VINH UNIVERSITY DEPARTMENT OF FOREIGN LANGUAGES HOÀNG THỊ THANH NGA A STUDY ON CONCEPTUAL METAPHORS OF FRIENDSHIP IN ENGLISH AND VIETNAMESE NGHIÊN CỨU VỀ CÁC ẨN DỤ TÌNH BẠN TRONG TIẾN
INTRODUCTION
REASONS FOR CHOOSING THE STUDY
English is now playing an indispensable role in all fields of life It is not difficult to realize the dominance of English in international communication, science, business, entertainment, broadcast and education Therefore, mastering this necessary language will bring people more opportunities to get achievements in their life
Besides, the demand for learning English worldwide, particularly in Vietnam is so great that many people are now making a point of learning it That is why English is chosen as Vietnamese’s compulsory foreign language subject
For Vietnamese learners of English, particularly advanced learners, knowing and understanding metaphors is a significant step to mastering this language The more fluently and accurately Vietnamese learners can use English metaphorical expressions, the more successfully they can deal with the language of English in literature as well as in real life Moreover, when studying one language, it is necessary not only to study vocabulary, grammar, skills but also to know how to use language in a natural way It is an interesting fact that metaphor is specially used in daily life in any language It reflects distinctive features of each language, so it can be the bridge linking the soul of different nations Thus, it should open doors to friendly atmosphere on the part of both native and non-native speakers, which leads to global mutual understanding in cultures, customs, traditions and behaviors as well - the key factor to avoid culture shocks during international communication
Metaphor has been studied and viewed at different angles by numerous scholars It is still a controversial topic which attracts people’s interest Friendship is one of the abstract domains that is not easy to understand and explain, thus, it can be seen in various ways Speakers of different languages have their own ways to understand and explain the concept “friendship” As a result of various ways people use in attempt to talk and explain about their different experiences with friendship, plentiful metaphor expressions describing this emotion appear As an English learner who has much interested in metaphors, the author decides to choose the topic “A Study on Conceptual Metaphors of Friendship in English and Vietnamese” as the study of her graduation thesis
Hopefully, the study, to some extent, can make a small contribution to understanding about the metaphors in general and the metaphors referring to friendship in particular.
AIMS OF THE STUDY
The aims of the study are as follows:
Provide a better understanding of cognitive linguistics with fundamental understandings about metaphor referring to friendship
Improve the quality of teaching and learning metaphor, especially conceptual metaphor at school
In order to reach these aims above, the study has to achieve the following objectives:
To study the meanings of friendship metaphors in English and Vietnamese equivalents, and then to find out the similarities, differences between English and Vietnamese metaphor referring to friendship and distinction between English and Vietnamese culture through those metaphors
To provide some techniques that can help in teaching and suggested exercises in learning friendship metaphor
To fully achieve these aims, the study has to answer questions:
What are the common friendship metaphors used in English and Vietnamese?
Why is friendship metaphorically understood and talked in such ways?
How to teach and translate English by using metaphor from the elementary to advanced level?
SCOPE OF THE STUDY
The study concerns about friendship metaphors in English and Vietnamese However, “A Study on Conceptual Metaphors of Friendship in English and
Vietnamese” is a broad topic As a graduation paper, it is impossible to cover all kinds of friendship metaphors Thus, the study only focuses on two common friendship metaphors in English in the view of cognitive linguistics A contrastive analysis of friendship metaphors in English and Vietnamese would be another research at a higher level
Activities and exercises presented in Chapter 4 only serve as samples to illustrate how to teach and translate English for learners at intermediate level to advanced level.
METHODS OF THE STUDY
To carry out this research, the author used both quantitative and qualitative methods The following instruments have been utilized:
- Inductive investigating and analyzing methods
DESIGN OF THE STUDY
There are five main chapters in this graduation thesis
This chapter deals with the rationale, aims, scope, methods and design of the study
Chapter 2: Literature review and theoretical background
In this chapter, the author would like to briefly present literature review about cognitive linguistics, some general knowledge about metaphor, source domain and target domain, characteristic features of metaphor in the light of cognitive linguistics
Chapter 3: A study on conceptual metaphors of friendship in English and Vietnamese
This chapter will present the methodology adopted to collect data for the research, which includes the description of research questions, setting, instrumentations, and data collection techniques This chapter will also present and discuss the results and findings of the study
Chapter 4: Some suggestions for using friendship metaphors in teaching and learning English
Some implications for teaching and learning English will be suggested in this chapter
This chapter will summarize what have been presented in the thesis and also offer some suggestions for further research
The references is placed at the end of the study.
LITERATURE REVIEW AND THEORETICAL BACKGROUND 2.1 LITERATURE REVIEW
AN OVERVIEW OF COGNITIVE LINGUISTICS
Cognitive linguistics is a linguistic trend in the 1980s of the twentieth century with the central task is of studying the relationship between language and human thinking, researching how people perceive the world (the real world, non-real world) through the lens of language and culture Therefore the object of study of cognitive linguistics is not only the phenomenon which can be observed directly to be, but also the phenomenon that can not be observed directly as knowledge, spirits, wills etc., which are called spiritual symbols
Language is traditionally considered as the human capacity for acquiring and using complex systems of communication, and a language is any specific example of such a system The scientific study of language is called linguistics However, language is viewed by cognitive linguistics as “language is based in our experience the world… language is closely related to what goes on in our minds when we look at the things and situations around us and form mental images of them” (Radden G & Divren R,[8:23]) Cognitive linguists views meaning in terms of conceptualization Instead of viewing meaning in terms of models of the world, they view it in terms of mental spaces
In short, cognitive linguistics is the product of cognition, the product of the process in which human being experience the metal and physical world, as well as a means of cognition, a means that helps us become aware or gain knowledge of something.
