UNIVERSITY OF SOCIAL SCIENCES & HUMANITIES --- NGUYỄN HOÀNG PHÚC IDENTIFYING THE BASIC AND COMMON WORDS USED IN LEVEL B ENGLISH TEXTBOOKS A thesis in TESOL Code number: SUBMITTED IN
INTRODUCTION
PROBLEM IDENTIFICATION
The current state of teaching and learning English as a foreign language (EFL) in Vietnam is marked by a lack of transparency and coherence in objectives, syllabi, textbooks, and qualifying examinations across high schools, universities, and language centers This situation creates significant challenges for teachers, learners, syllabus designers, materials writers, examining bodies, and recruitment officers To address these issues, it is essential to establish a common framework for defining objectives, content, and proficiency levels, which can be achieved through a detailed set of standardized criteria and scales tailored specifically for the Vietnamese context.
Breaking down language competence and the process of language learning into separate components is essential, despite its arbitrary nature, as it aids in understanding dimensions like vocabulary, syntax, and discourse structure This study focuses on vocabulary acquisition, which McCarthy (1997) identifies as a crucial element in language learning and the largest component when engaging with a new language The Council of Europe (2001) emphasizes that the size, range, and control of vocabulary are key parameters for assessing language proficiency and planning effective language instruction In the context of EFL teaching in Vietnam, learners often face challenges related to vocabulary weaknesses, largely due to inadequate vocabulary coverage in textbooks Furthermore, advancements in computational techniques make it possible to develop standardized wordlists, providing reliable resources for vocabulary enhancement.
To effectively support Vietnamese learners in the EFL environment, it is essential to establish a standardized vocabulary size and set of items tailored to their proficiency level This approach will not only meet their educational needs but also facilitate their preparation for equivalent international examinations.
To derive a standardized vocabulary list for 'level B of English' in Vietnam, two key tasks must be accomplished First, it is essential to determine the appropriate vocabulary size for this level Second, identifying the common and fundamental words that fit within this vocabulary size is necessary.
AIMS OF THE STUDY
The current level B textbooks used in high schools and universities may not adequately address the vocabulary needs of intermediate learners, particularly for the level B test This study presents a specialized vocabulary list designed to fill the gaps between the vocabulary provided in textbooks and the requirements for this level The wordlist not only offers appropriate and sufficient vocabulary but also recommends a logical chronological approach for effective learning.
This wordlist serves as a valuable resource for language designers, syllabus theorists, teachers, and textbook writers, enabling them to select suitable language materials and group similar learners effectively It provides a foundation for creating a systematic vocabulary teaching program that spans from grade 6 in high school to university graduation Additionally, it can be integrated into supplementary materials to address vocabulary gaps often left by grammar-based, notional/functional, or communicative syllabi, which may not encompass all essential vocabulary.
This study aims to support learners preparing for certification exams by providing a comprehensive wordlist of essential vocabulary for intermediate level tests Mastering this wordlist significantly enhances their understanding of English texts in all level B tests in Vietnam and other respected assessments, including the Cambridge PET and the ECCE from the University of Michigan.
Finally, the fact that there have been several efforts to design standardized level
The B English tests developed by VNU - HCMC in 2003 and VNU - Hanoi in 2005 for post-graduate entrance examinations have established a need for standardized reference criteria This wordlist serves as a valuable resource for testers to select texts that align with the vocabulary requirements of level B.
RATIONALE
ESL/EFL learners often grapple with the challenges of determining how many words to learn, which specific words to focus on, and the appropriate order for learning them It can be daunting to realize that educated native speakers possess around 20,000 word families, a number far beyond the reach of most learners However, not all words hold equal value for learners at different levels and in various contexts Advances in corpus linguistics suggest that a limited set of English words are used frequently, and mastering these can enable learners to understand a significant portion of both written and spoken texts Consequently, prioritizing certain "immediate high priority" words for initial learning is essential, while others can be acquired later.
Focusing on a limited selection of essential vocabulary is crucial for EFL learners, as it enables them to effectively engage with the language According to Nation and Waring (1997), investing class time in teaching a small number of well-chosen words can significantly enhance learners' ability to communicate and understand Therefore, it is recommended that learners prioritize mastering the most common and relevant words that they are likely to encounter in specific contexts.
