Vietnamese english translation errors committed by english majored postgraduate students

BINH DUONG PROVINCIAL PEOPLE’S COMMITTEETHU DAU MOT UNIVERSITY HUYNH THI NGOC THAO VIETNAMESE - ENGLISH TRANSLATION ERRORS COMMITTED BY ENGLISH-MAJORED POSTGRADUATE STUDENTS MAJOR: ENGLI

BINH DUONG PROVINCIAL PEOPLE’S COMMITTEE

THU DAU MOT UNIVERSITY

HUYNH THI NGOC THAO

VIETNAMESE - ENGLISH TRANSLATION ERRORS COMMITTED

BY ENGLISH-MAJORED POSTGRADUATE STUDENTS

MAJOR: ENGLISH LANGUAGE STUDIES

MAJOR CODE: 8220201

MASTER THESIS IN ENGLISH LANGUAGE STUDIES

BINH DUONG PROVINCE - 2023

BINH DUONG PROVINCIAL PEOPLE’S COMMITTEE

THU DAU MOT UNIVERSITY

HUYNH THI NGOC THAO

VIETNAMESE - ENGLISH TRANSLATION ERRORS COMMITTED

BY ENGLISH-MAJORED POSTGRADUATE STUDENTS

MAJOR: ENGLISH LANGUAGE STUDIES

MAJOR CODE: 8220201

MASTER THESIS IN ENGLISH LANGUAGE STUDIES

SUPERVISOR: Dr TRAN THANH DU

BINH DUONG PROVINCE - 2023

STATEMENT OF AUTHORSHIP

I hereby declare that the thesis titled "Vietnamese-English translation errorscommitted by English-majored postgraduate students" is being written under thesupervision of Dr Tran Thanh Du Unless otherwise specified, I confirm that allinformation presented in this paper is the result of my own efforts, and that no externalsources have been used without proper citation Furthermore, I declare that this thesis hasnot been accepted for any degree or diploma, and is not currently being considered for anyother degree or diploma

The author

Huynh Thi Ngoc Thao

Second, I appreciate the Postgraduate Department's assistance and Dr Tran Thanh Du,Director of the Master's Program in English Language, in permitting and providing mewith essays on contrasting linguistic subjects Furthermore, I value interviewers becauseinsight interviews from English linguistics students assisted me in understandingtranslation issues Their contribution and ideas were really useful to my research.

Thirdly, I would want to extend my deepest appreciation to postgraduate programinstructors and coworkers Their thoughtfulness, enthusiasm, and wide knowledgeencourage me to continue and finish my thesis

To conclude, I would want to convey my sincerest appreciation to my beautiful,supporting family, particularly my parents

Overall, I would not have been able to complete my thesis at my difficult period withouttheir assistance

This research examined translation errors made by English-majored postgraduate studentswhen translating from Vietnamese to English Qualitative and quantitative methods,including questionnaires, semi-interviews, and document analysis were used to collectdata from 50 students, 4 lectures, and 4 students The study aimed to identify commontranslation errors and improve translation teaching and learning for Vietnamese learners.Results showed that grammatical errors (63%) are the most common among lexical andgrammatical errors In grammatical errors, passive voice is the most common error(27.08%) Besides, in lexical errors, word choice is the most common error (37.5%).Cultural factors and first language differences contributed to errors To improvetranslation skills, consistent practice and utilizing resources are necessary Developing astrong foundation in both languages and cultural knowledge is essential for producingaccurate and effective translations

Keywords: translation, translation errors, common errors, postgraduate students.

TABLE OF CONTENT

STATEMENT OF AUTHORSHIP i

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ii

ABSTRACT iii

TABLE OF CONTENT iv

LIST OF TABLES ix

LIST OF FIGURES x

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1

1.1 Background to the study 1

1.2 The statement of the problem 2

1.3 The aims of the study 3

1.4 The scope of the study 4

1.5 Significance of the study 4

1.6 Research questions of the study 5

1.7 The organization of the study 5

Summary 6

CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW 8

2.1 Theory of translation 8

2.1.1 Definitions of translation 8

2.1.2 Translation equivalence 9

2.1.3 Translation methods 9

2.1.3.1 Word-for-word translation 10

2.1.3.2 Literal translation 12

2.1.3.3 Faithful translation 13

2.1.3.4 Semantic translation 14

2.1.3.5 Communicative translation 15

2.1.3.6 Adaptation 16

2.1.3.7 Free translation 16

2.1.3.8 Idiomatic translation 17

2.1.4 The important of translation in modern world 18

2.1.5 Qualities for a good translation 19

2.2 Factors affecting translation 21

2.2.1 Cultural factors 21

2.2.2 First language factors 23

2.2.3 Personal competence factors 24

2.3 Classification of common errors 25

2.3.1 Vocabulary errors 30

2.3.1.1 Spelling 30

2.3.1.2 Word order 31

2.3.1.3 Word choice 31

2.3.1.4 Idioms 32

2.3.1.5 Cultural terms 33

2.3.2 Grammatical errors 34

2.3.2.1 Passive voice 34

2.3.2.2 Relative clause 35

2.3.2.3 Tense 35

2.3.2.4 Collocation 36

2.4.2.5 Determiner 37

2.4 Related studies 37

Summary 40

CHAPTER 3 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 42

3.1 Research design 42

3.2 Course description 43

3.3 Population and sampling 44

3.3.1 Population 44

3.3.2 Sampling 44

3.4 Research instruments 44

3.4.1 Questionnaires 44

3.4.2 Semi-structured interviews 45

3.5 Procedure 46

3.6 Reliability and validity 46

Summary 47

CHAPTER 4 FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION 48

4.1 Findings 48

4.1.1 The data from the questionnaires 48

4.1.1.1 The data from Part 1 48

4.1.1.2 The data from Part 2 49

4.1.2 The data form assignments 64

4.1.3 Data from the semi-structured interviews 69

4.1.3.1 Interview questions with lecturers 69

4.1.3.2 Interview questions with students 69

4.2 Discussion 70

4.2.1 Discussion from questionnaire 70

4.2.2 Discussion from the assignments 71

4.2.3 Discussion of results from semi-interviews 72

4.2.3.1 Discussion of results from semi-interviews with lecturers 72

4.2.3.2 Discussion of results from semi-interviews with students 75

4.2.4 Comparing with other studies 77

Summary 78

CHAPTER 5 CONCLUSION 80

5.1 Summary of the results 80

5.2 Recommendations 80

5.2.1 Recommendations for lecturers 81

5.2.2 Recommendations for students 82

5.2.3 Recommendations for future studies 83

5.3 Limitation 84

Summary 85

REFERENCES 86

APPENDIX A: QUESTIONAIRE FOR STUDENTS 92

APPENDIX B: INTERVIEW QUESTIONS FOR STUDENTS 103

APPENDIX C: INTERVIEW QUESTIONS FOR LECTURERS 104

APPENDIX D: SCRIPT OF INTERVIEW 105

Interview with lecturers 105

Interview with students 107

APPENDIX E: STUDENTS' ASSIGMNETS 109

Student 1 109

Student 2 115

Student 3 126

Student 4 135

Student 5 144

LIST OF TABLES

Table 2.1 Types of Errors in Translating Vietnamese into English 29

Table 3.1 Table outlining the Procedure for "Vietnamese-English Translation Errors Made by English-Majoring Postgraduate Students" Study 46