CONCEPTUAL METAPHOR
Metaphor has traditionally been viewed as one of the figures of speech, a rhetorical device or a stylistic device used in literature to achieve as aesthetic effect According to Lakoff & Johnson [2:5], metaphor has been thought to be “a matter of extraordinary rather than ordinary language”
There have been numerous linguistic definitions of metaphor Nguyen, H [3:106] states that “metaphor is the transference of meaning from one object to another based on similarity between these two objects” He explains that speakers of a language compare one object with another, and if they find some common features between the two objects, they will call the second by the name of the first This viewpoint is supported by Do, H.C [1:87] as he defines metaphor as the “symbol name of one object, which is based on the similarity, realistic or imaginary, between the identified object called “A” and the object called “B” of which the name is transferred to “A”
Another viewpoint on metaphor belongs to Dinh,T.L, [3:5-6]: “metaphor is the transference of meaning from one object to another based on similarity between these two objects”
In short, from these traditional views above, metaphor is a hidden comparison and transference of name of one thing for another, and it is a linguistic means used by writers to serve the purposes of creating certain effects in their work
2.3.2 Metaphor in the light of cognitive linguistics
Language is traditionally believed to open the gate into the world around us However, language is viewed by cognitive linguistics as a product of cognition, a means that helps reveal human being mental world and secrets of cognitive processes
Metaphor in the light of cognitive linguistics is not only used in poems and prose but also in daily life language According to Lakoff & Johnson [2], metaphors are common in everyday language In everyday speech, there are plentiful metaphors whose existence we are even not aware of For example, when someone talks about their friendship, it is not difficult for us to hear sentences like: “Your true friendship will bloom soon if you know how to nurture and cultivate carefully” The existent of metaphor in this sentence is “FRIENDSHIP IS A PLANT” Or someone can talk
“Mending a broken friendship is not easy” Friendship here is considered as a building that can be mended That is a phenomenon of metaphor
When discussing about metaphor, most cognitive linguistics view it as a product of cognition, a means that helps reveal human being mental world and secrets of cognitive processes As can be seen, metaphors are used in every day language that we do not usually notice In the light of cognitive linguistics, it appears both in literature and in daily life That is why Lakoff & Johnson [2] stated it as a matter of extraordinary rather than ordinary language
Additionally, according to Lakoff & Johnson [2:3], “metaphor is pervasive in everyday life, not just in language but in thought and action” It means that metaphor is a matter of human thought processes and it exists in our conceptual system, not only a matter of language or in the words we use More importantly, they say that what makes it possible “for the appearance of metaphors as linguistic expressions is the fact that there are metaphors in a person’s conceptual system” and “we talk about things metaphorically because we conceive them that way, and we act according to the way we conceive of things” (Lakoff & Johnson, [2:5-6]) This viewpoint is shared by
Barcelona who states that metaphor is the cognitive mechanism whereby one experiential domain is partly mapped of projected onto a different experiential domain, the second domain is then partially understood in terms of the first domain (in Nguyen,
In short, metaphor in cognitive linguistics is considered as a mechanism by which people understand and explain about the real world More specifically, metaphor is “understanding and experiencing one kind of thing in terms of another”
(Lakoff & Johnson, [2:6]) In order to help people comprehend complex concepts easily, people tend to refer to another concept that we call “metaphor”
Conceptual metaphor theory, sometimes called Cognitive metaphor theory, was developed by researchers within the field of cognitive linguists It became widely known with the publication of Metaphors We Live By, by Lakoff & Johnson, in 1980
Conceptual metaphor theory has since been developed and elaborated
In cognitive linguistics, conceptual metaphor refers to the understanding of one conceptual domain in term of another domain For Radden & Divren [8:16] conceptual metaphor is viewed as “a means of understanding abstract domains by relating them to better-known domain and experiences in the physical world” Conceptual metaphors are seen in language in our everyday lives They shape not just our communication, but also shape the way we think and act In Lakoff & Johnson’s work Metaphors We
Live By [2], we see how everyday language is filled with metaphors we may not always notice An example of one of the commonly used conceptual metaphors is
“FRIENDSHIP IS A BUILDING” This metaphor shapes our language in the way we view friendship as a building It is not uncommon to hear someone say “I want to build a strong friendship” or “A broken friendship is never mended” Friendship can be seen in other ways, but we use this concept to shape the way we think of friendship
2.3.3.1 Source domain and target domain
In one conceptual metaphor, it is important to identify two conceptual domains: the source domain and the target domain The conceptual domain from which we draw metaphorical expressions to understand another conceptual domain is called source domain, while the conceptual domain that is understood this way is the target domain
In other words, the source domain is usually concrete and based on sensory experience (i.e., journey, war, building, plant, etc) Meanwhile, the target domain is normally abstract and quite difficult to understand (i.e., love, argument, friendship, life, etc)
For example, in the case of the metaphor “FRIENDSHIP IS A PLANT”, FRIENDSHIP is the target domain whereas PLANT is the source domain If we map PLANT onto FRIENDSHIP, the two domains correspond to each other in a way which enables us to interpret FRIENDSHIP as a PLANT Or when we say “LOVE IS A JOURNEY”, it means that the source domain is JOURNEY while the target domain is LOVE Because FRIENDSHIP and LOVE are abstract concepts, therefore, we have to use the concrete concepts that have the same characteristics with these abstract ones to explain easier
METAPHOR AND CULTURE
2.4.1 Relations between metaphor and culture
Culture and language have a close relationship and can be inseparable Language is the vehicle of culture and culture is contained in the language It has been said that language is the crystallization of national culture, through language, culture is stored and transmitted in the future The transformation and the development of language always go parallel with the change and development of culture Therefore, if we want to study culture, we first have to study language, and of course, if we want to go deeper into the language, we also have to focus on culture