For ESL/EFL learners, understanding an English text does not require knowing every word; rather, a certain percentage of text coverage is sufficient for reasonable comprehension This concept is known as the lexical threshold, which indicates the minimum number of words a learner must recognize to understand a text effectively Research has shown that once this threshold is reached, learners can comprehend the text and begin to learn from context, while falling below this threshold leads to significant difficulties in understanding This study aims to develop a wordlist tailored for level B English textbooks, based on the identified lexical threshold.
STRUCTURE OF THE THESIS
The thesis is organized into five chapters
Chapter 1 identifies the problems, states the reasons why this study was undertaken and its theoretical background; it also provides an over view of the thesis
Chapter 2 is the literature review It starts with the definition of some related terms and notions Then it gives an overview of the present EFL teaching situation at high schools, universities and in language centers, which is supposed to lead to level B Next, efforts on designing word lists based on corpus linguistics are mentioned Finally, researches on the determinability of threshold vocabulary size are also dealt with
Chapter 3 presents the methodology employed in the study In this chapter specific research questions, the subjects, the instruments and the research procedures are described
Chapter 4 reports on the findings and discussion about them, from which principles of identifying the vocabulary size and selecting the vocabulary items can be drawn Then, a word list is recommended together with an explanation on the principles to select the words on the list and how each list was format
Chapter 5 gives reflections on how well the research questions are answered and its limitations It also deals with its implications on the learning and teaching of EFL in Vietnam as well as suggests for further investigation o0o
LITERATURE REVIEW
DEFINITION OF TERMS
2.1.1 Level B of English in Vietnam
Intermediate learners, classified as level B, are typically associated with completing textbooks such as Streamline English Destinations or Headway Intermediate Upon finishing these materials, they are considered prepared to take the level B certification examination offered by various training centers and universities across Vietnam.
To better understand level B, it is helpful to compare it with other international EFL certification exams deemed equivalent Many training organizations typically require learners to possess level B proficiency to qualify for preparation courses for the Cambridge PET or the ECCE from the University of Michigan.
In Vietnam, English Level B is crucial within the framework of the national education system for teaching English as a Foreign Language (EFL) The Ministry of Education and Training mandates that high school and university education must equip students with an intermediate level of foreign language proficiency, making Level B a vital requirement for graduation from university.
Many recruitment officers require candidates to possess a level B Certificate, despite the fact that most applicants hold university degrees This leads job seekers to pursue additional training at FLC to obtain the necessary level B certification.
Despite the focus on achieving level B in EFL teaching at high schools and universities, there are no official documents outlining the specific language requirements for this level Recent initiatives by HCMC National University have led to the creation of a table detailing common criteria for levels A, B, and C, as referenced in Nguyễn Hoàng Tuấn et al (2004, pp 8-17) This table is part of a document utilized for preparatory courses for EFL tests in postgraduate entrance examinations since the 2001 academic year However, it fails to specify vocabulary size and items, providing only a glossary organized by topics.
2.1.2 Tokens, types, lemmas, word families and text coverage
When counting words, different ways can be used depending on what is considered as a unit
Tokens, or running words, refer to the individual word forms counted based on their occurrences in a text For instance, the sentence "It's exciting to do" consists of six tokens, even though two of them are identical Tokens serve as a unit of measurement for determining the total number of words in a line or within an entire text.
Types refer to the distinct word forms present in a sentence, where each word form is counted as one type regardless of its frequency For instance, in the sentence "It's exciting to do," there are six tokens but only five types.
• Lemmas consist of a headword and some of its inflected and reduced forms
E.g the four word forms excite, excites, excited, exciting are counted as one lemma and the three forms of the adjective easy, easier, easiest are counted as one lemma When using lemmas as the unit of counting, the question of learning burden is raised, which means with some lemmas a learner needs more effort to master than with others For example, it is all right if learners with sufficient knowledge of inflectional system have to deal with walk, walks, walking or walked (one lemma), but this is not the same with see - saw
When creating a master list for lemmatization, it's essential to consider the varying degrees of effort required to learn different lemmas, such as "seen," "good," "better," and "best."