Table 4.1 General attitudes of students towards translation 49

Table 4.2 Common types of translation errors 50

Table 4.3 The causes of translation errors in lexical errors (%) 50

Table 4.4 The causes of translation errors in grammatical errors (%) 54

Table 4.5 The solutions of translation errors in lexical errors (%) 58

Table 4.6 The solutions of translation errors in grammatical errors (%) 61

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 4.1 The percentage of translation errors that students made (%) 64 Figure 4.2 The percentage of grammatical errors that students made (%) 65 Figure 4.3 The percentage of lexical errors that students made (%) 67

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

This chapter provides an introduction to the research project conducted at Thu Dau MotUniversity, which aimed to investigate the translation errors made by English-majoredpostgraduate students when translating from Vietnamese to English The chapter outlinesthe background and significance of the study, research questions, objectives, scope, andlimitations Additionally, the chapter provides a brief overview of the researchmethodology used in this study The findings of this study could be used to improve theteaching and learning of translation in English language education, particularly forVietnamese learners

1.1 Background to the study

English is an essential language in today's world, as it is the language of internationalcommunication, commerce, and education People worldwide recognize the benefits ofmastering English, and fluency in the language is often considered a prerequisite for manyjobs Translation is a critical tool for effective communication between languages, and it

is fundamental to all language learning as it cultivates precision, clarity, and adaptability.Despite the importance of translation, it can be challenging for novice learners,particularly those from non-native English-speaking countries such as Vietnam

English has become the most widely spoken language in the world due to the rise ofglobalization, which has facilitated the spread of the language worldwide The languagehas become the lingua franca of international communication, commerce, and education

As noted by Warschauer (2007), globalization has strengthened the global language,while the existence of a global language has facilitated globalization English has becomethe primary language of correspondence in many nations worldwide, and peopleworldwide endeavor to learn and master the language

Fluency in English has become a significant advantage in the era of globalization, as it is

a prerequisite for many jobs According to Kelly Knight (2015), organizations thatundertake international commerce prefer employees who can speak English Fluency inEnglish can also fetch a better salary Therefore, mastering English can open doors tobetter job opportunities and higher earnings

Translation is a critical tool for effective communication between languages, and it isfundamental to all language learning According to Duff (1994), translation cultivatesprecision, clarity, and adaptability, which are essential attributes of all language learning.Translation enhances people's lives, and most of the information we have today wasgathered through translation Translation also unites individuals and narratives, and itenables people from all around the world to communicate effectively.

Despite the benefits of mastering English and the importance of translation, Vietnamesestudents face several challenges in studying and interpreting English due to low Englishproficiency and inexperience According to Do Na Chi (2018), Vietnamese students havedifficulty translating one language into another due to the fact that each language has itsown unique set of characteristics and values that differ greatly Although translation isrequired for education, it can be difficult for novice learners

As noted by Thanh Thuy (2000), translation talent is not easy for Vietnamese students tograsp, so learners cannot prevent mistakes in their translating practice Due to culturaldifferences or inadequate language abilities, Vietnamese students of English continue tomake mistakes in grammar, word selection, and other areas Based on our observation andexperience, students practicing translation often commit common errors in Vietnamese-English translation Therefore, this study focuses on the common translation errorscommitted by English-majored postgraduate students at Thu Dau Mot University to helpstudents address these problems and improve their translation skills

In conclusion, English is critical for human survival in the age of globalization, andfluency in the language is a significant benefit in the job market Translation is criticalskills for effective communication between languages, and it is fundamental to alllanguage learning

1.2 The statement of the problem

Translation is an essential skill for effective communication between languages and is acrucial part of language learning However, postgraduate students majoring in English atThu Dau Mot University have been struggled with completing Vietnamese-Englishtranslations in their assignments despite being taught translation methods Lecturers havealso noted this problem when students choose their master thesis titles Despite translation

being a fundamental part of language education, there is a limited research on the mostcommon errors made by postgraduate students when translating from Vietnamese toEnglish This study aims to address this research gap by conducting a case study at ThuDau Mot University to identify the most common Vietnamese-English translation errorscommitted by English-majored postgraduate students The researcher will use acombination of qualitative and quantitative research methods, including interviews anddocument analysis, to analyze data collected from translation assignments fromcomparative linguistics courses in the English language The results of this study could beused to improve the teaching and learning of translation in English language education,particularly for Vietnamese learners at the postgraduate level.

1.3 The aims of the study

The aim of the study is to investigate the frequency and types of Vietnamese-Englishtranslation errors made by English-majored postgraduate students at Thu Dau motUniversity, as well as to understand the underlying causes of these errors Additionally,the study aims to provide practical recommendations for improving the translation skills

of English-majored postgraduate students at the university by identifying the areas whereerrors were most frequently made and understanding their root causes Ultimately, thestudy aims to contribute to the field of translation studies by providing research related totranslation errors made by this particular group of learners and actionable strategies forimproving their translation skills

The objectives of the study are twofold The first objective is to determine the frequencyand types of translation errors made by English-majored postgraduate students at Thu Daumot University when translating from Vietnamese to English To achieve this objective,the study will analyze the translation errors made by the students and categorize themaccording to their frequency and type Additionally, the study aims to identify thecommon patterns and underlying causes of these errors by conducting interviews andsurveys with the students and their instructors The second objective of the study is toprovide practical recommendations for improving the translation skills of English-majored postgraduate students at Thu Dau mot University The study aims to achieve thisobjective by identifying the areas where errors are most frequently made and

understanding their root causes Based on the findings, the study will provide actionablestrategies for improving the students' translation skills The study aims to not only benefitthe students themselves but also the broader community of English-language learners inVietnam Ultimately, the study aims to contribute to the field of translation studies byproviding a research relating to translation errors made by this particular group of learnersand to provide actionable strategies for improving their translation skills.