As can be seen, metaphor is an important part of language According to Lakoff
& Johnson [2: 3], “[…] metaphor is pervasive in everyday life, not just in language but in thought and action”, and “our ordinary conceptual system, in terms of which we both think and act, is fundamentally metaphorical in nature” They believe that metaphor is not only a linguistic phenomenon but instead a conceptual and experiential process which reflects our way of thinking and reasoning and structures the way we perceive the world Metaphor is common to all languages and cultures There is no culture without metaphor Although the use of metaphor is universal, the choice of metaphor for interpreting the world may be cultural-specific Other cultures may interpret the same matter with different metaphors which may be poles apart Therefore, conceptual metaphors expressed in language can serve as an indicator of culture
According to Kửvecses [6], there are two dimensions of metaphor variation: the cross-cultural dimension and the within-culture dimension
2.4.2.1 Cross-cultural dimension of metaphor variation
The most obvious dimension along which metaphors vary is the cross-cultural dimension Variation in this dimension can be found in several distinct forms Kửvecses [6:186] believes that cross-cultural variation in metaphors is mainly caused by the broader cultural context, which refers to “the governing principles and the key concepts in a given culture”, and the natural and physical environment in which a cultural is located One kind of the cross-cultural variation is called “congruence” by Kửvecses [6:207] For example, in case of metaphor THE ANGRY PERSON IS A PRESSURIZED CONTAINER, what is extremely important about this conceptual metaphor is that it functions at an extremely general level The metaphor does not specify many things that could be specified It does not say what kind of container is used, how the pressure arises, whether the container is heated or not, what kind of substance fills the container (liquid, substance or object) and so on The metaphor constitutes a generic schema that gets filled out by each culture that has the metaphor When it is filled out, it receives unique cultural content at a specific level In other words, “a generic-level conceptual metaphor is instantiated in cultural-specific ways at a specific level” (Kửvecses, [6:207]) This is one kind of cross-cultural variation
There are also alternative metaphors “There can be differences in the range of source domains that languages and cultures have available for the conceptualization of particular target domains This is what commonly happens in the case of emotion concepts as target.” (Kửvecses, [6:208]) For instance, Chinese shares with English all the basic metaphorical source domain for happiness: UP, LIGHT A metaphor that Chinese has, but English does not, is HAPPINESS IS FLOWERS IN THE HEART The application of this metaphor reflects “the more introverted character of Chinese” (Ning Yu [4:66]) He sees this conceptual metaphor as a contrast to the English metaphor BEING HAPPY IS BEING OFF THE GROUND, which does not exist in Chinese at all and which reflects the relatively “extroverted” character of speakers of English (especially American)
2.4.2.2 Within-cultural dimension of metaphor variation
“Languages are not monolithic but come in varieties that reflect divergences in human experience” (Kửvecses, [5: 161]) Metaphors vary not only across different cultures but also within cultures According to Kửvecses, several dimensions including social, regional, ethnic, stylistic, subculture, diachronic, developmental and individual dimensions cause the variation within cultures
2.4.3 Variation in metaphorical linguistic expressions
As mentioned above, metaphors can be found across different cultures and different varieties of the same language Metaphors also show variation in the metaphorical linguistic expressions which are anchored in a respective metaphor “If two languages share the same conceptual metaphor, the linguistic expression of the conceptual metaphor in the two languages may follow a variety of different patterns.” (Kửvecses [5: 165])
2.4.4 Metaphor and socio-cultural experience
According to Kửvecses [6], socio-cultural experience also shapes our metaphors Firstly, metaphors we produce are influenced by the specific experiences provided by the environment, the socio-cultural context and the communicative situation that are specific to certain groups of people or individuals Secondly, metaphors are shaped by the history of context and/or the history of an individual These variations in histories of context and individuals across time bring variation in metaphors Thirdly, the diverse concerns and interests that govern our life also affect the metaphors we employ to understand the world around us
To sum up, we have had an overall review about cognitive linguistics and its elements Besides, the differences about traditional metaphor and metaphor in the light of cognitive linguistics are also presented Moreover, we have a quick look at the relationship between metaphor and culture as well as its influences.
A STUDY ON CONCEPTUAL METAPHORS OF FRIENDSHIP
FRIENDSHIP IS A PLANT
A friend is someone who cherishes the special moments and memories of life with another person A friend is a trustworthy companion Friendship is a relationship which takes time to build There are many steps and stages to achieving a true friendship One can think building a friendship is like planting a plant First of all, we have to choose the good seeds, and then it takes time to grow This process certainly has to face bad weather and insect, etc Devotion and patience are also required during this work Eventually, the most beautiful flowers are what we get Similarly, before developing a friendship, we firstly must choose the person who can share a lot of similar things with us In order to keep the substance in this relationship, each member has to know how to forgive, support and of course - encourage, because there are a lot of hardships and struggles that can make our friendship “fade” After a long time, with the careful nurture, we have our own true friendship, and this is the special gift we get in our lives
3.1.1 Sowing the seeds of friendship
Firstly, the seed is planted Plants grow from the seeds The seed builds the foundation of a strong and stable plant A plant could only sprout when it is sown from a good seed Friendship is similar When we start a friendship, the most important thing is that we have to choose the good seeds, it means that we have to find someone who share our passion for sports, hobbies, religion, movies, music, books, life style or perspective Friends are the people who go along with us in the rest of our life J Delile said that "Fate makes parents, choice makes friends" Therefore, friendship is always a choice When we understand the true value of friendship, we will know how to choose and sow the seeds carefully