Word families are composed of a headword along with its inflected and closely related derived forms, which systematically include affixes like -ly, -ness, and -un For example, the terms friend, friends, friendly, friendliness, and unfriendly all belong to the same word family.
This study focuses on identifying the receptive vocabulary for intermediate learners, emphasizing that the term "word" primarily refers to word families Users must understand a wide range of derivational affixes, such as -able, -ful, -less, re-, -ion, -ity, -ment, -in, -im, and -ir, to grasp the meanings of various word forms within these families The concept of word families helps streamline the vocabulary list by including only the most frequent forms For instance, the verb "distribute" serves as the headword for thirteen related forms, but only the most common form, "distribution," is featured in the list.
Text coverage measures an individual's vocabulary knowledge within a text It is calculated by taking the number of known words (or tokens) in a text, multiplying it by 100, and then dividing by the total number of words in the text For example, if a text contains 200 words and a person recognizes 175 of them, the text coverage would be determined accordingly.
THE LEVEL B COURSES
This section of the study outlines the aims, objectives, and duration of each stage, along with the vocabulary size designated for each phase These elements will serve as the foundation for developing the level B word list.
EFL is a mandatory subject in Vietnamese high schools, as outlined by the Ministry of Education and Training (MOET) It serves as a vital tool for accessing international knowledge, cultures, and events, particularly in the fields of science and technology The high school English curriculum focuses on developing essential language skills and intellectual qualities necessary for further education and professional life English is crucial for effective communication and academic success, making it a key subject in official examinations, including Graduation Exams.
The HCMC Department of Education has announced a collaboration with the British Council to implement Cambridge Certification Exams for Intensive-English students in primary and high schools This initiative will start with Grade 2 for Starters, progressing through various levels up to Grade 12 for the FCE exam, thereby establishing clear objectives for English language education in high schools.
The subject occupies a significant portion of in-class time within the overall program, comprising approximately 760 periods of 45 minutes each, totaling around 577 hours for regular classes In contrast, Intensive English classes involve nearly three times this amount, with about 2,280 periods Additionally, around 60% of high school students attend private English classes or FLC, dedicating 2 to 6 hours weekly to further their studies (Nguyễn Viết Ngoạn, 2003, p.16) Following high school, students typically engage in another two to three years of studying English for General Purposes (EGP) and English for Specific Purposes (ESP) at the university level.
The new English syllabus textbooks, introduced in the academic year 2000-2001, utilize a Thematic Approach but fail to adequately address vocabulary development Consequently, the lexical content is derived from the contexts used to illustrate selected themes and functions Each textbook from grades 6 to 9 includes a glossary of approximately 300 words, while grades 10 and 11 feature around 400 new words in their test-run editions As a result, it is anticipated that high school students will graduate with a vocabulary size of about 2,400 words, based on conservative estimates.
Nearly all Vietnamese students entering higher education have studied English as a Foreign Language (EFL), as it is a mandatory subject in graduation exams, with only a few exceptions for those from remote areas Regardless of their high school background, all students must continue EFL as a compulsory course for four years at university Each institution has its own curriculum, textbooks, and course duration Generally, the university EFL syllabus is divided into two stages, encompassing 300 to 400 class periods for English for General Purposes (EGP) and English for Specific Purposes (ESP).
Many universities in Vietnam utilize textbooks like KnowHow, Lifelines, New Interchange, and Headway, which align with the syllabus requirements, including the completion of an intermediate level textbook Consequently, it is clear that university graduates are expected to attain an intermediate level of English proficiency, as mandated by the Ministry of Education and Training (MOET) in Vietnam.
In Vietnam, universities have distinct syllabi and textbook selections for English language learning For instance, students at the University of Education in HCMC utilize Headway Pre-intermediate and select units from Headway Intermediate, while HCMC Open University students complete three volumes of New Interchange In contrast, UTECH - HCMC students focus on Know-How volumes 2 and 3 It is estimated that students are introduced to approximately 1,000 new words during their university studies, adding to the 2,400 words learned in high school, resulting in a total vocabulary of around 3,000 words necessary to reach an intermediate level of proficiency.
