Handbook of flavour ingredients

Handbook of flavour ingredients

Flavor

G E O R G E A B U R D O C K , P H D Flavor

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No claim to original U.S Government works International Standard Book Number 0-8493-3034-3 Library of Congress Card Number 2004051965 Printed in the United States of America 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0

Printed on acid-free paper

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Burdock, George A.

[Handbook of flavor ingredients]

Fenaroli’s handbook of flavor ingredients.—5th ed / George A Burdock.

p cm.

Ref ed of: Fenaroli’s handbook of flavor ingredients / George A Burdock 4th ed c2002.

Includes bibliographical references and index.

ISBN 0-8493-3034-3 (alk paper)

1 Flavoring essences—Handbooks, manuals, etc I Title: Handbook of flavor ingredients II Fenaroli, Giovanni, Prof Dr Handbook of flavor ingredients III Title.

TP418.B86 2004

Dedicated to Ioana, Meredith and Mike

Since publication of the first edition of Fenaroli’s Handbook of Flavor Ingredients in

1971, Fenaroli’s has remained the standard reference for flavor ingredients throughout theworld Each subsequent edition has listed more substances, including those conferred foodadditive status, substances generally recognized as safe (GRAS) by qualified scientists(including the Flavor and Extract Manufacturers’ Association [FEMA] Expert Panel) andthose substances having undergone GRAS Notification with the Food and Drug Administra-tion (FDA) The fourth edition added 200+ entries and represented a total reorganization andupdating of the text, consistent with new data and regulations This edition is likewiseexpanded with over 100 new entries, including many botanicals and other natural substances.The addition of botanicals is a response to an expanded readership with an interest in dietarysupplements, in which a number of flavoring botanicals serve a dual role

GRAS, Dietary Supplements and Other Terms of Art, Science and Regulation

The reader is cautioned that GRAS status and approval for use as a dietary supplement1

should not be confused, for they are not the same and not even related.2 Both the statutoryand regulatory language is very clear in making the distinction between these two entities.Even the standard for determining safety of GRAS vs. dietary supplements is different (GRASsubstances are held to a higher standard of safety).3 For the same reasons, dietary supplementsare not GRAS (nor are food additives, for that matter) and cannot be added to food for thepurpose of providing a dietary supplement.4

The reader should also note that a substance is GRAS for no other purpose and at noother amount (i.e., level of use) than for which it was approved The position of FDA wasre-asserted with the following statement:

It has been too often assumed that the GRAS substance may be used in any food, at any level for any purpose As a result, the uses of some GRAS food ingredients have prolif- erated to the point where the GRAS status was brought into serious question (Federal Register39:34194-34195, 1974.)

There are, of course, exceptions to all of the preceding, but each must be evaluatedaccording to its own merits; and for these judgments, the opinion of experts in toxicologyand regulations should be sought Frequently asked questions regarding the meaning of “safe,”

“common knowledge,” “notified substance,” etc., are addressed in 62 Fed Reg. 18937 (April

17, 1997) or log on to www.burdockgroup.com

1 More appropriately this means lack of objection by FDA for use as a dietary supplement ingredient.

2 For a definition of GRAS, see the definition of “food additive” in section 201(s) of the Federal Food Drug and Cosmetic Act as Amended For a definition of a dietary supplement, see section 201(ff) of the Act.

3 The reader is referred to a discussion of this distinction (Burdock, G.A., 2000) Dietary supplements and lessons

to be learned from GRAS, Regulatory Toxicology and Pharmacology31:68-76) Copies are also available upon request at www.burdockgroup.com.

4 A “nutrient supplement” may be added to food, but this is also distinct from a dietary supplement See 21 CFR

§170.3(o)(20) for a definition.

Most, but not all, of the ingredients cited in this book are either foods or products thereof,generally recognized as safe (GRAS) or have food additive status Also, as noted above, thereare exceptions to every rule and this is no less true in determinations of safety Therefore,while there is an obligation on the original approving party to ensure safety-in-use at thetime of approval, there is no assurance that all scientific data continue to support the originaldetermination of safety For example, safrole, coumarin and cinnamyl anthranilate, all oncecommonly used and presumed safe, are now prohibited from addition to food by FDA (21Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) §189) Likewise, FEMA has withdrawn GRAS statusfor nine substances, including alknet root extract (FEMA No 2016), 2-methyl-5-vinylpyra-zine (FEMA No 3211), musk ambrette (FEMA No 2758) and o-vinylanisole (FEMA No.3248) The bottom line is that the user of the substance is responsible for ensuring its safeuse Therefore, the reader is urged to make a determination of safety based on contempora-neous data, not simply historical information that may be outdated

Sources and Information

It was not possible in all cases to obtain details regarding specifications, approved uses,etc., so otherwise available information was used For example, while FEMA publishes uselevels and categories of use for GRAS substances (in the journal Food Technology), FEMAhas not made equally available information such as complete specifications or identification(e.g., CAS numbers) for the substances upon which it has conferred GRAS status In allcases, where critical information was not available, a good faith effort was made to obtaininformation from the public venue with the assumption these data represent the articles incommerce Sources of information include, but are not limited to the following:

Anonymous (1996) Inactive Ingredient Guide Food and Drug Administration, Centerfor Drug Evaluation and Research, Office of Management Division of Drug Infor-mation Resources, Rockville, MD

Anonymous (1999) Volatile Compounds in Food Bolens Aroma Chemical tion Service, The Netherlands

Informa-Anonymous (2000) Natural Sources of Flavourings Report No 1. Council of Europe,Strasbourg

Anonymous (2000) Chemically-Defined Flavouring Substances. Council of Europe,Strasbourg

Anonymous (2000) Code of Federal Regulations Title 21 FDA United States ernment Printing Office, Washington, DC

Gov-Arctander, S (1960) Perfume and Flavor Materials of Natural Origin Arctander,Publisher, Elizabeth, NJ

Arctander, S (1994) Perfume and Flavor Chemicals (Aroma Chemicals) AlluredPublishing, Carol Stream, IL

Ashurst, P.R (ed.) (1999) Food Flavorings (3rd ed.) Aspen Publishers, Gaithersburg,MD

Bauer, K et al (1997) Common Fragrance and Flavor Materials (3rd ed.) VCH, New York

Wiley-Budvari, S et al (eds.) (2000) Merck Index (12th ed.) Chapman & Hall/CRCnetBase,Boca Raton, FL

Burdock, G.A (1997) Encyclopedia of Food and Color Additives CRC Press, BocaRaton, FL.

Burdock, G.A (2000) Dietary supplements and lessons to be learned from GRAS

Regulatory Toxicology and Pharmacology31:68-76

Burnham, T (ed.) (1999) Facts and Comparisons The Review of Natural Products.

Facts and Comparisons, Wolters Kluwer Company, St Louis, MO

Clydesdale, F (1997) Food Additives: Toxicology, Regulation and Properties CRCPress, Boca Raton, FL

Committee on Food Chemical Codex (1996) Food Chemicals Codex National emy of Sciences National Academy Press, Washington, D.C

Acad-DeRovira, D.A (1999) The Dictionary of Flavors Food & Nutrition Press, Trumbull,CT

Fazzalari, F.A (ed.) (1978) Compilation of Odor and Taste Threshold Values Data.

American Society for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia

Foster, S (ed.) (1992) Herbs of Commerce (1992) American Herbal Products ciation, Austin, TX

Asso-Lucas, C.D et al (1999) Flavor and Extract Manufacturers’ Association of the United States 1995 Poundage and Technical Effects Update Survey, Washington, DC.Mosciano, G (1991) Organoleptic characteristics of flavor materials Perfumer and Flavorist21(4):51-55; (5):49-54; (6):49-52

Mosciano, G et al (1989) Organoleptic characteristics of flavor materials Perfumer and Flavorist14(6):47-55

Mosciano, G et al (1990) Organoleptic characteristics of flavor materials Perfumer and Flavorist15(1):19-22; (2):69-73;(3):51-54; (4):59-61; (5):47-49; (6):35-38.Mosciano, G et al (1991) Organoleptic characteristics of flavor materials Perfumer and Flavorist16(1):31-33; (2):49-54; (3):79-81; (4):45-47; (5):71-73; (6):43-46.Mosciano, G et al (1992) Organoleptic characteristics of flavor materials Perfumer and Flavorist17(1):41-44; (2):33-35; (3):57-59; (4):33-36; (5):127-129; (6):41-43.Mosciano, G et al (1993) Organoleptic characteristics of flavor materials Perfumer and Flavorist18 (1):43-45; (2):38-41; (3):53-55; (4):51-53; (5):39-41; (6):33-35.Mosciano, G et al (1994) Organoleptic characteristics of flavor materials Perfumer and Flavorist19(1):27-29; (2):55-57; (3):51-53; (4):45-47; (5):79-81; (6):53-55.Mosciano, G et al (1995) Organoleptic characteristics of flavor materials Perfumer and Flavorist20(1):31-33; (2):37-40; (3):63-65; (4):23-26; (5):89-92; (6):49-51.Mosciano, G et al (1996) Organoleptic characteristics of flavor materials Perfumer and Flavorist21(1):33-35;(2):47-49; (3):51-54