1.4 The scope of the study

The scope of the study is limited to identifying and addressing prevalent translation errorsmade by English-majored postgraduate students at Thu Dau Mot University in the context

of Vietnamese-English translation The sample size of the study was relatively small,including only 50 students and four professors of translation, which means that thefindings cannot be generalized to other universities or different academic fields Futurestudies should aim to include a larger and more diverse sample size to increase thereliability and generalizability of the findings The study's limitations include the use ofself-reported questionnaires and analysis of students' translation assignments, which maynot reflect the full range of translation skills and abilities of the participants

1.5 Significance of the study

Recent economic expansion in Vietnam has raised demand for English proficiency So,many Vietnamese students enroll in postgraduate English programs to improve theirlanguage skills and prepare for global work markets Despite the rising number of Englishmajoring graduate students in Vietnam, their desired and actual English proficiency levelsremain far off This is especially noticeable in Vietnamese-to-English translation EvenEnglish-majoring graduate students struggle with translation, especially academic writing.This topic warrants two studies

First, it can help Vietnamese English-majoring graduate students recognize their mostcommon faults when translating from Vietnamese to English This data can be utilized toimprove instruction and curriculum for these students Vietnam can produce more skilledand marketable postgraduates by improving English language training

Second, investigating Vietnamese-English translation faults by postgraduate Englishmajors helps improve academic research and writing in Vietnam Postgraduate students

must write English-language articles, theses, and dissertations Yet, if these studentscannot accurately translate their Vietnamese learning into English, their work may suffer.This could damage Vietnamese universities and research institutions and students'academic careers By identifying the most common errors committed by English-majoringgraduate students in Vietnam, researchers can create tools to help students improve theirtranslations and academic work This can improve research and raise Vietnameseresearchers' and institutions' international standing The study of Vietnamese-Englishtranslation errors made by English-majoring postgraduate students can contribute totranslation studies scholarship as well as have practical implications Translation ischallenging and involves in-depth knowledge of the source and target languages and theircultural contexts Academics can improve translation processes and our understanding ofEnglish-major postgraduate students in Vietnam by studying their challenges Researchalso aids intercultural communication Translation is essential for cross-culturalcommunication This research can improve Vietnamese-English translations by English-majoring graduate students, facilitating cross-cultural understanding and cooperation Inconclusion, the research on Vietnamese-English translation errors by English-majorpostgraduate students affects English language instruction in Vietnam, academic researchand writing in the country, and translation studies as a whole It can also improve cross-cultural communication and Vietnamese research and institution repute By helpingEnglish-major postgraduate students translate from Vietnamese to English, researcherscan make substantial contributions to these subjects and help position Vietnam as a globalleader on the job market and in research.

1.6 Research questions of the study

The following questions were addressed in this thesis:

(1) What are types of errors that English-majored postgraduate students at Thu Dau MotUniversity frequently commit when translating texts from Vietnamese to English?(2) What are the causes of these types of errors?

(3) What are the solutions for the mentioned problems?

1.7 The organization of the study

This research is organized into five chapters:

Chapter 1 provides the background and context of the study, emphasizing the significance

of translation as a crucial means of cross-cultural communication in the globalized world.The research problem and questions are clearly stated, aiming to identify the commontypes of Vietnamese-English translation errors committed by English-majoredpostgraduate students in Vietnam The objectives and significance of the study areoutlined

Chapter 2 Chapter 2 provides an overview of translation studies and related fields through

a literature review The chapter provides theoretical frameworks about translation,translation methods, factors affecting translation errors, classification of common errors.Additionally, it also lists out related studies

Chapter 3 outlines the methodology employed in this research, which is a mixed-methods

study combining qualitative and quantitative data The participants and sampling criteriaare clearly defined, and the data collection methods include a translation task, a surveyquestionnaire, and semi-structured interviews The data analysis procedures are alsodiscussed

Chapter 4 presents the results and discussion of the study An overview of the participants

and data collected is provided, followed by an analysis of the translation errors, includingtheir common types The results are then compared to the existing literature andtheoretical frameworks, followed by a discussion of the practical implications andrecommendations for improving translation education and practice in Vietnam

Chapter 5 concludes the research, summarizing the main findings and contributions of the

study and discussing the implications for translation theory, practice, and education Thelimitations of the research and suggestions for future research are also presented, followed

by the final thoughts and recommendations for further action The references cited in theresearch are listed in a separate section, following a consistent citation style

Summary

The chapter introduces the topic of Vietnamese-English translation errors made byEnglish majored postgraduate students at Thu Dau Mot University The chapter highlightsthe importance of translation in facilitating successful communication and transfer ofinformation between languages and cultures The chapter also presents the research

questions and objectives of the study, which aim to investigate postgraduate Englishmajor students' attitudes and performance towards Vietnamese-English translation andidentify the causes of translation errors In additionally, it provides an overview of theresearch methodology and data analysis techniques used in the study Furthermore, thechapter concludes by emphasizing the significance of the study in contributing to the field

of translation studies and providing practical recommendations for improving thetranslation skills of English-majored postgraduate students

CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW

Chapter 2 provides an overview of translation studies and related fields through aliterature review The chapter provides theoretical frameworks about translation,translation methods, factors affecting translation errors, classification of commonerrors Additionally, it also lists out related studies

2.1 Theory of translation

2.1.1 Definitions of translation

Translation is a complex process that involves transferring the meaning of a sourcelanguage text into an equivalent target-language text Researchers have providednumerous definitions of translation, each emphasizing different aspects of the process.The Oxford dictionary defines translation as "the process of changing something that iswritten or spoken into another language." Wilss (1982) views translation as a transferprocess that aims to transform a written source-language text into an optimallyequivalent target-language text Bell, R (1991) emphasizes the importance ofmaintaining semantic and stylistic equivalences between the source and target texts intranslation

Robinson (1997) argues that translation is an intellectual activity that involvescomplicated conscious and unconscious educational processes He emphasizes theimportance of innovative problem-solving in fresh linguistic, social, and culturalcontexts According to Houbert (1998), translation is the process of linguisticallymodifying a message presented in a certain language specification to enable people ofthe chosen language to comprehend it

In addition to establishing an equivalence between the source and target texts, Sa'edi(2004) suggests that translation aims to communicate meaning to people in their ownlanguage and have the same effect as the original text Galibert (2004) similarlyemphasizes the importance of conveying the message and ideas the author wants toexpress through the text in the translation process

Finally, Newmark (1988) emphasizes that translation is more than just transcribing theoriginal text into the target language It requires the translator to put the meaning of thetext into another language in the way the author intended it to be understood Thismeans that students are not allowed to translate the text directly from the sourcelanguage to the target language

In conclusion, translation is a complex process that involves transferring the meaning

of a source-language text into an equivalent target-language text It requires thetranslator to have a thorough understanding of the source language's syntactic,semantic, and pragmatic elements and to use innovative problem-solving skills tocreate a translation that conveys the same message and ideas as the original text Theimportance of maintaining semantic and stylistic equivalences between the source andtarget texts and conveying the author's intended meaning cannot be overstated