Many Vietnamese individuals enroll in language centers to obtain certifications at levels A, B, and C, which correspond to Elementary, Intermediate, and Advanced proficiency Each language school utilizes different textbooks and has unique requirements for their certification exams For instance, at FLC, part of the HCMC University of Education, students must complete a 100-week Streamline English course, progressing from Streamline Departure (Elementary) to Streamline Destinations (Intermediate) This includes 32 weeks for Departure, 32 weeks for Connections, and 36 weeks for Destinations, along with an additional 8 weeks dedicated to preparing for the Level B Certification Exam Overall, learners typically invest around 100 weeks to achieve their certification.
Completing a level B course at a Foreign Language Center (FLC) requires 648 class periods, which appears significantly less than the time spent in high school or university However, FLC students are often not true beginners; many are current high school or university students, or they may already possess some English knowledge prior to attending language centers Therefore, the actual time needed for a level B course at an FLC is likely greater than 648 periods.
A very popular textbook used by most FLC is The Streamline English (Hartley
& Viney, 1982) Students finishing level B are assumed to have already been through with three volumes: Departure, Connections and Destinations, which include about 3,000 words altogether
This article outlines the aims and objectives of the course, detailing the theoretical time allocated versus the actual time spent by learners, as well as the vocabulary size designated for each course This information will serve as a foundational reference for creating a level B English wordlist.
The following part is a review of efforts to determine the minimum vocabulary size for this level.
IDENTIFYING THE APPROPRIATE LEXICAL SIZE FOR ESL/ EFL LEARNERS
According to Nunan (1999), "recently the teaching of vocabulary has assumed its rightful place as a fundamentally important aspect of language development"
He states the need to enhance vocabulary learning at early stages:
Advocates of comprehension-based language acquisition emphasize that a rich vocabulary in early development allows learners to exceed their grammatical competence This means that possessing a broad vocabulary enables individuals to derive meaning from both spoken and written texts, even if they are unfamiliar with the grammatical structures used in those texts.
Educated native English speakers typically know around 20,000 word families, while a five-year-old native speaker has a vocabulary of about 5,000 word families On average, children add approximately 1,000 word families to their vocabulary each year during their early life (Nation and Waring, 1997, p 7) These vocabulary goals are often unattainable for most English as a Foreign Language (EFL) learners Nation (2001) emphasizes that this vocabulary size is not the standard for all English as a Second Language (ESL) or EFL learners.
Research indicates that while second language learners may benefit from acquiring a vast vocabulary over time, it is not a critical short-term objective Frequency-based studies reveal that certain words are significantly more useful than others, suggesting that a carefully selected, smaller vocabulary can enable learners to communicate effectively.
Determining the minimum vocabulary size necessary for adequate comprehension of various English texts—such as conversations, newspapers, fiction, or academic materials—is crucial Identifying this vocabulary threshold and selecting the appropriate words to meet it are essential steps in enhancing understanding.
This study emphasizes the importance of understanding vocabulary types and their coverage in academic texts for effective English learning Nation (2001) categorizes academic vocabulary into four levels: high-frequency words, academic words, technical words, and low-frequency words.
The illustration below (Nation, 2001, p.14) depicts the proportions of various types of vocabulary and their coverage within an English academic text, with the size of each section representing the extent of text occupied by each vocabulary type.
2,000 words 80% or more text coverage a, equal, places, behaves, educates
Technical vocabulary Low-frequency vocabulary
Research by Caroll, Davies, and Richman (1971) indicates that a core group of 2,000 words accounts for 81.3% of text coverage, with an additional 1,000 words contributing only 3.9% (cited in Nation, 2001, p.15) The Brown Corpus, which comprises various 2,000-word texts in American English totaling over one million tokens, similarly found that 2,000 lemmas cover 79.7% of the text This essential set of approximately 2,000 high-frequency words, which represents 80% of the words used in both spoken and written language, includes both function words (such as "in," "for," "the," "of," and "a") and numerous content words (like "equal," "places," "behaves," and "educates").