Mosciano, G et al (2000) Organoleptic characteristics of flavor materials Perfumer and Flavorist25(5):72-78; (6):26-31

Mosciano, G et al (2001) Organoleptic characteristics of flavor materials Perfumer and Flavorist26(1):52-53; (2):40-43

Newberne, P et al (1999) Recent progress in the consideration of flavoring ingredientsunder the food additives amendment 18 GRAS substances Food Technology

Smith, R.L et al (1996) Recent progress in the consideration of flavoring ingredientsunder the food additives amendment 17 GRAS substances Food Technology

A diligent effort was made to obtain accurate information and to proof that informationprior to publication; however, the author and publisher make or offer no warranties as to therepresentations provided herein

In contemplation of the next edition, I encourage those with suggestions for corrections,revisions or additions to contact me at the following address:

George A Burdock, Ph.D., D.A.B.T

780 US Highway 1 – Suite 300Vero Beach, Florida 32962www.burdockgroup.com

in scientific journals and has published two books, the previous two editions of Fenaroli’s Handbook of Flavor Ingredients and the Encyclopedia of Food and Color Additives. He iscoauthor of the chapter “Food Toxicology” in the current and previous edition of Casarettand Doull’s textbook Toxicology He is also author of the chapter “Flavor Regulation” in thesecond edition of Nutritional Toxicology in the Target Organ Toxicology Series His experi-ence includes director of scientific affairs for the Flavor and Extract Manufacturers’ Asso-ciation and manager of product safety for the Shulton Division of American Cyanamid He

is also experienced in laboratory studies, having been a study director and section manager

at Hazleton Laboratories (now Covance) Dr Burdock is a diplomate of the American Board

of Toxicology and fellow of the American College of Nutrition; and is a member of theAmerican Chemical Society, the International Society for Regulatory Toxicology and Phar-macology, the Society of Toxicology (associate member), the American College of Toxicol-ogy and the Institute of Food Technologists

Introduction

Glossary

Brief Explanation of a Synthetic Flavor

Brief Explanation of a Natural Flavor

Definition of a Flavor

As might be expected, the definition of a flavor will vary according to the source TheU.S Food and Drug Administration (FDA) defines flavoring agents and adjuvants as “sub-

stances added to impart or help impart a taste or aroma in food” (21 CFR §170.3(o)(12))

FDA identifies flavor enhancers as “substances added to supplement, enhance, or modify the

original taste and/or aroma of a food, without imparting a characteristic taste or aroma of its

own”5 (21 CFR §170.3(o)(11)) To forestall the next question, what constitutes a natural flavor

is described in 21 CFR §101.22(a)(3) as follows:

The term natural flavor or natural flavoring means the essential oil, oleoresin, essence or extractive, protein hydrolysate, distillate, or any product of roasting, heating or enzymol- ysis, which contains the flavoring constituents derived from a spice, fruit or fruit juice, vegetable or vegetable juice, edible yeast, herb, bark, bud, root, leaf or similar plant material, meat, seafood, poultry, eggs, dairy products, or fermentation products thereof, whose significant function in food is flavoring rather than nutritional Natural flavors include the natural essence or extractives obtained from plants listed in §§182.10, 182.20, 182.40, and 182.50 and part 184 of this chapter, and the substances listed in §172.510 of this chapter.

This broad definition also embraces thermally processed flavors and smoke flavors andflavors such as “natural vanillin” which requires naturally occurring precursors, such as ferulic

acid to enzymatic/fermentive processes to make vanillin, that are by this definition, natural

Artificial flavors are as described in 21 CFR §101.22 (a)(1):

The term artificial flavor or artificial flavoring means any substance, the function of which

is to impart flavor, which is not derived from a spice, fruit or fruit juice, vegetable or vegetable juice, edible yeast, herb, bark, bud, root, leaf or similar plant material, meat, fish, poultry, eggs, dairy products, or fermentation products thereof Artificial flavor includes the substances listed in §§172.515(b) and 182.60 of this chapter except where these are derived from natural sources

This distinction between artificial and natural serves as a basis for labeling and because

of market pressures, the term natural is preferred for the label over any description that might

include the word artificial Also, the term artificial is separate and distinct from the term

imitation (See 21 CFR §101.3)

The term nature identical once used widely to designate a substance, although present innature, may also be produced synthetically For example, natural benzaldehyde is produced

from the pits of peaches, but this process has a rather low yield and produces waste material

(cyanide) for which disposal is costly On the other hand, production of benzaldehyde from

chemical feedstock is much more economical and is putatively the same as that produced

from nature; it is therefore nature identical The use of this term is an artifact of regulation

because the approval process in some European countries was much easier for those substances

5 Flavor enhancers include such substances as monosodium glutamate (MSG) or inositol with no specific taste of

their own, but an ability to enhance other flavor ingredients Also, substances commonly used as flavors or sweeteners

(such as cinnamon or aspartame), but used at concentrations below their own threshold of perception, may also

enhance the flavor of other ingredients.

with a natural counterpart The term nature identical was never embraced by FDA and has

largely been superseded by the term, chemically defined substance The nature identical

designation is still used by the International Organisation of Flavour Industries (IOFI)

The European Community (EC) Directive 88/3886 addresses “flavouring,” “flavouringsubstance” and even “flavouring preparation” which designates a flavoring resulting from a

process, such as enzymatically developed flavors in cheese In all, the directive extends over

several pages and includes definitions, specifications and provisions for further action on

items, including limits on production methods and nonflavor ingredients in flavors (including

preservatives, solvents and processing aids)

1 This Directive shall apply to ‘flavourings’used or intended for use in or on stuffs to impart odour and or taste, and to source materials used for the production

food-of flavorings

2 For the purposes of this Directive:

(a) ‘flavouring’ means flavouring substances, flavouring preparations, process vourings, smoke flavourings or mixtures thereof;

fla-(b) ‘flavouring substance’ means a defined chemical substance with flavouringproperties which is obtained:

(i) by appropriate physical processes (including distillation and solventextraction) or enzymatic or microbiological processes from material ofvegetable or animal origin either in the raw state or after processing forhuman consumption by traditional food-preparation processes (includingdrying, torrefaction and fermentation)

(ii) by chemical synthesis or isolated by chemical processes and which ischemically identical to a substance naturally present in material of vege-table or animal origin as described in (i)

(iii) by chemical synthesis but which is not chemically identical to a substancenaturally present in material of vegetable or animal origin as described

in (i)(c) ‘flavouring preparation’ means a product, other than the substances defined in(b)(i), whether concentrated or not, with flavouring properties, which isobtained by appropriate physical processes (including distillation and solventextraction) or by enzymatic extraction) or by enzymatic or microbiologicalprocesses from material of vegetable or animal origin, either in the raw state

or after processing for human consumption by traditional food-preparationprocesses (including drying torrefaction and fermentation);

(d) ‘process flavouring’ means a product which is obtained according to goodmanufacturing practices by heating to a temperature not exceeding 180oC for

a period not exceeding 15 minutes a mixture of ingredients, not necessarilythemselves having flavoring properties, of which at least one contains nitrogen(amino) and another is a reducing sugar;

(e) ‘smoke flavouring’ means a smoke extract used in traditional foodstuffs ing processes

smok-3 Flavourings may contain foodstuffs as well as other substances as described[elsewhere]

6 A directive sets out minimum standards and when adopted by the member states may be made more stringent A

regulation is directly applicable to the member states without any need to transpose into national law.

This directive is binding on member states, with the exception that if a member statedetermines that the regulation or regulated substance may constitute a danger to the health

of the citizens or environment of the member state, it may suspend or restrict the use of that

chemical within the borders of the member state

The Council of Europe (CoE) uses a fairly broad definition of flavor:

A flavouring substance is a chemically-defined compound which has flavouring properties.

It is obtained either by isolation from a natural source or by synthesis Flavouring properties are those which are predominantly odour-producing and which may also affect the taste.