(1) Sowing the seeds of friendship www.child-encyclopedia.com
(2) Planting the seeds of friendship www.herewearewithluci.com, May 07, 2009
(3) Seeding the friendship infrastructure soardreamfrance.typepad.com, January 1, 2014
(4) Trong sự cô đơn, trong đau ốm, trong bối rối – nhận thức về tình bạn khiến ta có thể bước tiếp, thậm chí ngay cả khi bạn ta bất lực không thể giúp ta Họ ở đó là đủ rồi Tình bạn không phai nhạt bởi không gian hay thời gian, bởi sự giam cầm của chiến tranh, bởi đau khổ hay sự im lặng Chính trong những thứ đó mà nó bắt rễ sâu nhất Chính những thứ đó mà nó nở hoa (In loneliness, in sickness, in confusion – the mere knowledge of friendship makes it possible to endure event if the friendship is powerless to help It is enough that they exist Friendship is not diminished by distance or time, by imprisonment or war, by suffering or silence It is in these things that it roots deeply It is these things that it flowers)
(5) Nhánh rễ quan trọng nhất của một tình bạn đẹp và bền vững là lòng tin, sự chân thành và hợp cạ http://quangtrionline.vn, August 5, 2010
It is extremely essential to be capable of making proper choices in life especially when we are interested in choosing the group of friends we want to support and be with for the rest of our lives Choosing proper friends is a bit difficult task but not impossible Benefits that friendships bring to us are huge When we sow the seed of friendship, especially true friendship, we certainly receive the flowers of happiness,
(6) Khi gieo hạt giống của tình bạn , chúng ta sẽ gặt hái được những bông hoa của niềm vui
(7) Enda and unions miles apart but seeds of new friendship take root www.independent.ie, November 30, 2011
(8) Vì thế, ta hiểu rõ được giá trị của tình bạn và ươm cây tình bạn một cách cẩn thận http://nghethuatsong.vn
(9) For some, sowing the seeds of friendship is easy and happens naturally www.motherforlife.com, January 10, 2011
(10) Any place where people share a common interest is a good breeding ground for true friendships to be forged www.lifecoachexpert.co.uk, March 17, 2013
Friendship looks like a plant It needs time to grow and develop It is a process of getting to know more and more about your friends True friendship is a plant of slow growth When we grow a plant, from its germination until it has a hard body with twigs and leaves is a long process Friendship also has to experience the same period When the seeds of friendship have germinated, be nurtured, cultivated carefully, it will have enough power to grow It is not merely in order to evaluate the growth of friendship, because it needs a long time
Friends are companions who overcome all difficulties and challenges in life with us In this relationship, things are not always smooth There will be time we disagree or quarrel with each other But above all, we sympathize and understand more Through these difficulties, we just realize how important friendships are, and the pride into our friendship forever remains
Every friend is important and their importance is known to us when certain situations arise They can only be solved by our friends One can never feel lonely in this world if he or she is surrounded by true friends On the other hand, loneliness prevails in the lives of those who do not have friends despite billions and billions of people being present in the world It has been truly said that “A friend in need is a friend indeed.”
(11) Một tình bạn thân thiết đã nảy mầm giữa một doanh nhân và một anh quét rác
(12) Tình bạn cứ thế lớn dần theo năm tháng đến nỗi chuyện buồn vui gì trong cuộc sống cũng đều chia sẻ www.m.nguoiduatin.vn
(13) Developing a meaningful friendship takes time but can truly enhance your life www.lifecoachexpert.co.uk, March 17, 2013
(14) True friendships is a plant of slow growth
Friendship is very important to a person's emotional well-being Deep and meaningful friendships often have to be nurtured and take time and effort to cultivate It takes time for people to get to know and to understand you and vice versa Proper friendship is about a mutual understanding of each other's interests, personal qualities and how that might fit into each of our lives and, like any good relationship, this does not happen in one or two days It is not easy to have a true friendship, but if we keep the important elements in mind, we can have a deep, long-lasting one that is fulfilling for both parties
Like a plant which has to face bad weather, insects, barren soil, and so on, the process to build up an eternal friendship always overcomes a lot of obstacles and hardships Sometimes we feel tired, not healthy enough to hold on this friendship, and we let it go Although we have tried to nurture and cultivate, the gnawing of insects harms the growth of friendship plant Confusion, argument and misunderstanding accidentally kill this relationship A weak tree will not be able to overcome its difficulties or harsh weather And a friendship will be so hard to be long lasting without challenges
(15) bởi nếu bạn để lâu, con sâu đó sẽ gặm nhấm và làm cho cây tình bạn thui chột http://quangtrionline.vn, October 05, 2010
(16) Tự khép mình và chỉ biết quy mọi cái về cho mình sẽ làm cho tình bạn không thể nảy nở được
(17) Tình bạn sẽ chẳng đẹp và chẳng thăng hoa nếu thiếu đi sự tiến bộ và cố gắng cùng nhau vươn lên của những người bạn www.blog.zing.vn, June 18, 2013
(18) Một môi trường không được phép phát triển một tình yêu chan hòa với bạn hữu, dù chung hay riêng, thì đều là môi trường chết www.simonhoadalat.com
It is really terrible when our friendship fades or dies gradually Incredulity, deception, selfishness and misunderstanding are “insects” and “terminates” that make the plant of friendship not develop and be killed slowly day by day Nobody wants to let a friendship die off, but if it happens, we maybe lose some friends and it is unavoidable
(19) When a friendship is slowly dying (Khi tình bạn đang dần chết ) www.washingtonpost.com, April 16, 2012
(20) If there is no seed of trust and faith in the soil, the tree of friendship can not stand long www.shilpagupta.expertscolumn.com
(21) When friendships fade (Khi tình bạn phai nhạt ) www.smh.com.au, May 28, 2013
(22) Chia tay bạn ra về, tôi chợt nhận ra rằng tình bạn ấy đã phai nhạt từ lâu lắm rồi www.me.zing.vn, August 09, 2013 3.1.4 Nurturing friendship
Friendship is like flowers or saplings Flowers only bloom and plants grow only when they are cultivated, taken care of and watered daily Friendship will be beautiful and sustainable when everyone knows how to cultivate, take care and nurture it