2.1.2 Translation equivalence

Translation equivalence is a rule about translation that people know but it's not writtendown, and it determines the manner of translating exchange, according to PeterNewmark (1989) According to Catford (1965), the most important challenge intranslation is determining the appropriate equivalency in the target language In aneffort to find a solution to the issue of translation equivalence, Newbert (1985)proposes that translation equivalence should be seen as a semiotic category Thiscategory would have the following components: (syntactic, semantic and pragmatic).These components are organized in a hierarchical structure, with semantic equivalencehaving precedence over syntactic equivalence and pragmatic equivalence criteria andmodifying both of the other parts This arrangement influences both of the othercomponents The connection between the signs themselves, the relationship betweenthe signs and what they stand for, and the relationship between the people who employthe signs all contribute to the broader concept of equivalence To put it another way,translation equivalence refers to the degree to which a term or statement in onelanguage and its translation in another have a comparable meaning In general, in order

to achieve translation equivalent, translators need to generate the same impact (or onethat is as near to the original as feasible) on the readership of the translation as wasacquired on the readership of the original This is what is meant by "translationequivalence." The translation equivalent is shown by a few laws and ideas that are veryhelpful to translators

2.1.3 Translation methods

From the first century BC, literal and free translation have been debated It illustratesthe nineteenth-century transition from free translation to literal translation due to

cultural anthropology and the extreme literal ideas of Walter Benjamin and VladimirNabokov.

They have evolved due to the impact of various factors such as languages, cultures,text types, and the translators themselves Peter Newmark identified eight forms oftranslation in his work "A textbook of translation" published in 1981 Newmark (1988)explores that these forms are word-for-word translation, literal translation, faithfultranslation, semantic translation, communicative translation, adaptation, freetranslation, and idiomatic translation A flattened V diagram depicts the ongoingdispute (Newmark, 1988, p.45):

Faithful translation Idiomatic translationSemantic translation Communicative translation

Figure 2 Translation Methods Flattened V Diagram

2.1.3.1 Word-for-word translation

Word-for-word translation, also known as literal translation, is a translation methodthat aims to produce a target text by rendering the source text into the target languageword-for-word This method is often used to understand the mechanics of the sourcelanguage and the general meaning of the text However, it does not take into accountthe context or grammar of the source language, which may result in inaccuratetranslations Vinay and Darbelnet (1995) describe word-for-word translation as a form

of literal translation that focuses on the most prevalent meanings of individual words,while retaining the order of the words They argue that this method is useful forunderstanding the syntactic structures of the source language, but it does not considerthe idiomatic or cultural aspects of the text

Catford (1965) suggests that word-for-word translation can be problematic because itdoes not account for the differences in syntax and grammar between the source andtarget languages He argues that translators should consider the overall meaning andcommunicative function of the source text, rather than focusing solely on theindividual words

Hatim and Munday (2004) also caution against the use of word-for-word translation,arguing that it can lead to unnatural and awkward translations They suggest thattranslators should consider the target audience, purpose, and cultural context of thetext in order to produce an effective translation.

Baker (1992) emphasizes the importance of considering the cultural and linguisticdifferences between the source and target languages when translating He argues thatword-for-word translation may be appropriate in certain contexts, such as technical orscientific documents, but it is not suitable for literary or creative texts

Nida (1975) proposes a functional approach to translation, which considers thecommunicative function of the source text and aims to produce a functionallyequivalent target text He suggests that translators should not simply rely on word-for-word translation, but instead, they should focus on producing a text that conveys theintended meaning and purpose of the source text

Seidl (2014) highlights the importance of using translation techniques that areappropriate for the specific context and purpose of the translation She suggests thattranslators should be aware of the limitations of word-for-word translation andconsider alternative methods, such as localization or transcreation, to produce a moreeffective translation Lonsdale (1995) emphasizes the need for translators to considerthe cultural and linguistic differences between the source and target languages whentranslating She suggests that word-for-word translation may be appropriate in certaincontexts, such as technical or legal documents, but it is not suitable for literary orcreative texts

It is concluded that word-for-word translation is a translation method that can be usefulfor understanding the mechanics of the source language and the general meaning of thetext However, it does not take into account the context or grammar of the sourcelanguage, which may result in inaccurate translations Therefore, it is important fortranslators to consider the communicative function, cultural context, and linguisticdifferences between the source and target languages when choosing a translationmethod For example, "Nam is a monitor good, he helped many friends" is a word-for-word translation of the Vietnamese sentence "Nam là một lớp trưởng tốt, anh ấy đãgiúp đỡ nhiều bạn học."

2.1.3.2 Literal translation

Literal translation is a translation method that aims to maintain the closest possiblecorrespondence between the source language and the target language As Larson (1998)explains, this method focuses on rendering the grammatical structures of the sourcelanguage into their closest equivalents in the target language, even if the resultingtranslation sounds unnatural or awkward This method is sometimes referred to as

"formal equivalence" because it aims to preserve the form of the original text as much

as possible

Munday (2016) notes that the literal translation method can be useful in certaincontexts, such as when translating technical or legal texts where precision andaccuracy are paramount In these cases, a more flexible translation method such asdynamic equivalence may not be appropriate, as it could result in mistranslations ormisinterpretations

Venuti (2012) observes that literal translation can also be used as a tool for critique orcultural resistance By making the source language visible in the target text, thismethod can challenge dominant cultural norms and ideologies that may be embedded

in the original text Venuti calls this approach "foreignization," as it aims to highlightthe foreignness of the source language and culture

However, Nord (1997) cautions that a purely literal translation approach may notalways be effective, as it may not take into account the communicative function of thetext or the target audience's expectations Nord advocates for a functionalist approach

to translation, where the translator considers the communicative purpose of the textand adapts the translation accordingly

Finally, Hatim and Mason (1990) emphasize the importance of discourse analysis inliteral translation, as the translator must take into account the larger context anddiscourse structure of the text to ensure that the translated text is coherent andmeaningful in the target language

In general, literal translation is a translation method that focuses on preserving theform and grammatical structures of the source language as closely as possible Whilethis method can be useful in certain contexts, such as technical or legal translation, itmay not always be appropriate or effective in conveying the communicative function

of the text Discourse analysis and functionalist approaches can help ensure that the

translated text is coherent and meaningful in the target language For instance, "Namđói bụng muốn chết" translates to "Nam is hungry and wants to die."