Academic vocabulary is a specialized area of language that is crucial for students in higher education Xue and Nation (1984) identified a set of words that frequently appear in academic textbooks but are rare in non-academic texts like novels or newspapers They emphasized the importance of learning these terms to enhance reading comprehension of academic materials This vocabulary is often referred to as "generally useful scientific vocabulary" (Barber, 1962), "sub-technical vocabulary" (Cowan, 1974), or "specialized non-technical lexis" (Cohen, Glasman).
1988) and "academic words" (Martin, 1986; Coxhead, 2001) Academic words
Academic words constitute approximately 9 to 10% of the total words in academic texts (Nation, 2001) These words, such as "policy," "phase," "adjusted," and "sustained," are prevalent in scholarly writing but are less common in everyday language.
Mastering academic vocabulary is essential for learners aiming to pursue studies in English After acquiring the 2,000 most common words, students should concentrate on academic vocabulary Familiarity with these high-frequency words and the Academic Word List provides nearly 90% coverage of the vocabulary found in most academic texts By adding proper nouns and technical terms, learners can reach the crucial 95% coverage needed for effective reading.
Technical words are closely tied to the specific topic and subject area of a text, such as "indigenous," "regeneration," "beech," and "timber." These terms, while common within their field, may not be widely used elsewhere Additionally, they include high-frequency words that possess specialized meanings in contexts like economics, such as "demand," "supply," and "cost." Collectively, these technical terms account for approximately 5% of the text coverage.
Low-frequency words are those that are neither high-frequency, academic, nor technical terms specific to a subject Most English words belong to this category, including examples such as "zoned," "pioneering," "perpetuity," "aired," and "pastoral."
"They make up over 5% of the words in an academic text and they are the biggest group in the language" (Nation, 2001, p.12)
As research on L1 reading (Stahl, 1990) shows that vocabulary knowledge and reading comprehension are very closely related to each other (cited by Nation,
Research indicates that vocabulary breadth is a crucial indicator of reading proficiency and overall academic language skills The correlation between vocabulary size and successful reading is significantly stronger than other factors, such as comprehension related to cultural knowledge or syntax knowledge.
Sutarsyah, Nation, and Kennedy (1994) conducted a corpus study to explore a fundamental question in second language (L2) reading: the number of general English words and subject-specific words required for understanding texts in a particular subject area Their findings revealed that a core vocabulary of fewer than 3,000 general English words was prevalent across all subject areas Additionally, while the economic corpus contained its own specialized vocabulary, it was relatively limited and frequently repeated (cited in Schmitt & McCarthy).
Corpus analysis allows for the definition of lexical requirements necessary for reading academic texts This has led to ongoing interest in identifying a language knowledge threshold that distinguishes between insufficient and sufficient language knowledge for effective language use.
IDENTIFYING THE WORDS TO LEARN
The computational analysis of language has become an essential tool in linguistics, particularly for identifying key vocabulary to learn By examining large corpora, such as the British National Corpus with 100 million words or the COBUILD project with over 250 million words, researchers can determine the frequency of word occurrences This extensive data makes corpus-based studies more reliable, as many words are infrequent and may not appear in smaller datasets Consequently, the frequency information obtained from these large corpora offers valuable insights into the functioning of English vocabulary.
A key finding of this study is that a small set of high-frequency words accounts for a significant portion of language use, with the top 2,000 words comprising approximately 80% of all word occurrences Given that the English language contains around 54,000 word families, it is evident that only a limited number of words perform the majority of communicative functions, while the rest are used infrequently This understanding of high-frequency words has important practical implications.
Learning high-frequency words is crucial for effective language use, as emphasized by Schmitt (2000) Prioritizing these words allows for a more efficient language learning process, enabling learners to allocate less effort to infrequent vocabulary, which can be approached through alternative strategies Nation and Waring (1997) highlight the importance of mastering high-frequency words before moving on to other vocabulary Subsequently, educators should assist learners in developing strategies to understand and acquire low-frequency words.
According to Schmitt (2000), the majority of tokens in any discourse consist of high-frequency words If language users are unfamiliar with these words, they will struggle to accurately infer the meanings of less common words, many of which may also be unknown to them.