People are sometimes meant to come and go from our lives, staying around for only a short period of time But other friends do have the potential to be long-term, and grow with us as our life changes One way to keep friendships of any level strong is to actively nurture them Nurturing friendships is not easy It requires carefulness and patience
Putting effort into a friendship does not mean the friend is not right for us, it simply means that our friendship is different and we need to work to keep it strong Make sure you are actively nurturing your friendship first
(23) Tình bạn cũng giống như tình yêu, nó cần vun đắp bằng sự cho đi và nhận lại ( Friendship is like love, it should be nurtured by the giving and getting ) www.ione.vnexpress.net, April 15, 2014
(24) Water your friendships as you water your flower pots
(25) Tình bạn cũng chỉ đẹp và bền vững khi mỗi người bạn biết vun xới, chăm chút cho nó mà thôi www.songdep.xitrum.net
(26) Soil and friendship must be cultivated
(27) Nhổ ngay tận gốc những bất hòa www.quangtrionline.vn, October 05, 2010
FRIENDSHIP IS A BUILDING
Friendship plays a vital role in our lives No one can live alone and the feeling is so lonely without friendship Friendship is a very important aspect to a healthy and happy life When referring to an image of a house, we think of the solidity, and that it is a place we desire to come back to Similarly, when someone talks FRIENDSHIP IS
A BUILDING, it means friendship is also needed to build based on some main materials such as the faith, empathy, respect and forgiveness Moreover, it sometimes can be mended and repaired after breaking or cracking But above all, this is a warm place that we expect to hide in when we feel tired and bored, and we can freely share every thought or anxiety That is the reason why we usually use the metaphor
“Friendship is a building” when we talk about friendship
Building a friendship is like building a house When we start to build a house, we need to have materials such as brick, stone, cement etc And building a friendship, the mutual belief, harmony, respect and interest are indispensable
(1) Tình bạn phải được xây dựng dựa trên sự tin tưởng, tôn trọng, chăm sóc và quan tâm lẫn nhau www.ione.vnexpress.net, April 10, 2014
(2) Strong and healthy friendships are built to last on a foundation of trust, unconditional love and acceptance, honesty, and compassion http://journeywisdom.blogspot.com, July 24, 2011
In life, friendship, love and family are three indispensable things of each person We can not exist without friendship Building a beautiful friendship is hard; however, keeping it is even more difficult Therefore, it is important that we all must strive and make a great effort to create and maintain a beautiful friendship
(3) Tình bạn có thể kéo dài suốt đời, xây dựng tình bạn đã khó, nhưng để giữ được tình bạn lại càng khó hơn diendan.hocmai.vn, Junly 8, 2012
(4) Tôi cũng đã cố gắng rất nhiều cho công cuộc đầu tư xây dựng tình bạn đó http://songdep.xitrum.net 3.2.2 Falling apart in friendship
Sometimes, for some reasons, maybe due to a heavy storm, earthquake or strong impact or even “termites” the house is cracked or broken It can be also because of the unsteady foundation of the house from the beginning In friendship, breaking is also unavoidable Each of us is a various and independent individual We meet each other and make friends To harmonize with all personalities of a group is not really easy If individualism occupies the majority in friendship, that friendship will be very easy to crack and break because there exists no common voice among friends Moreover, the anger, jealousy, selfishness are also the causes making the house of friendship shake
(5) Tình bạn cứ thế dần rạn nứt khi cả 2 không thể điều khiển được cảm xúc của mình www blog.zing.vn, May 13, 2011
(6) Một tình bạn tưởng chừng như không có gì có thể phá vỡ , bỗng một ngày một kẻ lạ mặt xuất hiện www me.zing.vn, June 01, 2013
(7) My best friend has broken our friendship because of her boyfriend www answers.yahoo.com, October 10, 2013
(8) Thế nhưng, tình bạn đẹp đó lại đổ vỡ chỉ vì chiếc điện thoại bị đánh cắp www m.nguoiduatin.vn
(9) These behaviour are the “termites” that will kill the longevity and stability of the foundation of a healthy friendship www.journeywisdom.blogspot.com, July 24, 2011
(10) Or was it an argument or misunderstanding that ripped apart your friendship? www.crownofbeautymagazine.com
(11) I guess I am just really hurt and I feel like our friendship is falling apart uk.answers.yahoo.com 3.2.3 Mending Friendship
When a building has a sign of rift, the first thing we need to do is finding out that rift and quickly seeking ways to mend In the house of friendship, when misunderstanding or anger arise, it is when we have to find ways to repair and heal that hole as well
Friendship has its good and bad time There comes a time when the relationship is just not working It is preoccupied with disagreements and quarrels It is on the verge of destruction One must have the patience to deal with such frustrations The willingness and determination to get the relationship working again come within Compromising and persistence rebuilds the friendship and is once again reestablished
(12) A man should keep his friendship in repair
(13) Trong tình bạn , bạn dễ dàng nhận ra lỗi lầm của mình và sửa chữa www m.yeah1.com, December 18, 2013
(14) So what can you do to mend a broken friendship ? Here are some tips for mending a broken friendship and getting over the inevitable bumps: (Vậy bạn có thể làm gì để hàn gắn lại vết nứt của tình bạn ? Dưới đây là một số bí quyết giúp bạn hàn gắn vết nứt đó và vượt qua những va chạm khó tránh khỏi) www.thefriendshipblog.com, September 01, 2010
(15) Fixing a friendship is usually worth the time and effort www.huffingtonpost.com, December 19, 2010
(16) In order to fix a friendship , a person needs to really understand the core issue in every struggling relationship www.huffingtonpost.com, December 19, 2010
Just as a house can endure the elements of stormy weather, a true friendship will sustain itself in good times and in challenges through disagreement, crises, and even distance Foundations of friendships must be built based on conscious effort and willingness to do whatever it takes to maintain its fortitude There is a fact that a house foundation needs to eliminate termites that can leave weak spots Similarly, a friendship must also be maintained to ensure that its foundation is not weakened It means that our friendship requires to have belief, trust, sincerity and frankness
(17) A broken friendship may be soldered
(18) Listening to friends is an important step in building a closer friendship www.cyberparent.com
(19) Và đừng bao giờ để tình bạn chúng ta xuất hiện lỗ hổng , khi chúng ta bước ra đời, đi về những phía không nhau www.tuoitre.vn, April 19, 2012
(20) Tình cảm chân thành và những suy nghĩ thực chắc chắn sẽ giúp bạn hàn gắn lại tình bạn www blog.zing.vn, May 13, 2011