Interestingly, the Joint (WHO/FAO) Expert Committee on Food Additives and inants (JECFA), has no definition of what constitutes a flavor, artificial or natural

Contam-Nonregulatory organizations have slightly different views of the term flavor The national Organization of Flavour Industries indicates a flavor “concentrated preparation, with

Inter-or without solvents Inter-or carriers, used to impart flavInter-or, with the exception of only salty, sweet,

or acid tastes It is not intended to be consumed as such.” This definition brings up an

interesting point not addressed by regulations, that is, a flavor is not intended to be consumed

in and by itself; it is always incorporated in a delivery system (at the very least as a flavor

in mineral water or as a sweetened flavor poured over shaved ice) The Society of Flavor

Chemists describes a flavor to be “a substance that may be a single chemical entity or a blend

of chemicals of natural or synthetic origin whose primary purpose is to provide all or part

of the particular effect to any food or other product taken into the mouth.”

As descriptive as various organizations or regulatory agencies might be in their definitions,none is so comprehensive as the following: “Flavor is the sum of those characteristics of any

material taken in the mouth, perceived principally by the senses of taste and smell, and also

the general pain and tactile receptors in the mouth, as received and interpreted by the brain.”7

This definition reminds us that flavor can be an experience as well as a sensation Consider

the pain, bite and heat associated with capsicum (red pepper), piperine (black pepper) and

allylisothiocyanate (horseradish) as part of the “total experience” of eating food This

expe-rience also forms associations needed for future discriminations, both negative and positive

For example, it is possible to make banana-flavored potato chips, but the crunchy texture

would be incongruous with the taste Conversely, we have long enjoyed pineapple-flavored

hard candy, which in reality, tastes nothing like the fruit but has long been accepted as how

a pineapple candy should taste

7 Hall, R.L (1968) Food flavors: benefits and problems Food Technol. 22:1388.

Absolute: A material extracted from a plant that represents a concentrated form of that

material and is extremely similar to the starting material in taste and odor Usually,this term refers to the alcoholic extract of a “concrete” (see below) Absolutes arenot used widely for compounding flavors

Acceptable Daily Intake (ADI): An estimate of the amount of a substance in food or

drinking water expressed on a body-weight basis that can be ingested daily over

a lifetime without appreciable risk (assuming the average adult body weight to be

60 kg) The ADI is given in milligrams per kilogram body weight (mg/kg)

Acidulant: An agent that serves several purposes in modern food processing, in addition

to its major role of rendering foods more palatable and stimulating to the consumer

In flavoring agents, acidulants may intensify certain tastes, blend unrelated tastecharacteristics or mask undesirable aftertastes Acidulants affect only flavor, notaroma; therefore while citric acid may be an acidulant, acetic acid is not

ADI “not limited”: A term that is no longer used by JECFA and has been supplanted

with “ADI not specified.”

ADI “not specified”: A term used by JECFA for a food ingredient of very low toxicity

that, on the basis of the information supplied to JECFA, at historical levels of useand current levels of use conforming to good manufacturing practices, does notconstitute a concern for safety

Antioxidant: An additive to retard oxidation; usually a sterically hindered phenol (see

also, auto-oxidation)

Aroma: The odor or fragrance of a flavor.

Aromatic (chemical) or aroma chemical: Any chemical that has aroma or flavor

prop-erties; not to be confused with the chemist’s definition of a compound containing

a benzene ring structure

Artificial: Similar to imitation It is possible to have a flavor that contains all natural

ingredients, but it must be called artificial because it has no counterpart in nature

See also the regulatory definition (21 CFR §101.3)

Artificial flavor: Any substance, the function of which is to impart flavor to a food that

is not native to that substance See also the regulatory definition (21 CFR §101.22)

Auto-oxidation: A series of spontaneous and degradative reactions that take place in

essential oils when they are exposed to air, light, heat or metallic ions

Balsam: Although most often associated with Peru Balsam, any plant (most often, a tree)

exudate, soluble in most organic solvents and alcohol, but insoluble in water

Baumé (Bé): A scale of specific gravities used in graduated hydrometers The scale is

used to express the sugar concentration of a syrup or other liquid Most commercialcorn syrups are customarily sold on a Baumé (Bé) basis, which is a measure ofthe dry-substance content and specific gravity Baumé determination, however, hasbeen largely superseded by direct determination of refractive index High fructosecorn syrups are sold on a dry substance basis without reference to Baumé

Blender: A material, that when added to a substance, appears to bring various flavor

characteristics together A blender may or may not introduce a flavor of its own

For example, vanilla can act as a blender

Bottom note: The characteristic left when top and middle notes disappear; the residue

when a flavoring evaporates

Brix: A measure of soluble solids (sugars) obtained from the refractive index of a solution.

Bulking: Mixing of one or more lots of the same flavorful material to produce a uniform

product The entire crop of an essential oil may be bulked to assure uniformity

Carrier: The diluent or solvent for a flavor It may be liquid or solid; for example, gum

acacia is the carrier for spray-dried flavors, whereas alcohol and propylene glycolare the carriers for many liquid-based flavors

CAS No.: Chemical Abstracts Service number.

CDER: Center for Drug Evaluation and Review – FDA branch responsible for approval

of drugs and excipients

CFR: Code of Federal Regulations; the official document describing regulations

promul-gated by FDA

Citrus flavors: Flavors made from the oils and juices of the citrus fruits (e.g., orange,

lemon, lime, tangerine, grapefruit, mandarin and bergamont); also, synthetic dients used to simulate these flavors

ingre-Clouding agent: A flavoring adjunct used to create a translucent or opaque appearance

in citrus drinks

CoE: Council of Europe.

CoE chemically defined categories: Chemically defined flavoring substances that are divided into Category A (flavouring substances which may be used as foodstuffs (referred to as List 1 substances in previous designations) and Category B (fla-

vouring substances for which further information is required before the Committee

of Experts is able to offer a firm opinion on their safety-in-use (referred to as List

2 in previous designations) Category B substances may be used provisionally infoodstuffs In general, Category A substances are those for which sufficient datawere available, although a JECFA ADI may not have been established for allchemicals within the category Where there is no ADI, the Committee of Expertshas proposed practical upper levels to be used for beverages foods and/or otherfood items Category B contains substances for which the toxicological data wereinsufficient for a dispositive opinion on safety-in-use However, extant dataallowed for provisional acceptance, provided usage levels do not exceed levelsdesignated, and pending the submission of additional data, an ultimate opinionwill be rendered

CoE natural flavouring categories: Category 1 – Plants, animals and other organisms,

and parts of these or products thereof, normally consumed as food items, herbs orspices in Europe for which it is considered that there should be no restrictions on

use Category 2 – Plants, animals and other organisms, and parts of these or

products thereof, and preparations derived therefrom, not normally consumed asfood items, herbs or spices in Europe, but on the basis of information available,including consumption data, are not considered to constitute a risk to the consumer

Category 3 – Plants, etc., normally consumed in Europe which contain defined

“active principles” or “other chemical components” requiring limits on use levels

Category 4 – Plants, etc., not normally consumed in Europe which contain defined

“active principles” or “other chemical components” requiring limits on use levels

Category 5 – Plants, etc., for which additional toxicological and/or chemical

information is required These could be temporarily acceptable provided limits forthe which contain “active principles” or “other chemical components” were not

exceeded Category 6 – Plants, etc., which are considered unfit for human

con-sumption in any amount

Cold pressing: A process for expressing citrus essential oils by pressure without the use

of heat; a process for pressing or squeezing out the oil from the rind of the fruit

Comminution: The process of grinding or breaking into small fragments.