Identifying the most frequently used near synonyms allows for a more informed selection of words to prioritize in learning For instance, words like 'start', 'begin', and 'commence' exemplify this concept (Fox, 1998, p ).
Corpus-based linguistics, particularly in relation to word frequency information, enables learners and teachers to focus on essential vocabulary, thereby conserving time and effort Understanding high-frequency vocabulary outweighs the investment needed for direct vocabulary instruction As noted by Cobb (1997), frequency is a crucial criterion for determining which words or phrases are most important for inclusion in language courses, as well as for identifying basic English words that can replace less common ones in simplified texts Additionally, frequency informs dictionary makers on how to organize word information and assists stylisticians in characterizing different varieties of English.
High frequency words deserve significant attention because, despite being common, advanced students often use them in a stilted and overly formal manner A study by Fox (1998) reveals that these students utilize the most common words less frequently and in fewer contexts compared to native English speakers.
There are many reasons for this, one of which is probably the lack of attention that has been drawn to them on the classroom (p.27)
Understanding word frequency is crucial for EFL learners, as it helps identify high-priority vocabulary essential for effective language use Not all words hold the same significance; learners should focus on specific terms based on their individual goals Additionally, word frequency analysis allows for the identification of necessary vocabulary without considering the learner's proficiency level Therefore, it is vital for learners to familiarize themselves with high-frequency words This section will explore various efforts to compile word lists that will serve as resources for the suggested vocabulary in this study.
2.4.2 The General Service List of English Words
According to Rob Waring (2002), mastering general service vocabulary is essential for students, as these words appear in nearly all texts, including technical works The General Service List (GSL), compiled by Michael West in 1953, identifies the 2,000 most commonly used English words based on a study of five million written words This list, which includes around 6,000 entries due to multiple meanings of words, is derived from earlier frequency data by Thorndike and Lorge (1944) The GSL consists of 2,284 head words representing various word families, with frequency data provided for different meanings While the first 1,000 words in the GSL are of high frequency and broad applicability, the second 1,000 words are less frequent and more topic-specific, making them particularly useful across various subject areas.
Table 3: a comparison of text coverage of the 1st and 2nd thousand words levels conversation fiction newspaper academic text
The vocabulary list was developed using various criteria beyond just frequency and range West considered factors such as the ease of learning related meanings, the necessity of words that convey unique ideas, and the efficiency of learning words that encapsulate broader concepts Additionally, he focused on the stylistic level and emotional resonance of words, recognizing that second language learners benefit from a neutral vocabulary This list aims to provide an ideal starting point for ESL/EFL learners (Nation and Waring, 1997, p 19).
Despite its age and some errors, the General Service List (GSL) remains the most effective vocabulary list available Hwang and Nation (1995) found that substituting words in the GSL only marginally improved coverage by 1%, reinforcing its continued preference among English readers' writers (Waring, 1997, p 15) Various studies (Hwang, 1989; Hirsh and Nation, 1992; Sutarsyah, Nation, and Kennedy, 1994) indicate that the GSL covers between 78% and 92% of different written texts, with an average coverage of approximately 82% (Waring, 1997, p 15).
The Cambridge English Lexicon, compiled by Roland Hindmarsh in 1980, defines a comprehension lexicon essential for students to succeed in the Cambridge Preliminary English Test (PET) According to the University of Cambridge Local Examinations Syndicate, each test in the PET series is grounded in the CEL, which serves as a publicly available wordlist (Cobb, 1998, p.3) Gairns and Redman (1986) provide a comprehensive summary of the features of this list.
This comprehensive list contains 4,500 words and over 8,000 semantic values, making it an invaluable resource for course designers Notably, the items are graded on a frequency scale of 1 to 5, offering a clear guideline for the optimal introduction of vocabulary in a course aimed at achieving First.
Certificate Examination An additional scale 6-
7 is used for the less frequent semantic values of a word; these values are likely to be more relevant to students studying for the Cambridge
The UWL comprises words that, while not included in the first 2,000 words of the GSL, are commonly used and have a broad application in academic texts This wide range indicates their significance in scholarly communication.