(21) Chỉ khi bạn mở được cánh cửa của lòng tin, bạn mới mở tới cánh cửa của tình bạn www baigiang.violet.v, April 03, 2014 3.2.4 A towering friendship
As human being, anyone desires to have a warm home to come back after the stresses, tiredness of the life When comparing friendship to a building, to some extent, we can understand the meaning under this metaphor That is the importance of friendship Friendship is a place that we expect to hide in when we feel tired and bored, and we can freely share every thought or anxiety
(22) An old friend is a new house
(23) Bạn thân có thể gọi điện cho ta mỗi ngày hoặc cả năm không nói chuyện với ta Nhưng bạn vẫn hiểu tình cảm giữa ta và bạn luôn bền vững và sẽ thể hiện điều ấy ngay khi đôi bên kết nối với nhau Thâm tình ấy gắn bó chúng ta khi xa cách Và khi đường đời đưa ta và bạn về bên nhau, ta lại tìm thấy ở bạn nơi trú ẩn ấm áp www.m.tuoitre.vn, September 04, 2012
(24) Tình bạn là điểm tựa để mình bay xa, là nơi để mình tìm về sau những thất bại khó khăn trong cuộc sống www.me.zing.vn, December 24, 2012
(25) Tình bạn cũng có một ngôi nhà Tình bạn không phải là một sự tụ tập đơn giản, cũng như người bạn không phải là một kẻ thô bạo can thiệp Người bạn không là một đồng bọn, chẳng đồng sự, cũng chẳng phải bồ bịch Thứ xảy ra với con người trong căn nhà của tình bạn , chẳng kiểu quan hệ nào thay thế được www.amvc.free.fr
(26) Good friendships improve all aspects of your life www.dementiatoday.com, September 04, 2013
(27) Tình bạn giúp ta cải thiện các mối quan hệ và xây dựng cuộc sống chúng ta ngày một tốt đẹp và trọn vẹn hơn www.gocuatraitim, March 25, 2014
(28) Friends are like the walls of a house Sometimes they hold you up, sometimes you lean on them But sometimes, it's enough to know they're just standing by
(29) Và theo sự nghiên cứu của các nhà tâm lý học thì tình bạn là một chỗ trú ẩn an toàn và là một chìa khóa dẫn đến hạnh phúc trong cuộc sống của con người hoangdieubaxuyenaustralia.com
These expressions above are typical examples for metaphor FRIENDSHIP IS A BUILDING, both in English and Vietnamese It can be clearly seen that in two languages, there are the same points in thought when they talk about friendship However, it certainly has some differences also This following part will point out more about the similarities as well as the differences under this metaphor.
DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS
As seen from the data analysis above, the congruent metaphors in Vietnamese and English are generic metaphors that are related to our embodied experience that are shared by all human beings The source domain of the common metaphors (i.e., plant, building) comes from universal experiences that are not restricted by language and culture In what follows, the question “Why is friendship metaphorically understood and talked in such ways” will be addressed
3.3.1 Similarities and Differences of FRIENDSHIP IS A PLANT in English and Vietnamese
As can be seen from the expressions of this metaphor in English and Vietnamese, friendship is metaphorically represented as a plant in the aspects of purpose, progress and problems In order to make clearer how the abstract domain
“friendship” map onto other concrete domain “plant”, the source-to-target mapping in the metaphor in both languages can be summarized as followed
THE SOURCE DOMAIN THE TARGET DOMAIN
It can be seen from the above examples that the mapping between the source domain and the target domain and the inference of the FRIENDSHIP AS PLANT metaphor in both Vietnamese and English are practically identical We first choose the good seeds of friendship and sow them like we choose and sow the good seeds of a plant Sprouting out and growing up of the plant is developing in friendship The problems in friendship symbolize the gnawing of insects or during the development Trying to solve problems in companionship so as to gain true friendship is trying to nurture, water when the plants fade And finally, we have a long-lasting friendship which corresponds to the blooming of the plant The list below is some English and Vietnamese equivalent expressions:
In English In Vietnamese sow the seeds take root from grow nurture fade ripe bloom gieo mầm bắt nguồn từ trưởng thành nuôi dưỡng, chăm sóc héo úa chín muồi nở hoa
In the representations of the FRIENDSHIP AS PLANT in English and Vietnamese, there can be found some different points as a result of different cultures and beliefs The most prominent difference observed by the author is that Vietnamese,
“vun xới”, “vun đắp”, “nhổ tận gốc” or “bắt sâu” are expressions that can be found easily when we consider the friendship as a plant The expression can be that in Vietnam, agriculture is produced on a small scale Vietnamese's economy is mainly based on agriculture Most of Vietnamese people are peasants, therefore, they are familiar with the hoes – shovels which are main tools used to care for and cultivate the plants It is not difficult to see many Vietnamese people use their manual labour to weed, cultivate, fertilize for each plant It can be explained by the influence of a water
- rice agriculture based mainly on manual labor The expressions such as “vun xới”,
“vun đắp”, “nhổ” or “bắt sâu” appear frequently in Vietnamese language Especially these pictures are expressed in many Vietnamese friendship metaphors that can not be found in English
In contrast, the Western countries are characterized by industrial economy, therefore, it is rarely for them to use manual labor in agriculture They are mainly based on the achievements of science and technology for production For example, when producing agriculture, they will use automatic water systems to water plants, spray pesticides or herbicides are also based on modern machines All will be done in a simultaneous way, mass-production Hence, the need for meticulousness and patience to take care of each plant seems to be impossible It can be explained by the culture of developed industry affected English people’s conceptualization of friendship That is why we hardly find the equivalents between two languages when translating the words “vun xới”, “nhổ tận gốc” or “bắt sâu” from Vietnamese into English
3.3.2 Similarities and Differences of FRIENDSHIP IS A BUILDING in English and Vietnamese
Through this metaphor, in both English and Vietnamese, friendship is described as a strong foundation in one’s life We can see some equivalent expressions in two languages such as “build”, “mend”, “repair”, “broken” in English which correspond with “xây dựng”, “hàn gắn”, “sửa chữa”, “đổ vỡ” in Vietnamese FRIENDSHIP IS A BUILDING highlights the importance of friendship If we want to have a stable friendship, we must make more effort and be tolerant enough to forgive our friends’ faults
From the results of the study, the answers can be drawn to the research questions presented in the introduction as follows What differences are there between
English and Vietnamese friendship in term of FRIENDSHIP IS A BUILDING metaphor?