Compounds: Not to be confused with the chemist’s definition (i.e., two elements

chem-ically combined), but a flavoring mixture (flavor) composed of two or more stances These substances can be natural or synthetic, a chemical or an essentialoil, an extract or an oleoresin or combinations Unlike chemical compounds, whichare of known fixed compositions, flavor compounds are usually proprietary mix-tures Normally, they are finished flavorings that can be added directly to a product

sub-so that no additional flavorings are needed

Concentrated fruit juices: A fruit juice from which the water has been partially removed

by some form of evaporation, such as distillation The juice is usually concentrated

to the strength of 5 to 6 times the single-fold juice The essences are usually addedback to the concentrate before use

Concentrated or folded citrus oils: Essential oils, such as lemon oil, in which part of

the terpene fraction has been removed either by distillation or solvent extraction.The process produces essential oils of greater strength and character, with greateralcohol solubility They also usually show better stability to oxidation

Concrete: A semisolid mixture containing the essential oil and fatty, waxy materials

obtained after extracting the plant tissue, especially flowers, with various solvents

Consumption (annual): From the PAFA database, originating from the NAS survey of

1987 (NAS, 1989) and assuming only 60% of poundage was reported

Consumption (individual): A per capita estimate of intake (Maximum Survey-Derived

Daily Intake or MSDI) based on “disappearance data” from periodic surveysconducted by the National Academy of Sciences under contract to FDA (NRC,1989) The last survey was conducted in 1987 and was based on a voluntaryreporting by manufacturers of the volume of ingredients produced during the surveyyear The assumption is that there is a finite amount of substance available and it

is ingested regardless of source at the retail level The method is easy to use because

it divides the total yearly poundage by the population in the survey year and thenumber of days per year Some considerations are necessary in the use of the surveydata: because (1) not all producers participate, it is generally held that the amountreported is a fraction of the actual volume; and (2) not all persons eat all foodseach day in each category in which the substance may be found and conversely,some consumers may seek out the substance; therefore, distribution of consumptionmay be uneven In order to compensate for these variables, FDA assumes (1) only60% of the actual value was reported and (2) only 10% of the U.S population(243.9 million in 1987) consumes 100% of the calculated amount (Clydesdale,1997) Again, the assumption is made for a 60 kg individual

Council of Europe (CoE): 8 A body of 41 European states, among which have signedthe Partial Agreement in the Social and Public Health Field A Committee ofExperts has been appointed by the signers to review the safety of substances added

to food The substances reviewed by CoE are designated as “chemically defined”and “natural flavouring” substances; there are subsets of each designation

Decoction: A solution made by boiling the material to be extracted with a solvent, usually

followed by filtration, for example, the preparation of tea

Distillate: A clear, flavorful liquid produced from fruits, herbs, roots, etc., by distillation;

also the condensed product separated by distillation

8 For definitions of the Council of Europe designations (categories) and an explanation of the principles used, the reader is urged to contact the Council of Europe at www.coe.int/soc-sp.

Distillation: The separation of a more volatile part of a substance from those less volatile

by vaporizing and subsequent condensation Two types are generally used: steamand fractional distillation

Distilled oil: The oil separated from a botanical material by distillation methods Dry solubles: Natural spice oils and/or oleoresins extended on a soluble, dry, edible

carrier

EEC: European Economic Community = European Union.

EINECS: European Inventory of New and Existing Chemicals.

ELINCS: European List of Notified Chemical Substances.

Emulsion: A system containing two immiscible liquids in which one is dispersed as very

small droplets or globules throughout the other For example, an emulsion may bewater-in-oil or oil-in-water

Encapsulation: A process by which a particle is coated with a partially impermeable

layer to retard evaporation and/or chemical reaction Basically, the material to beprotected is wrapped in a wall of impervious material that serves to lock in orentrap the volatile substances

Enhancer: An ingredient that is added to supplement, enhance or modify the original

taste and/or aroma of a food without imparting a characteristic taste or aroma ofits own (Examples include maltol, ethyl maltol and monosodium glutamate.)

EOA: Essential Oil Association.

Essence: Concentrated fragrance or flavorant In some countries, essence is used to

designate volatile oils, but in the U.S., this term is commonly applied to alcoholicsolutions of volatile oils

Essential oil: An oily substance obtained from plant material through various methods.

The essential oil normally has the characteristic taste and odor of the plant fromwhich it was derived An essential oil is still called a volatile oil as differentiatedfrom a fixed oil The hydraulically pressed sesame seed yields a fixed oil (sesameoil) that has low odor and is not volatile The anise seed, upon distillation, yieldsodorous and volatile oil — oil of anise Essential oils may have received theirname because at one time they were thought to be essential to the life processes

of the plant or were the essence of the plant

Excipient: Any ingredient in a mixture of substances that is not present as an active

ingredient and may include solvents, preservatives, stabilizers, etc In drugs, thiswould include any tablet or capsule ingredients as well In drugs, the only activeingredients are those present for a specific pharmacologic effect No excipient mayexert a pharmacologic effect and remain an excipient

Expression: A process using pressure to obtain an essential oil, usually out of the rind

of citrus fruits without the use of heat

Extended flavor: Dispersion of a flavor on a dry carrier The flavor may be liquid (flavors,

spice oils or oleoresins) or solid (vanillin or heliotropine) and can be natural orartificial The dry carrier is usually an anhydrous material, such as dextrose Theseflavors are also referred to as plated flavors (see also Dry solubles)

Extract: A solution obtained by passing alcohol, or an alcohol–water mixture, through

a substance An example would be vanilla extract Extracts found on the grocer’sshelf, such as orange, almond, lemon, etc., are essential oils dissolved in analcohol–water mixture

FEMA: Flavor and Extract Manufacturers’ Association – one of several groups conferring

GRAS status

FFPA: Free from Prussic Acid – used to describe HCN-free bitter almond oil.

Fixative: Usually applied to perfume, but in flavoring, acts to reduce the overall volatility

of the flavoring

Fixed oil: Generally, refers to a nonvolatile oil, obtained by hydraulic pressing or solvent

extraction, with little or no odor (e.g., sesame oil).

Fold: Indicates the degree of concentration of an extract or oil For example, a fourfold

oil indicates a concentration of 8 to 2 kg

Food: “Food includes human food, substances migrating to food and from food contact

articles, pet food, and animal feed” (see 21 CFR §170.3)

Food additive: Indicates any substance approved for addition to food by FDA on the

basis of a food additive petition Food additives are but one category of the

all-inclusive designation, food ingredients Other categories of food ingredients

include, but are not limited to GRAS substances, prior-sanctioned substances andcolor additives (both certified and noncertified) Although each category is distinctunder FDA regulations, some substances are members of more than a singlecategory For example, a substance can be both a food additive and a GRASsubstance at the same time

Food standard: A method or process and/or list of ingredients that may be used in a

food that FDA has defined through regulation such as mayonnaise, macaroni,farina, French dressing or milk chocolate Food standards were developed, in part,

to thwart unscrupulous manufacturers from marketing products that did not form to the usual and common understanding of the nature of a particular product

con-GRAS: The acronym for Generally Recognized As Safe, indicating any substance (and

its intended use) that has been granted GRAS status by experts (either in or outsideFDA) (See 21 CFR §170.30.)

GRAS affirmed: A substance whose GRAS status has been designated by one party and

is affirmed GRAS by FDA (21 CFR §184.1) The FDA GRAS Affirmation Programplayed a large role initially in incorporating food ingredients into the CFR (21CRF §182), but GRAS affirmation has fallen into disuse, having been supplanted

by the GRAS Notification Program

GRAS notification: The proposed regulation 21 CFR §176 (Federal Register (1997).

62(74):18937-18964), which provides for a notification system to FDA for any

substance found to be GRAS The notification system is voluntary

Herbs of commerce (HOC): 21 CFR §101.4(h) – part of the labeling regulation requires

— “The common or usual name of ingredients of dietary supplements that arebotanicals (including fungi and algae) shall be consistent with the names standard-

ized in Herbs of Commerce, 1992 edition, which is incorporated by reference in accordance with 5 U.S.C 552(a) and 1 CFR part 51.” This designation in Fenaroli’s indicates this substance is recognized in Herbs of Commerce.

Imitation: A flavor containing all or some portion of nonnatural materials For example,

unless an orange flavoring is made entirely from orange, it is imitation Specific

provisions for the use of the word imitation are described in 21 CFR §101.3.

Inactive ingredient: An excipient — any ingredient in a mixture of substances that is

not present as an active ingredient and may include solvents, preservatives, lizers, etc In drugs, this would include any tablet or capsule ingredients as well

stabi-In drugs, the only active ingredients are those present for a specific pharmacologiceffect No excipient may exert a pharmacologic effect and remain an excipient

Indirect food additive: A substance that is not directly added to food, but whose use in

the proximity of food may allow for migration of the substance into food (e.g., a

component of a food wrapper)

Infusion: Prepared by refluxing a solvent over raw materials (usually alcohol), often using

heat over a prolonged period of time This is an archaic methodology, no longeremployed

IOFI: International Organization of Flavour Industries.

Isolate: A chemical or fraction obtained from a natural substance For example, citral

can be isolated from lemon oil or lemongrass

JECFA: Joint (WHO/FAO) Expert Committee on Food Additives.

LGMP (limited by good manufacturing practice): A food ingredient whose use in

food is self-limiting for technological, organoleptic or other reasons Many flavoringredients are self-limiting and over-use would make food impalatable

Maceration: To steep or soak in a solvent for the purpose of extraction.

Maillard reaction: Flavor production by nonenzymatic browning of food; proceeds

mainly from reactions of reducing sugars with amines, peptides and proteins

Masking agent: An ingredient capable of covering or at least making more acceptable

an unpleasant odor or taste in a food or pharmaceutical

Menstrum: The medium in which a substances is dissolved – a solvent.

Middle note or main note: The substance of a flavor; the main characteristic.