2.1.3.3 Faithful translation

Faithful translation is a translation method that prioritizes the accurate representation

of the original text's meaning and context in the target language This method isconcerned with conveying the author's intended meaning as closely as possible whileremaining faithful to the original text's form and style Venuti (1995) highlights thatthe aim of faithful translation is to make the translator's presence invisible, so that thereader experiences the text as if it were originally written in the target language

Munday (2008) discusses how style and ideology play a crucial role in faithfultranslation, as the translator must be attentive to the original text's literary devices,cultural references, and ideological nuances Faithful translation, therefore, requiresnot only linguistic competence but also cultural knowledge and sensitivity to context.Bassnett (2014) argues that faithful translation is often associated with literarytranslation, where the goal is to recreate the original work's aesthetic and emotionalimpact in the target language This method requires the translator to be fully engagedwith the source text, and to be able to reproduce its tone, style, and atmosphere in thetarget language

Finally, Schleiermacher's (2012) work emphasizes the importance of the translator'srole in faithful translation He argues that the translator should strive to produce atranslation that is as close to the original as possible, while recognizing that some loss

of meaning is inevitable He also discusses the different methods of translating,emphasizing that faithful translation requires a deep understanding of the source text'scontext and meaning

It is clear that faithful translation is a translation method that prioritizes accuracy,context, and the author's intended meaning It requires the translator to be skilled inboth the source and target languages, cultural knowledge, and an understanding of thetext's literary devices and ideological nuances It is often associated with literarytranslation, where the translator must strive to create a work that captures the original'sstyle, tone, and atmosphere For example, "Thông tư 04/2023/TT-BTC ngày19/01/2023 hướng dẫn quản lý, thu, sử dụng kinh phí tổ chức lễ hội và tài trợ tôn giáo,tài trợ khu di tích, lễ hội" translates to "Circular No 04/2023/TT-BTC, dated January

19, 2023, on guidelines for management, collection, and use of funding for theorganization of festivals and religious donations or grants for relic sites andfestivities."

2.1.3.4 Semantic translation

Semantic translation is a method of translation that emphasizes the importance of theaesthetic value of the original text This method involves an understanding of thecultural context and nuances of the source language, and aims to capture the overallmeaning and tone of the original text, while allowing for some flexibility andcreativity It is often used in literary works, religious writings, and political speeches.According to Nida (1964), semantic translation involves understanding the meaning ofthe source text in terms of its cultural context and its intended effect on the targetaudience This method of translation aims to capture the meaning of the original textwhile also considering the context in which it was written Catford (1965) similarlysuggests that semantic translation involves understanding the cultural differencesbetween the source and target languages and finding the appropriate linguisticequivalents

House (1997) emphasizes the importance of translation quality assessment in theprocess of semantic translation This involves a systematic evaluation of the translation

in terms of its accuracy, coherence, and overall effectiveness in conveying theintended meaning of the original text

Baker (2018) highlights the role of semantic translation in literary translation, wherethe translator must capture the aesthetic value of the original text This can involveusing techniques such as adaptation, transcreation, and free translation to convey theintended meaning and tone of the source text

It it obvious that semantic translation is an important method of translation that aims tocapture the aesthetic value and cultural context of the original text It involves anunderstanding of the nuances of the source language and the intended effect on thetarget audience, as well as an evaluation of the translation's accuracy and effectiveness.This method is particularly useful in literary works, religious writings, and politicalspeeches, where the aesthetic value of the language is of utmost importance Forexample, "Nhà có chó dữ" translates to "There is a fierce dog in the house."

2.1.3.5 Communicative translation

Communicative translation is a translation approach that aims to communicate thecontextual meaning of the original text to the target audience in an acceptable andeasily understandable way This approach emphasizes the importance of the targetaudience and their cultural and linguistic background, as well as the communicativepurpose of the translation According to Hatim and Mason (1997), the translator must

be a skilled communicator who understands the cultural and linguistic nuances of boththe source and target languages, as well as the intended audience of the translation.Nord (1997) further explains that communicative translation should be purposeful,with a clear understanding of the communicative function of the original text and theintended purpose of the translation The translator should consider the intendedfunction of the translation and the cultural context of the target audience in order toproduce an effective translation

Venuti (2000) also highlights the importance of the cultural context in communicativetranslation, stating that the translator should not only translate the words but also thecultural implications and references of the source text This approach requires thetranslator to be culturally sensitive and to have a deep understanding of both the sourceand target cultures

Baker (2018) emphasizes that communicative translation is not only about translatingthe meaning of the text but also about transferring the communicative function of thetext to the target audience The translator should be able to adapt the translation to thetarget audience, taking into consideration their language, culture, and social context.Snell-Hornby (2006) argues that communicative translation is a paradigm shift intranslation studies, as it prioritizes the communication process and the role of thetranslator as a mediator between cultures This approach emphasizes the importance ofthe target audience and their needs, as well as the cultural and social context of thetranslation

In conclusion, communicative translation is a purposeful and culturally sensitiveapproach that aims to communicate the contextual meaning of the original text to thetarget audience The translator should consider the communicative purpose, culturalcontext, and linguistic nuances of both the source and target languages, as well as theintended audience of the translation

2.1.3.6 Adaptation

Adaptation is a translation method that focuses on transforming cultural components inthe source language into their cultural equivalents in the target language, even if itrequires the translator to rewrite the material This method is often used in plays andpoems, where the cultural context is essential for understanding the work Thetranslator must not only understand the text but also the culture that produced it andthe one in which it will be read

Lefevere (1992) argues that adaptation involves rewriting the text to make it fit betterinto the target culture, which can involve changing names, places, and customs Thisprocess requires the translator to use their creativity and imagination, as they must findcultural equivalents in the target language that convey the same meaning and impact asthe original Robinson (2017) notes that adaptation is a difficult task that requires adeep understanding of the source language, culture, and literature

Venuti (1998) highlights that adaptation can be controversial, as it can result in a loss

of the original cultural context and an imposition of the target culture on the text.However, O'Sullivan (2013) argues that adaptation can also be a way of celebratingcultural diversity and creating new cultural meanings Bassnett and Lefevere (1998)note that adaptation is often a political act, as it can challenge dominant cultural normsand create new cultural identities

It can be concluded that adaptation is a translation method that requires the translator

to transform cultural components in the source language into their cultural equivalents

in the target language, even if it means rewriting the material This method is oftenused in plays and poems and requires the translator to have a deep understanding ofboth the source and target cultures While adaptation can be controversial, it can also

be a way of celebrating cultural diversity and creating new cultural meanings Forexample, the Vietnamese poem: "Vân xem trang trọng khác vời, Khuôn trăng đầy đặn,nét ngài nở nang Hoa cười ngọc thốt đoan trang, Mây thua nước tóc, tuyết nhườngmàu da." translates to: "Thuy Van looks pretty calm Full moon with a ma'am body,With a jadelike melody, With snow white skin and curly cloud hair "

2.1.3.7 Free translation

Free translation, also known as loose translation, is a method that focuses on

and style of the text This method of translation is particularly useful when translatingpoetry or literature, where a rigid adherence to the form and structure of the originaltext can hinder the flow of the translated work.

According to Nida and Taber (2014), free translation aims to recreate the message ofthe original text while allowing the translator to use their own creative skills to expressthe meaning in a way that is suitable for the target audience The method also providesmore room for flexibility and creativity compared to literal translation

Pym (2010) argues that free translation can be used to convey cultural differences andcontext between the source and target languages He notes that this method allows thetranslator to adapt the text to suit the target language and audience, while maintainingthe overall meaning of the original text

Schulte and Biguenet (2017) emphasize that free translation is not just aboutconveying the message of the original text, but also about reproducing the tone, voice,and mood of the original text in the translated work This method can be particularlyuseful when translating literary works, where the style and tone of the original textplay a crucial role in conveying the author's intent and meaning

Overall, free translation is a valuable translation method that allows for greatercreativity and flexibility in reproducing the meaning and style of the original text.However, it requires a skilled translator who can effectively convey the message andtone of the original text in a way that is suitable for the target audience For example,

"Tình huống này mang lại lợi ích cho cả hai" translates to "A win-win situation."

