is hardly to accomplish the action of the infinitive; a speaker does

not accept the very idea as unreasonable The infinitive can be applied with to or

Me – write! “No,” I said with laugh (Gordon E.M, (Moscow,1973), 58)

Such kind of sentences are emotionally coloured and used only in spoken English In any case, they are not very common

The infinitive may function as the predicate in the interrogative or

interrogative-negative one member sentences which begin with why In these sentences, the infinitive is found without to

The general meaning of the sentence is considered as suggestion It is not necessary to accomplish the action in interrogative-affirmative statements,

interrogative-negative statements show that there is not anything to prohibit one from accomplishing the action

Eg: - You are not going to fail, so why worry?

- Why not speak calmly if you are sure that you’re right?

- “My darling” she protested, “why waste yourself on little thing

when you don’t have to.” “We can’t go to war with the whole world.” “Then

why go to war at all?” The town’s dirty and ugly anyway – so why bother

about litter?

The infinitive expresses the action related to the future in this sentence pattern

According to Gordon and Krylova the subject of the infinitive in this type

of sentences is always the person (or the persons) participated in the

conversation, in some cases including the speaker (Gordon E.M,

(Moscow,1973), 62)

Only in spoken English such kind of sentences are typically found

The infinitive to think, attended by an object clause, may be used as

predicate in one-member sentences describing amazement and anger Sentences

of this kind are used in colloquial speech

Eg: - It’s terrible! To think that you should talk to me in this way!

2.2.2.2 The independent infinitive

Adjectives, nouns, and verbs can all use dependent infinitives as adjuncts These infinitives are referred to as infinitives as verb adjuncts, noun adjuncts, and adjective adjuncts, respectively

2.2.2.2.1 The infinitive as verb adjunct

When the infinitive is used as a verb adjunct, it is classified as either a close or a loose adjunct

There are six types of patternings in the English language where the infinitive should be considered a near verb adjunct:

- A close adjunct to an active verb

Eg: - He tried to recall the local name for the bird

- That seems to prove my point for you

- A close adjunct to a passive verb

Eg: - I was not allowed to see it

- A close complex adjunct to an active verb

Eg: - He wanted me to be quiet

- A close prepositional complex adjunct to an active verb

Eg: - She waited for the storm to subside

- A close wh-infinitive adjunct

Eg: - She had known what to expect

- A close adjunct to a verb in a sentence with a formal it as its subject

Eg: - It pleases her to ask us to luncheon

* The infinitive as verb adjunct to an active verb

The infinitive is usually placed after the head-verb when serving as a close adjunct to an active verb

It is dependent and used after the below mentioned verbs: “to agree, to

aim, to appear, to arrange, to ask, to attempt, to beg, to begin, and some

others”.(Gordon E.M, (Moscow,1973),61)

Eg: - At last we began to speak, fluently but with deliberation

- Then he condescended to explain himself

There are also a several set phrases which are followed by a close

infinitive: can/could afford, can’t/couldn’t bear, make up one’s mind,

should/would like, be at a loss, be/feel at liberty and others

Eg: - I could not afford to buy that house

- She took care to ask Marry some questions

According to Block “As a general rule, the close infinitive adjunct to an active verb is a simple infinitive The simple form of the infinitive is used to show that the action it describes is either simultaneous with the action of the

predicate verb (a) or follows it (b)” (Blokh, (Moscow: Vyssaja Skola), 2006)

Eg: (a) - He turned the other way and pretended not to see me

(b) - I just wanted to raise a question, that’s all

However, the verbs to appear, to seem, to prove, to happen, to turn out and

to chance may be followed by any form of the infinitive required by the sense

Eg: - He seemed to be inviting Peter to speak at the meeting

- Somehow you never seem to have wanted that

A perfect infinitive describes an action that occurs before the action of the predicate verb, whereas a continuous infinitive explains an activity that occurs simultaneously with the action of the predicate verb, as seen in the instances above

* The infinitive as verb adjunct to a passive verb

The infinitive can be a close companion to the passive verb It is applied with to and always attends its head-verb in such patterns We locate this infinitive after the verbs listed in the chart below, hence it is lexically constrained:

to advise to compel to force to let to request to teach

to ask to depute to impel to mean to rumour to tempt

to bid to direct to invite to persuade to see

to understand

to bring up to expect to know to presume to sentence to watch

to command to feel to leave to report to show to suppose

Eg: - I have been advised to stop

- Sergeant Saunders was deputed to show them the report

It’s worth noting that the list of active verbs that take near infinitive adjuncts is different from the list of passive verbs