Modifier: An ingredient that influences, but does not change materially, the flavor and

odor characteristics of a flavor

MRL (maximum residue limit): A term used by JECFA to indicate the maximum

con-centration of residue resulting from the use of a veterinary drug that is acceptable

in or on a food

MTDI (maximum tolerable daily intake): See PMTDI.

NAS (National Academy of Sciences): In this context, the NAS number that is the

iden-tification number provided by NAS for the purposes of the surveys for foodingredients

Nature identical: A naturally-occurring substance produced by synthetic means Note: A distinct flavor or odor characteristic For example, many raspberry flavors have

a seedy note

Oleoresin: A resinous–viscous product obtained when a substance is extracted with a

nonaqueous solvent The solvent is later removed Spices, as a class, form most

of the oleoresins the flavorist encounters; an example would be pepper oleoresin

PMTDI (provisional maximum tolerable daily intake): A term used by JECFA to

indicate the endpoint used for contaminants with no cumulative properties Its valuerepresents permissible human exposure as a result of the natural occurrence of thesubstance in food and in drinking water

Possible average daily intake (PADI): The FEMA PADI (possible average daily intake)

that is similar to the TAMDI concept, using maximum use level values, but onlymean consumption values (based on Market Research Corporation of Americamean frequency of eating and USDA mean portion size of 34 general food cate-

gories) Therefore, the FEMA PADI (in milligrams/person/day) is the mean sumption of foods containing the maximum amount The conservatism of the PADI

con-method assumes that the maximum amount of substance is added to the entire foodcategory, not just the substance within that category For example, the consumption

of a substance added only to marshmallow cream cookies (a relatively rarely eatenfood) would account for very little consumption, but the FEMA assumption is the

substance is added to all baked goods, not just the small portion of baked goods

represented by an exotic cookie

Prior-sanctioned food ingredient: A substance approved for the addition to food by

FDA or USDA prior to September 6, 1958, and whose approval remains in place.FDA prior-sanctioned substances include several food-packaging materials and

as single or multiple food contact materials The USDA prior-sanctioned stances are sodium and potassium nitrate and nitrite for use in meat and poultryproducts

sub-PTWI (provisional tolerable weekly intake): The endpoint used for food contaminants

such as heavy metals with cumulative properties The value of the PTWI representspermissible human weekly exposure to those contaminants unavoidably associatedwith the consumption of otherwise wholesome foods

Reported uses: As given in the text of this book, those amounts (both usual and

maxi-mum) in specific categories of food Unless otherwise noted, the reported uses inthis book are those designated by the Flavor and Extract Manufacturers’ Associ-ation (FEMA) from the list of 34 food categories adopted by FEMA FDA recog-nizes 43 general categories of food (21 CFR §170.3(n)) as originally established

in Exhibit 33B of the report of the National Academy of Sciences/NationalResearch Council report, “A Comprehensive Survey of Industry on the Use of FoodChemicals Generally Recognized as Safe” (September 1972)

Secondary food additive: Usually designating a substance used in the manufacture of

food and, although it may be present in the final product, having no functionality

in the final food Examples include enzymes for processing cheese, solvents,lubricants or release agents (a release agent allows a piece of candy to exit themold without damage)

Single-fold oil: The oil as it is produced from the plant (distillation or expression), without

concentration

Solid extract: A water-soluble concentrated extractant resulting from the extraction of

plant matter using water-compatible solvents If the concentrated product is soluble, it would be an oleoresin Fluid extracts are water or alcohol reconstitutions

oil-of solid extracts

Specialty: Usually similar to a compound, only not finished A specialty, although not

complete, carries the major part of the flavor load, so that only a few othersubstances are needed to complete the flavoring

Synthetic: Produced by chemical means, but not to be confused with the term artificial.

Terpeneless oil: Removal of some terpenes to provide stability because they contribute

to the instability of an essential oil However, removal of all terpenes may severelyundermine the flavor There is no standard of what constitutes a “terpeneless oil.”

Theoretical added maximum daily intake (TAMDI): Calculated on the basis of upper

use levels and the estimated daily intakes of foods For example, the more recentFEMA GRAS lists indicate two levels of use, the “average usual” and “averagemaximum.” The TAMDI would be determined using the “average maximum” leveltimes the estimated daily intake of the food to which the substance is added Theestimated daily would presumably maximized as well, using the 90th or 95th per-centile consumption

Tincture: An alcoholic extract of a botanical material, without further processing.

Although originally an apothecary’s term, in the flavor industry, it refers to analcoholic extract of a botanical in which the aroma is preserved

Top note: The first note normally perceived when a flavor is smelled or tasted Usually

a top note is relatively volatile and suggests identity

Type or class: The flavorist’s tendency to group similar flavors together, for example,

red flavors (flavorings): strawberry, cherry, raspberry; citrus flavors: lemon, orange, lime, grapefruit, bergamot; brown flavors: coffee, malt, caramel; spice flavors:

cassia, clove, nutmeg Classes can also be made by volatility, chemical function

or end use

WONF (with other natural flavors): Essentially, this indicates the addition of juices in

addition to those indicated as the characterizing flavor as identified on the label ofthe container Please consult 21 CFR §102 for labeling regulations of this type ofproduct

ACETAL

Synonyms: Acetaldehyde diethyl acetal

Description: A colorless liquid with a pungent, green, woody solvent pleasant odor

and whisky or nutty taste

Consumption: Annual: 1000.00 lb Individual: 0.0008474 mg/kg/day

Trade association guidelines: FEMA PADI: 11.580 mg IOFI: Nature Identical

Synthesis: From ethyl alcohol and acetaldehyde in the presence of anhydrous calcium

chloride.

Aroma threshold values: Detection: 4 to 42 ppb Taste threshold values: n/a

Natural occurrence: Present in some liquors (e.g., sake, whiskey and cognac); also

detected and quantitatively assessed in rums

CAS No.: 105-57-7 EEC No.: 35 FEMA No.: 2002 NAS No.: 2002 CoE No.: 35 EINECS No.: 203-310-6 JECFA No.: n/a

Empirical Formula/MW:

C6H1402/118.18

Specifications: (FCC, 1996 and proposed 2000)

Appearance Colorless to pale-yellow liquid Solubility Soluble in alcohol Assay 97.0% of C 6 H 14 0 2 Specific gravity 0.821-0.827 at 25˚C

Reported uses (ppm): (FEMA, 1994)

Food Category Usual Max Food Category Usual Max.

Alcoholic beverages 5.00 13.33 Gelatin, pudding 36.39 66.78 Baked goods 65.20 89.70 Hard candy 4.20 4.20 Chewing gum 154.70 154.70 Nonalcoholic beverages 5.41 10.55

Preferred name (usually the most

commonly used FDA name)

Names appearing in bold are the

most common synonyms

Identification numbers See Glossary for description of each

Describes the organoleptic

character-istics and other relevant information

See Glossary for detailed explanation

United States and European regulatory agencies See Glossary for description of each term

FEMA Possible Average Daily

Intake (PADI), IOFI designation

(Natural, Nature Identical or

FEMA GRAS approved uses only (in

ppm) There may be other

(unpub-lished) use levels

Brief description of industrial

ACACIA GUM

Botanical name: Acacia sengal (L.) willd

Botanical family: Leguminosae Other names: Acacia sengal gum; Arabic gum

Description: Arabic or acacia gum is the dried exudate obtained from the stems and

branches of Acacia senegal (L.) willd or of related species of Acacia Injured trees

exude Gum Arabic; heat, poor nutrition and drought stimulate its production.

Consumption: Annual: 12,000,000 lb Individual: 10.1694 mg/kg/day

Trade association guidelines: FEMA PADI: 2.47 mg IOFI: Naturall

Physical-chemical characteristics: The oil is a mobile pale-yellow liquid exhibiting

a peculiar odor and an extremely bitter flavor.

Composition: Four acetophenone glycosides were isolated from the butanol-soluble

fraction.

Aroma threshold values: n/a Taste threshold values: Absolute; taste characteristics at 15 ppm: spicy sweet, fruity

and honey with a woody herbal nuance.

CAS No.: 9000-01-05 EEC No.: 8 FEMA No.: 2001 NAS No.: 2001 CoE No.: n/a EINECS No.: 232-519-5 JECFA No.: n/a

Specifications: (FCC, 1996)

Appearance White or yellowish-white

spheroidal tears Insoluble matter Not more than 1%

Arsenic (as AS) Not more than 3 mg/kg Solubility One gram dissolves in 2

ml water

Reported uses (ppm): (FEMA, 1994)

Food Category Usual Max Food Category Usual Max.