2.1.3.8 Idiomatic translation

Idiomatic translation is a method of translation that is centered on the use of idiomaticexpressions and colloquialisms from the target language in order to convey themeaning of the original text This method is used when the translator wants to conveythe message of the source text in a way that is natural and appropriate to the targetaudience's cultural context It is particularly useful in translating humorous texts, puns,and culturallyspecific references that cannot be easily understood in the targetlanguage

According to Nida and Taber (2014), idiomatic translation is a complex process thatrequires a deep understanding of both the source and target languages and cultures.The translator must be familiar with the idiomatic expressions and colloquialisms of

the target language, and must also be able to recognize the cultural references andnuances of the source text In order to achieve a successful idiomatic translation, thetranslator must be able to strike a balance between conveying the original message ofthe source text and adapting it to the target language and cultural context.

Munday (2016) argues that idiomatic translation can be seen as a form of culturaltranslation, in which the translator seeks to convey the cultural meaning andsignificance of the source text to the target audience This requires the translator to beaware of the social and cultural context of both the source and target languages, and to

be able to navigate the cultural differences between them

Venuti (2012) emphasizes the importance of linguistic creativity in idiomatictranslation He argues that the translator must be able to recreate the style and tone ofthe original text in a way that is appropriate to the target audience This may requirethe translator to take creative liberties with the language in order to capture the essence

of the original text

It is clear that idiomatic translation is a complex and nuanced method of translationthat requires a deep understanding of both the source and target languages and cultures

It is particularly useful in translating humorous texts, puns, and culturally-specificreferences To achieve a successful idiomatic translation, the translator must be able tostrike a balance between conveying the original message of the source text andadapting it to the target language and cultural context, while also being creative withthe language As an example, the Vietnamese idiom "Cha nào con nấy" is commonlyused to express the idea that children inherit their traits and behaviors from theirparents In English, a similar idea is conveyed by the idiom "like father, like son,"which is a commonly used idiomatic translation of the Vietnamese expression

2.1.4 The important of translation in modern world

In the modern world, the need for translation has become more important than ever due

to the rise of globalization, multiculturalism, and the use of the internet as a mediumfor communication As technology continues to advance and bring the world closertogether, the ability to communicate effectively across different languages and cultureshas become a necessity This is especially true in academic and professional fieldswhere cross-cultural communication is essential

In his book "Found in Translation: How Language Shapes Our Lives and Transformsthe World," author Nataly Kelly discusses the importance of translation in today'sworld According to Kelly, translation is not just about converting words from onelanguage to another; it is also about bridging cultural gaps and creating understandingbetween people from different backgrounds He further argues that "translation has thepower to shape the world, breaking down barriers and building bridges ofunderstanding." Similarly, in her book "Translation and Globalization," authorMichaela Wolf emphasizes the importance of translation as a tool for cross-culturalcommunication and understanding She argues that "translation is the key to the globalcirculation of ideas and cultural practices." In the context of the research intoVietnamese-English translation errors committed by English-majored postgraduatestudents, accurate translation is essential for effective communication and for buildingbridges of understanding between Vietnamese and English-speaking communities.

In the book "Translation and Interpreting in the 21st Century: Trends andPerspectives," authors Martina Behr and Santiago Gamero provide insights into therole of translation in today's world They highlight the increasing demand for high-quality translations in fields such as business, law, medicine, and academia They alsonote that "translation is essential for enabling international communication,intercultural exchange, and crossborder trade and cooperation."

The need for accurate and effective translation is crucial in today's globalized world,especially in academic and professional fields where cross-cultural communication isessential The above-cited books provide valuable insights into the importance oftranslation and how it can shape the world and transform cross-cultural communication.Accurate translation is particularly important in the context of the research intoVietnamese-English translation errors committed by English-majored postgraduatestudents, as it can help bridge the cultural gap and build understanding betweenVietnamese and English-speaking communities

2.1.5 Qualities for a good translation

In today's globalized world, the production of high-quality translations is a criticalaspect of facilitating communication and cultural exchange Achieving quality intranslation can be challenging, especially when working between vastly differentlanguages and cultures like Vietnamese and English Several books provide insights

into the importance of various factors that contribute to producing accurate andculturally appropriate translations in Vietnamese-English These factors includelinguistic proficiency, cultural awareness, and understanding of both the source andtarget languages.

Foundations of translation by Baker and Malmkjær (2013) emphasize the importance

of accuracy and readability in producing a good translation According to the authors,

a good translation should accurately convey the meaning of the source text in thetarget language To achieve this, the translator must have a thorough understanding ofthe linguistic and stylistic conventions of both languages to produce a coherent andclear translation

Hatim and Munday (2004) in Translation: An Advanced Resource Book highlight thesignificance of understanding the source text and the target culture The authors statethat quality in translation is determined by the degree to which the translated textconveys the intended meaning of the source text in the target language Achieving thisrequires the translator to have a deep understanding of the cultural nuances and idiomsunique to both Vietnamese and English

The Routledge Handbook of Translation and Culture edited by Harding and CarbonellCortés (2018) states that cultural appropriateness is also a crucial aspect of translationquality The translator must possess not only linguistic proficiency but also culturalawareness and sensitivity, as cultural differences can greatly impact the interpretationand reception of a text In the case of Vietnamese-English translation, the significantdifferences between the two languages and cultures, such as differences in writingsystems, tone, and politeness levels, must be taken into account

Quality Management in Translation by Pym (2013) emphasizes the proactive approachrequired in managing translation quality The book highlights that quality management

in translation involves a continuous cycle of quality control, quality assurance, andquality improvement This approach requires the translator to take a proactive stancethat begins at the very start of the translation process

Toury's (2018) book Translation Quality underscores the need for a balance betweenfaithfulness to the original text and readability in the target language The translatormust ensure that the translated text conveys the intended meaning of the source text

while also taking into account the linguistic and cultural conventions of the targetlanguage.