Differences between England and Vietnamese friendship expressions come from differences in their thoughts Vietnamese friendship is influenced by Collectivism For Vietnamese people, friendship is an essential thing, because in the conception of Vietnamese people, friends are the sidekicks, cronies One can sacrifice his or her benefits for his or her close friend Many Vietnamese proverbs talk about the importance of friendship such as “when a horse is sick, the whole stable refuses grass”,
“good wife is a good present”, etc When having a true friendship, Vietnamese people will cherish, respect and preserve It is a warm and close place where they can come back after sufferings, failures in life Thus the pictures as “nơi trú ẩn ấm áp”, “nơi ta tìm về” or “ngôi nhà ấm áp” are the ones that Vietnamese people usually express to show the importance of friendship
On the contrary, the Western countries are characterized by Individualism Friendship is also very essential in their lives, but it is not at all For them, friendship is something that easy to come but also easy to go It seems that because of the thought of Individualism, they do not want to be bound by any one And friendship is not exception They tend to live in a private space, therefore, they do not really consider friendship as a house - where they can come back after the failures or sadness House is merely a place where they live only, not really a special place like the one in Vietnamese.
SOME SUGGESTIONS FOR USING FRIENDSHIP
SOME SUGGESTED ACTIVITIES FOR USING FRIENDSHIP
As we know, a metaphor is one language phenomenon which is closely linked with culture and traditional customs of a country Therefore, it is necessary to learn metaphor Within the scope of the study, we suggest a number of activities and exercises which are of the most typical types in English
4.1 SOME SUGGESTED ACTIVITIES FOR USING FRIENDSHIP METAPHORS IN TEACHING AND LEARNING
Material: some piece papers with the name of the famous people
The teacher asks a student to go to the front of the class
This student picks a famous person who he wants to talk about
Then the other students interview her/him as that person in the term of his/her friendship
The teacher has made sure that the students in class do not ask insulting or slanderous question like “Cao Thai Son, why do you make friend with so ugly girl?”
Example for the FRIENDSHIP AS A PLANT metaphor
A student picks a famous singer, Ho Ngoc Ha, for instance, and goes to the front of the class
Ho Ngoc Ha: Nice to meet you!
Class : Nice to meet you!
Student A: Can I ask you a question?
Ho Ngoc Ha: You are welcome!
Student A: Many people said that you are so lucky when you have a close friend - Thanh Hang model Could you talk something about this companionship?
Ho Ngoc Ha: This is a companionship that takes root from the trust, faith and respect Student B: When did you sow the seed of this friendship?
Ho Ngoc Ha: Our friendship was sown 9 years ago
Student C: What did you do when the gnawing of insects and terminates made your friendship fade?
Ho Ngoc Ha: Ya In any relationships, misunderstanding and argument are unavoidable The important thing is how you solve the problems For me, I always try to nurture, water and cultivate my friendship This should be done regularly Do not wait until your friendship fade
When all pairs have found their partners, the teacher will ask them to play a role
Students pretend they are in various social contexts and have a variety of social roles Each pair has two minutes to talk to each other
Then the teacher calls some pairs to present in front of the class
The teacher should give the role which is suitable with students’ ability In addition, in role-play activities, the teacher gives information to the learners such as who they are and what they think of feel
Example for the FRIENDSHIP IS BUILDING metaphor
The teacher: “Imagine that you are at “I’m me” program, the topic today is
“Friendship” At Youth’s view, what will you say about this topic”
Student A acts as Thu Hoai - a MC
Student B acts as Gia Bao - a guest
Thu Hoai: Hello, I’m Thu Hoai Our program is “I’m me” Now our guest tonight is Gia Bao, a student of VU Welcome to the program, Gia Bao
Gia Bao: Thanks Thu Hoai
Thu Hoai: Now Gia Bao, can you tell us about your opinion of “friendship”?
Gia Bao: Sure Friendship is a relationship that all the individuals can create by themselves Though it is not a relationship like that of the relationship of a mother, father, sister, brother or any of the other family but still it is one of the best relations an individual can possess And is a place that we desire to come back when we feel tired or lonely
Thu Hoai: it means friendship is a special place, like a building where we can come back whenever we want So how about building a true friendship - in your opinion?
Gia Bao: Building a true friendship? Umm Building a true friendship is like building a house When we start to build a house, we need to have materials such as brick, stone, cement etc; building a friendship, the mutual belief, harmony, respect and interest are indispensable
Thu Hoai: Yeah, but it can be clearly seen that we can not avoid breaking or cracking in friendship How can we repair it?
Gia Bao: Yes, You’re right In order to repair this broken friendship, we need time, effort and patience
The teacher divides the class into groups of five students
Then the teacher gives a situation for these groups to discuss After that each group give his own ideas
The teacher should go around reminding the students to use English and to make sure that every student is discussing
Example for FRIENDSHIP IS A PLANT metaphor
Topic: “If you have a chance to grow a plant of friendship, what will you do?”