Alcoholic beverages 0.59 1.53 Imitation dairy 9.56 12.50 Baked goods 0.78 3.84 Instant coffee/tea 0.13 0.80 Breakfast cereals 0.07 0.18 Meat products 0.99 3.37

Preferred name (usually the most

commonly used FDA name)

Genus and species name

Identification numbers See Glossary

for description of each

Describes the plant (and plant parts)

from which the flavoring is derived

FEMA Possible Average Daily

Intake (PADI), IOFI designation

(Natural, Nature Identical or

Artificial

Included for those plants from which

flavoring substances are derived

Representative values from the

literature

See Glossary for detailed explanation

United States and European regulatory agencies See Glossary for description of each term

FCC specifications where available, otherwise JECFA or presumed article

of commerce

FEMA GRAS approved uses only (in ppm) There may be other (unpublished) use levels

Representative values from the literature

Reported in the literature for substances designated by IOFI as

“Nature Identical”

Flavor Ingredients

A ACACIA GUM

Botanical name:Acacia sengal (L.) willd

Botanical family: Leguminosae

Other names: Acacia sengal gum; Arabic gum; gum Arabic; Acacia delbata gum; Acaciasolution; Acacia syrup; Australian gum; Gum Arabic; Indian gum; Wattle gum

Description: Arabic or acacia gum is the dried exudate obtained from the stems and branches

of Acacia Senegal (L.) willd or of related species of Acacia Injured trees exude gum Arabic;heat, poor nutrition and drought stimulate its production Most of the gum Arabic production

is from wild trees, but some from privately owned and cultivated gardens are tapped and lected on a systematic basis

col-The gum called Hashab geneina (garden gum) is the cleanest and lightest grade and

is most preferred for the U.S market The wild gum (called Hashab wady) is collected on a time basis in the dry season, from October to May or June, by natives whose main occupation isusually farming After gathering, it is taken to central collecting stations where it is auctionedunder government supervision, graded by hand and dried before exporting to gum suppliers in allparts of the world Then it is resorted, ground, processed and graded to various specifications

part-Clear, white (sun-bleached) spheroidal tears, up to 32 mm in diameter, also occur

as flakes Chemically, gum Arabic is a neutral or slightly acid salt of a complex ride containing calcium, magnesium and potassium cations Its most distinguishing propertyamong the natural gums is its extreme solubility in water Solutions of over 50% concentra-tion may be prepared Gum Arabic is best described as "heteropolymolecular," that is, a poly-mer system having either a variation in monomer (galactose, arabinose, rhamnose, glucuronicacid and 4-O-methylgucuronic acid) composition and/or variation in the mode of linking andbranching of the monomer units, in addition to a distribution in molecular weight

polysaccha-Major uses of gum Arabic in foods are as a fixative for flavors, a foam stabilizer

in beverages, an adhesive for icings and toppings, and an emulsifier and stabilizer in tionary and ice cream It is also widely used in the pharmaceutical, cosmetic, paper, textile,paint, ink and lithography industries

confec-Consumption: Annual: 12000000.00 lb Individual: 10.1694 mg/kg/day

Regulatory Status:

CoE: n/aFDA: 21 CFR 169.179, 184.1330, 582.7330; 27 CFR 24.246; 240.1051FDA (other): Listed in Inactive Ingredient Guide (CDER, 1996); HOC (1992) JECFA: ADI: Not specified (1989)

Trade association guidelines: FEMA PADI: 2.47 mg IOFI: Natural

Specifications: (FCC, 1996)

To 10 ml of a cold 1-in-50 solution of acacia, add 0.2

ml diluted lead tate TS; a flocculent, or

sub-ace-2 Fenaroli’s Handbook of Flavor Ingredients

Aroma threshold values: n/a

Taste threshold values: Absolute; taste characteristics at 15 ppm: Spicy sweet, fruity andhoney with a woody, herbal nuance

ACETAL

Synonyms: Acetaldehyde diethyl acetal; Acetaldehyde ethyl acetal; Acetol; Diethylacetal;Dithane, 1,1-diethoxy-; Ethylidene diethyl ether; Ethylidenediethyl ether; 1,1-Diethoxy-ethane

Description: A colorless liquid with a pungent, green, woody solvent pleasant odor andwhisky or nutty taste As a flavor ingredient, it is used in fruit, rum and whiskey Acetal tends

water

Reported uses (ppm): (FEMA, 1994)

Flavor Ingredients 3

Synthesis: From ethyl alcohol and acetaldehyde in the presence of anhydrous calcium ride or small amounts of mineral acids (HCl)

chlo-Aroma threshold values: Detection: 4 to 42 ppb

Taste threshold values: n/a

Natural occurrence: Present in some liquors (e.g., sake, whiskey and cognac); also detectedand quantitatively assessed in rums Found in apple juice, orange juice, orange peel oil, bitterorange juice, strawberry fruit, raw radish, Chinese quince fruit, Chinese quince flesh, udo(Aralia cordata Thunb.)

ACETALDEHYDE

Synonyms: Ethanal; Acetic aldehyde; Acetylaldehyde; Ethyl aldehyde

Description: Acetaldehyde is a colorless, flammable liquid with a characteristic pungent,penetrating, ethereal odor As a flavor ingredient/enhancer, as, for example, in orange juice,acetaldehyde helps create naturalness, fruitiness and juiciness

Consumption:Annual: 186666.6 lb Individual: 0.1581 mg/kg/day

Regulatory Status:

CoE: Approved Bev.: 23 ppm; Food: 20 ppm

FDA: 21CFR 172.515, 182.60, 582.60

FDA (other): n/a

JECFA: ADI: Acceptable (no safety concern at current level of intake) (1997)

Trade association guidelines: FEMA PADI: 35.261 mg IOFI: Nature Identical

Soluble in alcohol (1 ml in 1 ml 95% ethanol) propylene glycol and vegetable oils; slightly sol- uble in water

Reported uses (ppm): (FEMA, 1994)

Empirical Formula/MW:

C2H4O/44.05

Specifications: (FCC, 1996)

Specifications: (FCC, 1996 and proposed 2000) (Continued)

(Part 2 of 2)

4 Fenaroli’s Handbook of Flavor Ingredients

Synthesis: The method of synthesis is dependent on the price of feedstock and may be duced by a number of methods: (1) by oxidation of ethyl alcohol with potassium dichromate

pro-or manganese dioxide in the presence of sulfuric acid; (2) by addition of water to acetylene;(3) by formation during the natural alcoholic fermentation process Recovery is effected bysuitable fractionation, subsequent preparation of the acetaldehyde ammonia and final treat-ment of the addition compound with diluted sulfuric acid

Aroma threshold values: Detection: 0.7 to 200 ppb; Recognition: 27 to 380 ppb

Taste threshold values: n/a

Natural occurrence: Reported found in oak and tobacco leaves; in the fruital aromas of pear,apple, raspberry, strawberry and pineapple; in the distillation waters of Monarda punctata,

orris, cumin, chenopodium; in the essential oils of Litsea cubeba, Magnolia grandijlora, Artemisia brevifolia, rosemary, balm, clary sage, Mentha arvensis, daffodil, bitter orange,camphor, angelica, fennel, mustard, Scotch blended whiskey, Japanese whiskey, rose wine,blackberry brandy and rum

ACETALDEHYDE, BUTYL PHENETHYL ACETAL

Synonyms: 2-Butoxy-2-phenylethoxy-ethane Acetal R; Pepital; ethane; Propyl phenethyl acetal; 2-(1-Butoxyethoxy)ethyl benzene; Benzene, 2-(1-butoxyethoxy)ethyl-; 2-(1-Butoxyethoxy)ethyl benzene

1-Phenethoxy-1-propoxy-Description: A liquid with a green vegetable odor and a green paper taste Used in vegetableand fruit flavors

Consumption:Annual: <1.00 lb Individual: 0.00000084 mg/kg/day

Trade association guidelines: FEMA PADI: 0.546 mg IOFI: Artificial

Reported uses (ppm): (FEMA, 1994)

Empirical Formula/MW:

Flavor Ingredients 5

Specifications: n/a

Synthesis: n/a

Aroma threshold values: n/a

Taste threshold values: n/a

Natural occurrence: Not reported found in nature

ACETALDEHYDE DIISOAMYL ACETAL

Synonyms: Butane,1,1-[ethylidenebis(oxy)]bis[3-methy]-; ethoxy]-butane; 1,1-bis(3-Methylbutoxy)ethane; 1,1-Di-isopentyloxyethane

Aroma threshold values: n/a

Taste threshold values: n/a

Natural occurrence: Reportedly present in grape brandy, apple brandy, rum, sherry and cider

Reported uses (ppm): (FEMA, 1994)

Empirical Formula/MW:

C12H26O2/202

Reported uses (ppm): (FEMA, 2001)

6 Fenaroli’s Handbook of Flavor Ingredients

ACETALDEHYDE ETHYL (Z)-3-HEXENYL ACETAL

Synonyms: Acetaldehyde ethyl cis-3-hexenyl acetal; cis-1-(ethoxyethoxy)-3-hexene; Ethyl

cis-3-hexenyl acetal; 3-Hexene, 1-(1-ethoxyethoxy)- (Z)-; cis-3-Hexenyl ethyl acetal of

ace-taldehyde; Leaf alcohol (ethyl) acetal

Description: A colorless liquid with an odor similar to green leaf

Consumption: Annual: 70.00 lb Individual: 0.00008333 mg/kg/day

Trade association guidelines: FEMA PADI: 0.00995 mg IOFI: n/a

Synthesis: From acetaldehyde diethyl acetal (acetal) with cis-3-hexenol

Aroma threshold values: n/a

Taste threshold values: n/a

Natural occurrence: Reported found in guava fruit (Psidium guajava L.)