Finally, Translation Quality Assessment: An Argumentation-Centred Approach byWagner (2014) discusses the process of assessing translation quality The bookemphasizes the importance of an argumentation-centred approach to translation qualityassessment, which involves evaluating the translation based on its argumentativestructure and coherence This approach can help ensure that the translated text is notonly accurate but also well-structured and coherent

In conclusion, the process of achieving high-quality translations in English requires a combination of linguistic proficiency, cultural awareness, and adeep understanding of both the source and target languages The translator must strive

Vietnamese-to produce a translation that accurately conveys the meaning of the source text whilealso being readable and culturally appropriate in the target language Achieving high-quality translations requires a proactive approach that begins at the start of thetranslation process and involves continuous quality control, assurance, andimprovement These books provide valuable insights into the critical aspects ofproducing high-quality translations in Vietnamese-English, which are crucial infacilitating effective communication and cultural exchange

2.2 Factors affecting translation

Earlier studies not only revealed the numerous types of errors that occur in translationbut also offered an understanding of the factors accountable for these mistakes made

Lotman (as quoted in Bassnett 1992:14) also emphasizes that "no language can existunless it is embedded in the framework of culture, and no culture can survive withoutthe structure of natural language at its core." Similarly, Nida (1993) argues that it isnearly impossible to understand a text without considering its cultural context, giventhe significance of language within a culture and the impact of culture on the meanings

of words and idioms

According to Dongfeng Wong and Dan Shen (1999), while different civilizations sharesimilar material environments, they have developed their own unique worldviews.Although each language has words to describe the material reality, such as sun, river,rain, mountain, and parent, the diverse development of civilizations has given rise toculturally-specific phrases that are rich in connotations for their speakers As a result,the same thing may be imagined or represented with several cultural "colors" or

"flavors," reflecting the expression of concepts with unique cultural identities Forinstance, the Milky Way is referred to as "the light white strip of stars and clouds ofgas visible throughout the night sky" in Western culture, whereas it is known as yinhe(silver river) in Chinese culture Although both expressions refer to the same celestialobject, their different connotations reflect the unique cultural identities of theirrespective speakers Similarly, when Westerners say "God bless you" to pray foranother person's good fortune or happiness, older Chinese people often say "Pusabaoyou" (Buddha bless) Various cultures use different modes of communication toconvey the same concept, highlighting the importance of considering cultural context

in the translation process

Nguyen Thi Thien (2011) highlights the challenges that arise when translating betweenVietnamese and English due to the presence of cultural terminology that is specific toeach language The difficulty in translating cultural terms is rooted in the fundamentaldifferences between the cultures of Western and Eastern societies, as well as theunique customs and practices of different regions within a country For instance,Vietnamese culture has been shaped by various factors such as a tropical monsoonclimate, challenging geographical conditions, and a long history of rice cultivation As

a result, there are many Vietnamese terms that are closely associated with riceprocessing and production, such as gieo mạ, làm cỏ, gầu giai, gầu sòng, bón thúc, bónlót đòng, xay, giã, giần, sàng, thúng, mủng, nong, nia, sọt, gạo tẻ, nếp cẩm, tám xoan,

tấm, cám, trấu, bánh đa, bánh đúc, bánh chưng, bánh dầy, bánh giò, bánh khúc, andbánh cốm Similarly, there are unique terminologies associated with marriageprocedures, beliefs, and religions in Vietnamese culture, such as dạm ngõ, ăn hỏi,thách cưới, and nộp cheo, as well as đình, chùa, miếu, am, phủ, điện thờ, bàn thờ, ngai,bài vị, mẫu thoải, and chúa thượng ngàn, which may be unfamiliar or exotic to non-Vietnamese speakers.

Therefore, translators must be mindful of the cultural context and nuances of eachlanguage to ensure accurate and effective communication A lack of understanding ofcultural references and idiomatic expressions may result in misunderstandings ormisinterpretations, which can be detrimental to the overall meaning of the text Inaddition to linguistic and cultural knowledge, translators must also possess stronganalytical and critical thinking skills to comprehend complex texts and convey theirmeaning accurately They must be able to identify and interpret the underlying themes,tone, and intent of the original text and convey them in a way that is appropriate forthe target audience

Furthermore, translators must be aware of the potential biases and assumptions thatthey may bring to the translation process They must strive to remain objective andneutral, avoiding any personal beliefs or opinions that may influence the translation.This requires a high degree of professionalism and ethical conduct, as translators areresponsible for conveying the meaning of the text accurately and truthfully

In conclusion, translation is a complex process that involves more than just a linguisticconversion of text Culture plays a critical role in the translation process, andtranslators must be aware of the nuances and cultural references in both the source andtarget languages to ensure accurate and effective communication Translators mustalso possess strong analytical and critical thinking skills, remain objective and neutral,and adhere to ethical and professional standards By doing so, they can convey themeaning of the text accurately and effectively to the target audience, bridging the gapbetween languages and cultures

2.2.2 First language factors

When students attempt to translate from their mother language to a target language,they often encounter difficulties due to the influence of their first language, which theyhave been using for a long time This is because a child's mother tongue is the

language they first learn to communicate with their parents and close relatives, and itbecomes deeply ingrained in their minds as the primary means of communication As aresult, when they try to learn a new language, they inevitably carry over thegrammatical patterns and vocabulary of their mother tongue, which may notnecessarily align with the rules and conventions of the target language.

The differences in phonology and grammar between the two languages can result inerrors in the use of grammatical patterns and in the selection of inappropriatevocabulary For instance, many languages have different rules for word order, verbtenses, and pluralization, which can be challenging for learners to grasp Additionally,each language has its own set of classes and subclasses, which makes it difficult totranslate a noun from one language to another in all cases For example, according to

Le Phuong Lan (2006), English has a rigid grammar structure compared to otherlanguages, while Vietnamese has more flexible structures Additionally, Vietnamesedoes not always use articles, and its norms are less apparent than those of English.Also, some English vocabulary is unique and may have different meanings in variouslanguages For instance, the word "problem" can be translated to "vấn đề, khó khăn,vấn nạn" depending on the context

Furthermore, Richards (1974:124) suggests that mistakes in language acquisition mayresult from two factors: the influence of the learners' mother tongue and the generalfeatures of rule learning Mistakes caused by the general properties of rule acquisitionare referred to as intralanguage errors, while mistakes arising from the learners' mothertongue influence are known as interlanguage errors Intralanguage errors occur whenlearners try to apply a rule from their native language to the target language, even if itdoes not apply On the other hand, interlanguage errors occur when learners use a rule

or structure that exists in neither their native language nor the target language Theseerrors can be particularly challenging to overcome, as learners may not even realizethey are making them

2.2.3 Personal competence factors

It is widely acknowledged that a skilled translator must possess a strong command ofthe source language (SL) as well as the target language (TL), in addition to havingspecialized knowledge in a particular subject area When interpreting the SL, atranslator must have a deep understanding of the text's conceptual, associative, and

thematic implications in order to produce an accurate and meaningful translation Atranslator who lacks adequate knowledge of the original language and culture (SC)may inadvertently produce a flawed translation, as has been the case in severalinstances In order to convey the intended meaning of the source text in the TL, thetranslator must be able to identify the "closest natural equivalent" of the SL message(Nida, 1966, p.12) This requires not only a strong understanding of both the TL andthe target culture (TC), but also the ability to write in a variety of styles that areappropriate for both SC and TC A translator who is not skilled in writing in the TL isunlikely to produce a highquality translation.