The academic vocabulary, encompassing over 800 word families, is not limited to specific fields like economics or mathematics but spans various disciplines, providing an 8.5% coverage of academic texts Its specialized nature is evident in its lower coverage of non-academic texts, with only 3.9% in newspapers and 1.7% in fiction The significance of the University Word List (UWL) is highlighted in the data presented by Nation and others.
Waring, 1997, p.16) for the coverage of academic text that it provides
Table 4 Coverage by first 2,000 of the GSL and the UWL
METHODOLOGY
RESEARCH QUESTIONS
The aim of this study is to identify the common and basic words used in level B English texts, which can be reached through answering the following research questions:
1 What is the threshold vocabulary size for level B in Vietnam?
2 Which items should be included in the word list?
To effectively address the learning needs of level B English learners, it is essential to explore their motivations for learning, the types of English texts they encounter, and their vocabulary acquisition strategies Understanding the sources of vocabulary, their learning habits, and the average vocabulary size and types they possess is crucial Additionally, analyzing the types of words featured in level B assessments and their overall text coverage will provide valuable insights into their language proficiency.
RESEARCH DESIGN
This study involves several key stages Initially, the analysis of questionnaire results will reveal the vocabulary needs and challenges faced by level B learners Following this, the average vocabulary size of participants will be assessed through three vocabulary level tests: the 1,000-word level, 2,000-word level, and academic-word level The findings will then be compared with the vocabulary used in four level B reading comprehension tests to evaluate if the learners' vocabulary is adequate for understanding these assessments This comparison will utilize a computer software, Frequency Level Checker, to analyze the vocabulary in targeted texts against master texts, identifying word inclusion, percentage distribution, and frequency The results will inform the determination of a lexical threshold, leading to recommendations for an appropriate vocabulary size and items for level B Finally, the effectiveness of the new vocabulary list will be tested against the four level B sample tests.
THE STUDY
The research was conducted at the University of Technology during the first term of the 2005-2006 academic year and at the Foreign Language Center Branch 10 (University of Education - HCMC) from June to December 2005 This section outlines the study's subjects, the instruments utilized, and the data collection procedures employed.
The study involved three groups: 87 university students from the UTECH who completed English 1 and 2, 103 learners from various backgrounds attending classes for Level B certification at the University of Education, and 15 experienced teachers from multiple universities in HCMC The first group, consisting of students who have undergone 150 hours of English instruction, studied EFL as a mandatory subject The second group included high school and university students, as well as adults, reflecting diverse ages and educational backgrounds The teachers selected for the study had significant experience teaching English for General Purposes (EGP) and Level B courses, ensuring their perspectives on the learners and syllabus were relevant to the research.
A questionnaire was developed and distributed to UTECH students and Level B learners at the FLC, conducted in Vietnamese to prevent misunderstandings Participants were asked to provide information regarding the types of English programs they have been enrolled in.
Students utilize their English skills beyond the classroom, demonstrating an awareness of their vocabulary size They employ various strategies to enhance their vocabulary and often face challenges in speaking, writing, and reading in English.
The questionnaire consists of 8 questions with various response options, allowing multiple selections for questions 1 and 5 Question 3 assesses the frequency of English usage for different purposes, categorized into four scales: very often, occasionally, rarely, and never Question 4 is a simple Yes-No inquiry that aims to determine if subjects have a vocabulary learning strategy and if their teacher utilizes a lexical syllabus Questions 6, 7, and 8 focus on identifying the primary reasons subjects struggle to meet level B requirements in speaking, writing, and reading, aiming to uncover whether deficiencies in basic skills or insufficient vocabulary hinder comprehension To maintain consistency, subjects were instructed to select only one option from the provided choices (see appendix 1).
The questionnaire consists of six questions aimed at gathering insights from teachers regarding the challenges they face in vocabulary instruction It seeks to identify their preferred methods for teaching new vocabulary, their awareness of integrating a lexical syllabus into their courses, and the difficulties they encounter related to students' vocabulary size Additionally, it explores their views on the coherence and transparency of vocabulary teaching across high school, university, and foreign language courses, as well as the alignment between the time invested and vocabulary acquisition for level B learners Finally, the questionnaire requests their recommendations for establishing a lexical threshold for level B.