ACETALDEHYDE PHENETHYL PROPYL ACETAL

Synonyms: Acetal R; Pepital; 1-Phenethoxy-1propoxy-ethane; Propyl phenethyl acetal;

Ace-taldehyde propyl phenylethyl acetal; Benzene, (2-(1-propoxyethoxy)ethyl)-;

(2-(1-Propoxy-ethoxy)ethyl)benzene; (2-(1-Propoxyethoxy)ethyl) benzene

Description: A colorless liquid with an odor described as being pleasant, clean or green or as

having a very strong odor of green leaves It has a green paper taste and is useful in vegetable

Empirical Formula/MW:

C10H20O2/172.27

Specifications: (Burdock, 1995)

Reported uses (ppm): (FEMA, 1994)

Trade association guidelines: FEMA PADI: 3.137 mg IOFI: Artificial

Synthesis: From acetaldehyde with a mixture of propyl and b-phenyl ethyl alcohols

Aroma threshold values: n/a

Taste threshold values: n/a

Natural occurrence: Not reported found in nature.

ACETANISOLE

Synonyms: Acetophenone, 4'-methoxy-; 4-Acetylanisole; p-Acetylanisole; Ethanone,

1-(4-methoxyphenyl)-; Linarodin; 4'-Methoxyacetophenone; 4-Methoxyacetophenone; oxyacetophenone; 1-(4-Methoxyphenyl)ethanone; p-Methoxyphenyl methyl ketone; Methyl p-methoxyphenyl ketone; 4-Methoxyphenyl methyl ketone; Novatone; Vananote

p-Meth-Description: Yellowish-white crystals with an odor similar to that of

p-methylacetophe-neone, suggestive of hawthorn and floral note of heliotrope, possessing a bitter and ant taste Useful in vanilla, nut, tobacco and butter flavors

unpleas-Consumption: Annual: 5600.00 lb Individual: 0.004745 mg/kg/day

Reported uses (ppm): (FEMA, 1994)

Trade association guidelines: FEMA PADI: 9.088 mg IOFI: Nature Identical

Synthesis: From anisole and acetyl chloride in the presence of aluminum chloride and carbon

disulfide; from anisole and acetic acid in the presence of boron trifluoride

Aroma threshold values: n/a

Taste threshold values: Taste characteristics at 10 ppm: Sweet, anisic, fruity, cherry with

powdery vanilla nuances

Natural occurrence: Reported found in European cranberry (Vaccinium oxycoccus L.),

guava fruit (Psidium guajava L.), Vitis labrusca L., tomato, anise (Pimpinella anisum L.), mentha oils, grilled and roasted beef, sherry, cloudberry (Rubus chamaemorus L.), salted and pickled plums, Illicium verum and black chokeberry (Aronia melanocarpa ell.).

ACETIC ACID

Synonyms: Ethanoic acid; Acetic acid glacial; Acetic acid (aqueous solution); Ethylic acid; Methanecarboxylic acid; Pyroligneous acid; Vinegar acid; Vosol; Acetic acid, of a concen-

tration of more than 10%, by weight of acetic acid

Description: Acetic acid, CH3COOH, is a colorless, volatile liquid at ambient temperatures.The pure compound, glacial acetic acid, owes its name to its ice-like crystalline appearance at15.6∞C As generally supplied, acetic acid is a 6 N aqueous solution (about 36%) or a 1 Nsolution (about 6%) These or other dilutions are used in adding appropriate amounts of ace-tic acid to foods Acetic acid is the characteristic acid of vinegar, its concentration rangingfrom 3.5 to 5.6% Acetic acid and acetates are present in most plants and animal tissues insmall but detectable amounts They are normal metabolic intermediates, are produced by

Empirical Formula/MW:

C9H10O2/150.18

Specifications: (Burdock, 1997)

Soluble in most fixed oils and propylene glycol, 1 g

in 5 ml 50% alcohol; insoluble in glycerin

Reported uses (ppm): (FEMA, 1994)

by such microorganisms as Clostridium thermoaceticum The rat forms acetate at the rate of

1% of its body weight per day

As a colorless liquid with a strong, pungent, characteristic vinegar odor, it is ful in butter, cheese, grape and fruit flavors Very little pure acetic acid as such is used infoods, although it is classified by FDA as a GRAS material Consequently, it may beemployed in products that are not covered by Definitions and Standards of Identity Aceticacid is the principal component of vinegars and pyroligneous acid In the form of vinegar,more than 27 million lb were added to food in 1986, with approximately equal amounts used

use-as acidulants and flavoring agents In fact, acetic acid (use-as vinegar) wuse-as one of the earliest voring agents Vinegars are used extensively in preparing salad dressing and mayonnaise,sour and sweet pickles and numerous sauces and catsups They are also used in the curing ofmeat and in the canning of certain vegetables In the manufacture of mayonnaise, the addition

fla-of a portion fla-of acetic acid (vinegar) to the salt- or sugar-yolk reduces the heat resistance fla-of

Salmonella Water binding compositions of sausages often include acetic acid or its sodium

salt, while calcium acetate is used to preserve the texture of sliced, canned vegetables

Consumption:Annual: 7033333.3 lb Individual: 5.9604 mg/kg/day

oxidiz-able substances Passes testAssay

Not less than 99.5% and not more than 100.5%, by weight of C2H4O2

Solidification

and alcohol

Nonvolatile residue Not more than 0.005%

Reported uses (ppm): (FEMA, 1994)

number of different processes As dilute solutions, it is obtained from alcohol by the Vinegar Process.” Smaller quantities are obtained from the pyroligneous acid liquorsacquired in the destructive distillation of hard wood It is manufactured synthetically in highyields by the oxidation of acetaldehyde and of butane, and as the reaction product of metha-nol and carbon monoxide.

“Quick-Vinegars are produced from cider, grapes (or wine), sucrose, glucose or malt bysuccessive alcoholic and acetous fermentations In the U.S the use of the term “vinegar,”without qualifying adjectives, implies only cider vinegar Although a 4 to 8% solution of pureacetic acid would have the same taste characteristics as cider vinegar, it could not qualify as avinegar, since it would lack other readily detectable components characteristic of cider vine-gar In Great Britain, malt vinegar is specified On the European continent, wine vinegar isthe most common variety

Aroma threshold values: Detection: 10 to 522 ppm; Recognition: 60 ppm

Taste threshold values: n/a

Natural occurrence: Identified among the constituents of petitgrain lemon oil, in bitter

orange oil and in strawberry aroma It is found in unprocessed figs along with citric and a

small amount of malic acid Reported found in fresh apple, apple juice, grapefruit juice rus paradisi), French fried potato, cooked or boiled potatoes, Capsicum frutescens, vinegar,

(Cit-wheaten bread, blue chesses, cheddar cheese, Swiss cheeses, Camembert, feta cheese, yere de Comte, tilsit cheese, cream, canned mango, traditional cooked rice, fermented radishand other natural sources

Gru-ACETIC ANHYDRIDE

Synonyms: Acetanhydride; Acetic acid, anhydride; Acetic oxide, Acetyl anhydride; Acetyl ether; Acetyl ether, Acetyl oxide; Ethanoic anhydrate, Ethanoic anhydride

Description: An esterification agent used in the preparation of modified starch and for

acety-lation of acetylated monoglycerides It has a strong acetic odor

Trade association guidelines: FEMA PADI: n/a IOFI: n/a

Reported uses: n/a

Synthesis: It may be synthesized from diacetyl by partial reduction with zinc and acid or may

Empirical Formula/MW:

C4H6O3/102.09 n/a

Specifications:

Taste threshold values: n/a

Natural occurrence: Reported found in watercress (Nasturtium officinale r br.)