The American Translators Association recommends that translators specialize in one

or more areas of expertise, such as aeronautics, accountancy, international law,medicine, or agronomy, in order to provide high-quality translations (Nida, 1993,p.135) This is particularly important when translating technical literature, as thetranslator must have a deep understanding of the concepts in the text to produce anaccurate translation Literature, in particular, requires a high level of expertise andknowledge A literary translator must be well-versed in a wide range of topics and anexpert in one or more professions When translating prose fiction and drama, thetranslator must employ distinct techniques for each, as the former is intended to beread and the latter is meant to be performed The translator must also be familiar withthe norms of different styles of writing and the operation of various types of rhetoric.Expertise is a critical component of translation, as only experienced translators caneffectively navigate the nuances of SL interpretation and TL depiction in a natural andaccurate manner Translation expertise is often considered a necessary qualification fortranslation assignments, as it allows for the successful resolution of a range oftranslation challenges

2.3 Classification of common errors

Translation is the process of conveying a message from one language to another It is acomplex task that requires not only linguistic proficiency but also a deepunderstanding of cultural, social, and historical contexts However, even with the bestefforts, translators are prone to making mistakes that can affect the quality andaccuracy of the translation Here are some different classifications of translation errorsproposed by researchers, including Nida, Nord, Albir, Koller, Seguinot, and Na Pham

According to Nida (1946), translation errors can arise from a range of factors,including linguistic, cultural, and communicative differences between the source andtarget languages One category of translation errors that Nida highlights is "semantic"errors, which occur when the meaning of the source text is not accurately conveyed inthe target language This can be due to differences in the semantic structures of the twolanguages, cultural differences between the source and target languages, or simplyerrors in interpretation by the translator Semantic errors can be particularlyproblematic because they can lead to misunderstandings or inaccuracies in thetranslation, potentially causing confusion or offense to the target audience Anothercategory of translation errors identified by Nida is "idiomatic" errors These occurwhen the translator fails to accurately capture the meaning of idiomatic expressions orfigures of speech in the source language Idiomatic expressions can be difficult totranslate, as they often rely on cultural or historical references that may not beimmediately familiar to the target audience Inaccuracies in translating idiomaticexpressions can result in a loss of meaning or context, leading to confusion ormisunderstanding Nida also notes the possibility of "collocational" errors, whichoccur when the translator fails to accurately capture the natural collocation of words orphrases in the source language Collocations refer to the natural grouping of words in alanguage, and can be difficult to capture in translation, particularly when dealing withidiomatic expressions or highly specialized language Collocational errors can lead to aloss of nuance or accuracy in the translation, potentially affecting the overall meaningand impact of the target text.

Finally, Nida (1946) highlights the potential for "stylistic" errors in translation Thesecan occur when the translator fails to accurately capture the style or tone of the sourcetext, resulting in a target text that feels stilted or awkward Stylistic errors can beparticularly problematic in creative works, such as literature or poetry, where the styleand tone of the original text are integral to its meaning and impact In conclusion,Nida's work highlights the complexity and challenges of the translation process, andthe potential for a variety of errors to occur during the translation process Byunderstanding the various categories of translation errors, translators can developstrategies to minimize their occurrence and ensure that the target text accuratelyconveys the meaning, context, and impact of the source text

Nord (1992) identifies four basic challenges that translators face: pragmatics, culture,language, and text specificity Pragmatic challenges arise from differences in thecommunicative functions of language in different cultures Culture refers todifferences in values, beliefs, and practices that affect the meaning and interpretation

of language Language challenges can result from differences in the lexicon, sentencestructure, and collocational elements between languages Text-specificity challengesrefer to the complexity and ambiguity of the source text Errors can occur whentranslators fail to address these challenges adequately

Pragmatic challenges arise from differences in the communicative functions oflanguage in different cultures Pragmatics is concerned with the way language is used

in context and how meaning is conveyed through speech acts (Verschueren, 1999) Indifferent cultures, the same speech act may have different meanings, which can lead tomisunderstandings and errors in translation For example, in English, the phrase "Howare you?" is often used as a greeting, but in some cultures, it may be consideredintrusive or impolite (Koester, 2010) Failure to understand these cultural differencescan lead to errors in translation

Culture refers to differences in values, beliefs, and practices that affect the meaningand interpretation of language Different cultures have different ways of expressingideas and concepts, which can be difficult to translate accurately Cultural differencescan also affect the interpretation of idioms and metaphors, which can be particularlychallenging for translators (Sperber & Wilson, 1995) For example, the idiom "it'sraining cats and dogs" is commonly used in English to describe heavy rain, but theliteral translation of this phrase may be meaningless in other languages Failure tounderstand cultural differences can lead to errors in translation

Language challenges can result from differences in the lexicon, sentence structure, andcollocational elements between languages A lexicon refers to the vocabulary of alanguage, and differences in the lexicon between languages can make translationchallenging (Baker, 1992) For example, the English word "love" has no directequivalent in some languages, which can make it difficult to translate accurately.Sentence structure and collocational elements can also be challenging for translators.For example, in English, adjectives are generally placed before the noun they modify,

but in some languages, adjectives come after the noun (Crystal, 1997) Failure tounderstand these language differences can lead to errors in translation.

Text-specificity challenges refer to the complexity and ambiguity of the source text.Some texts are more difficult to translate than others due to their complexity andambiguity For example, technical texts, legal documents, and literary works can beparticularly challenging for translators (Munday, 2001) These texts may containspecialized vocabulary, complex sentence structures, and cultural references that can

be difficult to translate accurately Failure to understand the text-specificity challengescan lead to errors in translation

Albir (1995) categorizes errors into three types: comprehension errors, expressionerrors, and transmission errors Completion errors arise from misunderstanding thesource text Expression errors include mistakes in spelling, grammar, lexical items,text, and style Transmission errors result from not fulfilling the primary andsupplemental functions of the original text

Koller (1979) suggests that translation errors can be viewed as differences between thesource and target texts or as the target text not being good enough Hatim and Mason(1997) describe them as mismatches in multiple meanings between the source andtarget texts and violations of the target-language system

Seguinot (1990) proposes that translation errors can be caused by six factors that don'tfit together: the purpose of the translation, the coherence of the text, the type or form

of the text, linguistic conventions, cultural and situation-specific conventions andconditions, and the language system

Skopos-based theory defines translation errors as failures to carry out the instructionsimplied in the translation brief and as unacceptable solutions to translation challenges(Nord, 2009)

Na Pham (2015) categorizes translation errors into three main types: comprehensionerrors, linguistic errors, and translation errors Comprehension errors result frommisunderstanding the original text; linguistic errors include grammatical and othermistakes; and translation errors involve problems with pragmatics, coherence andcohesion, and transfer For example, the mistranslation of idioms and expressions canresult in translation errors