The English vocabulary size test, originally developed by Nation (1983; 1990) and later improved by Nobert Schmitt, Dianne Schmitt, and Clapham, is widely recognized by L2 researchers as an effective measure of receptive vocabulary (Laufer, 1992, 1996; Laufer & Paribakht, 1998; Yu, 1996; cited by Qian, 1999, p 85) This test consists of six parts, each representing different vocabulary size levels: 1,000, 2,000, 3,000, 5,000, Academic-word, and 10,000 word-family levels Each level includes ten to twelve items, where test-takers match three definitions to three of six provided words, demonstrating their vocabulary knowledge.
2 office …3… something that tells time
3 watch …5… main body of a tree
4 vehicle …6… a tool used for writing
The Vocabulary Level Test consists of 30 to 36 carefully chosen words at each level, ensuring they represent the vocabulary of that level Due to the test's design, the likelihood of guessing answers correctly is minimal, allowing test scores to accurately reflect the proportion of known words The test includes high-frequency words at the 1,000, 2,000, and 3,000 word-family levels, while the 5,000 word-family level serves as a transition between high and low-frequency words The 10,000 word-family level features low-frequency vocabulary, and the University Word List Level focuses on specialized terms essential for academic studies, representing words commonly found in university textbooks.
& Nation, 1987), with 737 lexical items covering over 20 academic disciplines, was developed based on four existing lists for non-native English speakers attending universities in English-speaking countries
Three types of vocabulary level tests used in this study are the revised versions of the 1,000, 2,000-word level and the Academic-level tests
The 1,000-word level test, as described by Nation (2001, p 412), features two versions, each containing 39 complete sentences, some accompanied by illustrations Test participants are required to indicate whether each sentence is True (T) or False (F), with each correct response earning 1 point.
According to a study from 1993 (cited in Qian, 1999, p 82), individuals who correctly answer more than two-thirds of 39 sentences or achieve a score above 26 points are estimated to possess a vocabulary size of approximately 1,000 words This assessment serves solely to gauge the subjects' vocabulary size or average word knowledge, rather than to determine the precise number of words an individual knows.
The 2,000-word level test were made by Nobert Schmidtt, Diane Schmidtt and C
The Clapham test, available in two versions (Schmidtt, 2000, p.192; Nation, 2001, p.31), consists of 10 items, each featuring six words and three meanings This format minimizes distractors and allows for more items to be assessed in a shorter time frame Participants match words to meanings, totaling 30 meanings for 30 words, making it efficient for placement testing with results typically available in under 10 minutes The test aims to evaluate the receptive vocabulary size of subjects, determining if they have reached the 2,000-word level and are prepared for academic vocabulary A score of 20 to 30 points (65% to 100%) indicates an estimated vocabulary size of up to 2,000 words.
The Academic-vocabulary test, as outlined by Nation (2001, p 421), comprises 12 questions, each featuring 6 academic words paired with three meanings for matching Participants are required to complete this test similarly to the 2,000-word level test With a total of 36 items to assess, the Academic-word test allows for the calculation of academic vocabulary size in the same manner as previously described (refer to appendix 5).
3.3.2.4 The Frequency Level Checker Computer Program
This online tool measures vocabulary levels by comparing an English text with a target text or master list It enables language teachers and learners to quickly assess the number and percentage of words in a specific text that correspond to various word frequency levels in English.
This tool analyzes the vocabulary level of texts to determine their suitability for specific learner groups It predicts challenging words for these learners and aids in creating tailored materials, such as selecting appropriate reading resources Additionally, the software evaluates the richness of vocabulary used by EFL learners in their free writing.
The FLCs categorize and count words in a text into four distinct frequency levels, along with separate groups for punctuation and numbers Level 1 includes the 1000 most frequent English words and their families, while Level 2 encompasses the next 1000 most common words and families Level 3 features approximately 800 frequently used words found in secondary and university-level reading materials, excluding any words from Levels 1 and 2 Additionally, the "Outside Levels" group contains all words not included in the first three levels, and punctuation symbols, program keys, and numbers are listed separately at the end.