ACETOIN

Synonyms: Acetyl methyl carbinol; Acetylmethylcarbinol; 2-Butanol-3-one;

2,3-Butanolone; 2-Butanone, 3-hydroxy-; Dimethylketol; 3-Hydroxy-2-butanone;

1-Hydroxy-ethyl m1-Hydroxy-ethyl ketone; gamma-Hydroxy-beta-oxobutane; Methanol, acetylm1-Hydroxy-ethyl-

acetylmethyl-Description: Acetoin is a yellowish liquid with a bland, woody, yogurt odor and a fatty

creamy “tub” butter taste It is useful as a flavor ingredient in butter, milk, yogurt or berry flavors

straw-Consumption:Annual: 33833.3 lb Individual: 0.02867 mg/kg/day

Regulatory Status:

CoE: Approved Bev.: 5 ppm; Food: 50 ppm

FDA: 21 CFR 182.60, 582.60

FDA (other): n/a

JECFA: No safety concern (1999)

Trade association guidelines: FEMA PADI: 62.694 mg IOFI: Nature Identical

white crystalline powder

Refractive index 1.417-1.420 at 20.0∞C

Miscible with water, propylene glycol and alcohol; insoluble in vegetable oils

Reported uses (ppm): (FEMA, 1994)

Synthesis: From diacetyl by partial reduction with zinc and acid It is also a product of

fermentation Acetoin is an optically active compound The d(–)acetyl methyl carbinol is

obtained from fermentation and, in mixture with other products, from the catalytic

oxida-tion of 2,3-butanediol The 1(+)acetyl methyl carbinol is also obtained from fermentaoxida-tion.

The optically pure form has not been isolated; the optically inactive form is preparedsynthetically

Aroma threshold values: Detection: 5 ppb to 10 ppm

Taste threshold values: Taste characteristics at 100 ppm: Creamy, dairy, sweet, buttery, oily

and milky

Natural occurrence: Reported found in fresh apple, cooked apple, leek (raw) (Allium

por-rum L.), heated leek, corn honey cocoa, butter, roasted coffee, cheeses, white wine, red wine, rose wine, sparkling wine, microbial fermented tea, scallop, crowberry (Empetrum nigrum coll.), Chinese quince fruit and other natural sources.

ACETOLEIN

Synonyms: Glyceryl monooleate, acetylated; Monoglycerides, acetylated; 9-Octadecenoic

acid (Z)-, ester with 1,23-propanetriol diacetate; Oleic acid ester with hydroxypropanediyldiacetate

Description: Acetylated monoglycerides consist of partial or complete esters of glycerin

with a mixture of acetic and edible fat-forming fatty acids Acetolein may have an acetic acidodor, but is practically bland in taste

Trade association guidelines: FEMA PADI: n/a IOFI: n/a

Reported uses (ppm): n/a

Synthesis: The food additive acetylated monoglycerides is manufactured by (1) the

inter-esterification of edible fats with triacetin and in the presence of catalytic agents that are notfood additives or authorized by regulation, followed by a molecular distillation or by steamstripping; or (2) the direct acetylation of edible monoglycerides with acetic anhydride with-out the use of catalyst or molecular distillation, and with the removal of vacuum distillation,

if necessary, of the acetic acid, acetic anhydride and triacetin

Aroma threshold values: n/a

in alcohol, acetone, etc.

Synonyms: Acetone oil; Dimethyl ketone; Dimethylformaldehyde; Dimethylketal; Ketone

propane; Ketone, dimethyl; Ketone, dimethyl-; b-Ketopropane; Methyl ketone; Propanone;2-Propanone; Pyroacetic acid; Pyroacetic ether

Description: A clear liquid with characteristic aromatic odor; pungent, somewhat sweet

taste It is used as a flavor enhancer, flavoring agent or adjuvant solvent, or vehicle washing

or surface removal agent Its quick miscibility with water, alcohol, ether, chloroform andmost volatile oils makes acetone a valuable solvent and extractant

Consumption: Annual: 37.50 lb Individual: 0.0000317 mg/kg/day

Regulatory Status:

CoE: Approved Bev.: 2 ppm; Food: 2 ppm

FDA: 21 CFR 73.1, 73.30, 73.345, 73.615, 173.210

FDA (other): Approved for OTC use (21 CFR 310.545)

JECFA: No safety concern (1999)

Trade association guidelines: FEMA PADI: 0.901 mg IOFI: Nature Identical

Miscible with water, hol, ether, chloroform and most volatile oils Assay

alco-Not less than 99.5% and not more than 100.5% by weight of C3H6O

Solubility in water Passes test

Distillation range Within a range of 10

including 56.10

Substances reducing

Heavy metals (as

Reported uses (ppm): (FEMA, 1994)

Aroma threshold values: Detection: 40 to 476 ppm

Taste threshold values: n/a

Natural occurrence: Reported found in apple, pear, grape, pineapple, strawberry, raspberry,

tomato, black currant, citrus, onion and potato; also reported found in cocoa leaves, in can goosefoot and in the oils of coriander and lavender In trace amounts it has been report-edly identified in the oil of bitter orange, in distilled wine and in coffee aroma

Mexi-ACETONE PEROXIDES

Synonyms: Acetone peroxide

Description: A mixture of monomeric and linear dimeric acetone peroxides (mainly

2,2-hydroxyperoxypropane), with minor proportions of higher polymers, usually mixed with anedible carrier such as cornstarch The cornstarch mixture is a fine, white, free-flowing powderhaving a sharp acrid odor similar to that of hydrogen peroxide when the container is firstopened Acetone peroxides are used in foods as a bleaching agent, maturing agent and doughconditioner Acetone peroxides are strong oxidizing agents and exposure to skin and eyesshould be avoided

Regulatory Status:

CoE: n/a

FDA: 21 CFR 137.105, 172.802

FDA (other): n/a

JECFA: No treatment level set (1965)

Trade association guidelines: FEMA PADI: n/a IOFI: n/a

Reported uses (ppm): Acetone peroxide is formed when hydrogen peroxide 30% acts on

acetone The introduction of dilute sulfuric acid causes the reaction to go into completion.Acetone peroxide is one of the most sensitive explosives known to man and great care isneeded to handle this compound carefully

Synthesis: n/a

Aroma threshold values: n/a

Taste threshold values: n/a

Natural occurrence: Not reported found in nature

a fine, white, free-flowing powder

Synonyms: Acetylbenzene; Benzene, acetyl-; Benzoyl methide; Ethanone, 1-phenyl-;

Hyp-non; Hypnone; Ketone, methyl phenyl; Methyl phenyl ketone; 1-Phenyl-1-ethanone; nylethanone; Phenyl methyl ketone

1-Phe-Description: Acetophenone has a characteristic sweet, pungent and strong medicinal odor

with a bitter, aromatic cherry branch taste It is useful in flavors of grape, cherry and tobacco

Consumption: Annual: 550.00 lb Individual: 0.0004661 mg/kg/day

Trade association guidelines: FEMA PADI: 5.552 mg IOFI: Nature Identical

Synthesis: From benzene and acetylchloride in the presence of aluminum chloride or by

cat-alytic oxidation of ethyl benzene; also prepared by fractional distillation and crystallization

from the essential oil of Stirlingia latifolia.

Aroma threshold values: Detection: 170 ppb; Recognition: 2.9 ppm

Taste threshold values: Taste characteristics at 10 ppm: Sweet, nutty, benzaldehyde with musty, fruity notes

Natural occurrence: Reported found in the oils of labdanum, Stirlingia latifolia, Urtica

Empirical Formula/MW:

C8H8O/120.14

Specifications: (FCC, 1966)

Appearance Practically colorless liquid

Very soluble in propylene glycol and most fixed oils; soluble in alcohol (1ml in 5 ml 50% alco- hol), chloroform and ether; slightly soluble in water; insolu- ble in glycerin

Chlorinated

Reported uses (ppm): (FEMA, 1994)

FDA (other): n/a

JECFA: No safety concern (1999)

Trade association guidelines: FEMA PADI: 2.454 mg IOFI: n/a

Synthesis: n/a

Aroma threshold values: n/a

Taste threshold values: n/a

Natural occurrence: Reported found in pineapple (Ananas comoscus), roasted chicken, red

wine, cocoa, arctic bramble (Rubus articus L.) and pawpaw (Asimina triloba dunal)

Empirical Formula/MW:

C6H10O3/130.14

Specifications: (JECFA, 2000)

Appearance Colorless to slightly yellow

Reported uses (ppm): (FEMA, 1994)