Group 1: If I have a chance to grow my friendship, I will sow the seeds of friends carefully Every day, I will nurture and cultivate my friendship’s plant After a long time, it will bloom beautiful flowers These the most beautiful friends in the garden of friendship
Group 2: If I have a chance to grow my friendship, I will make friend with someone who share the same passion for sports, hobbies, life style or perspective Deep and meaningful friendships often have to be nurtured and take time and effort to cultivate
It takes time for people to get to know and to understand you and vice versa Therefore, if the gnawing of insects make friendship tree can not grow, we have to be patience to make effort in order to remain this relationship
Preparation: the teacher collects some pictures of objects from the catalogues or magazines Alternatively, you may draw them
The teacher divides class into two teams
Each team are given two or three different pictures
Each team chooses two members Then the teacher asks them to go to the board and their duties are to describe the process to grow/build a friendship base on these pictures they had
Which team can describe the process of growing a friendship best will become the winner
Notes: when students are discussing the teacher should go around giving the help if necessary
Example for the FRIENDSHIP AS A PLANT metaphor and FRIENDSHIP IS A BUILDING metaphor
Student 1: Choosing a true friendship like planting a tree Firstly, we have to choose the good seeds and then sow them carefully The seed builds the foundation of a strong and stable friendship.Therefore, we should be careful and wisdom
SOME SUGGESTED EXERCISES FOR USING FRIENDSHIP
Which words is running on your mind when you think of “friendship is a plant”?
- Take root from - Cultivate - Bloom - Ripe - Seed
- Sow the seeds - Nurture - Fade - Grow - Slowly dying …………
4.2.2 Putting words in suitable columns with given words
- Take root from - Develop - Broken - Repair
- Fade - Sow the seeds - Nurture - Improve
FRIENDSHIP IS A PLANT metaphor FRIENDSHIP IS A BUILDING metaphor
FRIENDSHIP IS A PLANT metaphor FRIENDSHIP IS A BUILDING metaphor
Mend Build Repair Broken Improve Foundation
Match up English metaphor expressions in the column A with Vietnamese equivalents in the column B
8 Grow a héo úa b trưởng thành c gieo mầm d chết dần chết mòn e bắt nguồn từ f nuôi dưỡng g chín muồi h nở hoa
4.2.4 Finding out the English equivalents of the following Vietnamese expressions
CONCLUSION
RECAPITULATION
In this paper, we present a brief view of theoretical background of metaphor Metaphor is traditionally viewed as a figure of speech used in literature only In the light of cognitive linguistics, however, metaphor is common in everyday language More importantly, it is considered not only a means of communication but also a vehicle of cognitive linguistics
As friendship is an abstract concept which is not easy to explain People try to understand and express it by making use of their experiences of plants and buildings in the cognitive process of creating meaning extensions, and as a result, the conceptual metaphor FRIENDSHIP IS A PLANT and FRIENDSHIP IS A BUILDING are drawn out Prominent aspects of the abstract concept “friendship” are made easier to comprehend thanks to the use of conceptual shifts from domains “plant” and
To conclude, through two conceptual metaphors: FRIENDSHIP IS A PLANT and FRIENDSHIP IS A BUILDING, it can be seen that metaphors are widely used in Vietnamese and English to think and talk about friendship The congruent metaphors mainly come from our bodily and social experiences that are universal to all human beings regardless of language and culture On the other hand, there are unique metaphorical expressions that exist only in Vietnamese or English, as they reflect and are shaped by socio-cultural and historical experiences specific to the two languages.
SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER STUDIES 41 REFERENCES
It is common that metaphors are the complicated language phenomenon Therefore researching metaphors in general and friendship metaphor in particular is not an easy task The truth is that our paper can not deal with all aspects of friendship metaphor Thus the authors would like to give some suggestions for further researches as follows:
- A Contrastive Analysis of English and Vietnamese Metaphor of Friendship
- A Contrastive Analysis of the Relationship Between English Culture and English Metaphor of Friendship
- A Study on the Grammatical Structure of Friendship Metaphors in English and Vietnamese
To sum up, because of the limitation of time, mistakes are unavoidable Thus, the authors would be very delighted to receive all the remarks, comments as well as advice to improve this study
[1] Daniela R., Metaphor Between Language And Thought, Craiova, Universitaria
[2] Laoff G & Johnson M., Metaphors we live by, Chicago & London: The University of Chicago Press, 1980
[3] Nguyen H, Understanding English Semantics, Hanoi Vietnam National University Publishing House, 2004
[4] Ning Y., The Contemporary Theory of Metaphor: A Perspective From Chinese,
[5] Kửvecses Z, Metaphor: a practical introduction, Oxford, Oxford University Press,
[6] Kửvecses Z, Metaphor in culture: universality and variation, Cambridge, UK,
New York : Cambridge University Press, 2006
[7] Quinn N, & Holland, D, Cultural models in language and thought Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987
[8] Rardden G & Divren R, Cognitive English Grammar, Amsterdam & Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing House, 2007
[9] Varela, Francisco J.;Evan Thompson; Eleanor Rosch The Embodied Mind:Cognitive Science and Human Experience Cambridge:MIT Press, 1991
[10] Vicky T, Mappings from the Source Domain of Plant in Mandarin Chinese,
Graduation thesis, National Taiwan University, 2009
[1] Đỗ Hữu Châu (1996) Từ vựng ngữ nghĩa tiếng Việt NXB Đại học Quốc gia
[2] Trần Văn Cơ (2010) Ngôn ngữ học tri nhận – Từ điển tường giải và đối chiếu NXB Phương Đông
[3] Đinh Trọng Lạc, Nguyễn Thái Hòa (1995) Phong cách học tiếng Việt NXB Giáo Dục
[4] Lý Toàn Thắng (2004) Ngôn ngữ học tri nhận – Từ lí thuyết đại cương đến thực tiễn tiếng Việt NXB Phương Đông
[5] Trần Ngọc Thêm.(1997) Cơ sở văn hóa Việt Nam NXB Giáo Dục
[6] Phạm Văn Tình (2006) Luận chữ Luận Nghĩa NXB Văn hóa- Thông Tin
[7] Hoàng Tất Trường (1993) Từ vựng học Tiếng Anh cơ bản NXB Trường Đại học
Sư phạm Ngoại ngữ Hà Nội
WEBSITES http://www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/metaphor http://www.ehow.com http://learning.blogs.nytimes.com http://quizlet.com http://ccsenet.org http://www.netdoctor.co.uk http://unveiledwife.com