ENGLISH FOR SPECIFIC PURPOSES ENGLISH TEXTS FOR STUDENTS-AGRONOMISTS

A healthy soil has a good balance of water, gases, mineral fractions, living organisms and decaying organic matter.. A healthy soil has a good balance of water, gases, mineral fractions,

HUE UNIVERSITY COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE AND FORESTRY

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ENGLISH FOR SPECIFIC PURPOSES

ENGLISH TEXTS FOR STUDENTS-AGRONOMISTS

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NGUYEN TRUNG TINH

9 / 2002

PREFACE

The aim of this book is to help students of agriculture develop the four language

skills and the ability of using the language knowledge in their communication about

their specialist subject as well The book consists of 15 units, each of which is divided

into two parts: part A should be presented in class; part B is for self-study at home

The activities in each unit are designed for students to practice in real-life context,

which may make the target language more authentic The exercises focus on

improving the grammar in use and the language skills the students need, especially

reading and writing, which may help them in participating in some projects and

workshops on rural development being held by foreign organizations in Vietnam

The material collected is based on the language the students need for their future

job, relevant to the intermediate level of the basic language course they have studied

at the university

The material designed only aims to meet the urgent needs of the students of Hue

college of Agriculture and Forestry, so it must have some constraint and limitation I

hope the readers who are concerned about the subject find the material useful and

may add some more what you have got in the field to complete it as an English

material for all students of agriculture in our country

NGUYEN TRUNG TINH

9/2002

§ UNIT 1 SOILS

I Word study

1 Find the words which have similar meaning

a store (v) - thing / substance

b cleanse (v) - break down

c mineral fraction (n) - extent / size

d interaction (n) - clean

e decay (v) - keep

f measure (n) - small piece

g organic matter (n) - act to each other

h particle (n) - mineral component

2 Grouping Which group do the following words belong to?

Potato; tomato; pineapple; papaya; longan; wheat; soya; rubber; cacao; rice; cucumber; carrot; lemon; bean; peach; cotton; pear; tea; manioc; orange; coffee; sugar cane; peanut;

strawberry; cauliflower; cabbage; banana; water melon

Fruit trees Vegetables Industrial crops Food crops - - - a Shallow-rooting crops b Root crops c Tree crops

II Skill development 1 Look at the diagram and answer the questions below A Soil profiles

* Very shallow soil * Shallow soil * Moderately deep soil * Deep soil

10cm

100cm - Shallow-rooting - Most agricultural 200cm crops crops - Root crops

500cm

- Tree crops

a Exercise 1.(pair-work) Now ask and say about other soil-type of the soil profile as example

A: What is the depth of a shallow soil?

B: A shallow soil has a depth of 10 to 100 cm

A: What crops is a shallow soil suitable for?

B: For shallow rooting crops

A: What are shallow rooting crops composed?

B: Banana; pineapple, (give examples in your own area.)

B Soil particle size

Types of soil Particle diameter range in mm

- coarse sand

- fine sand

- silt

- clay

1.0 - 0.2 0.2 - 0.05 0.05 - 0.002 < 0.002

Small soil particles are called sand, silt or clay particles, according to their size

a Speaking (pair-work) Ask and answer about the following soil particles

Example

- Coarse sand A: What is the diameter range of coarse sand particles?

- Fine sand B: Coarse sand particles are between 2 and 0.2mm in diameter

- Silt A: ………

- Clay B: ………

A: ………

B: ………

C Soil texture and structure

Soil texture is the proportion of different particle sizes in the soil Soil with very small particles (clay) has a fine texture Soil with a mixture of small and large particles (loam) has a medium texture Soil with large particles (sand) has a coarse texture The range of textures can be shown on a soil texture diagram For example, soil sample A has 10% sand, 20% silt and 70% clay It falls at point A on the diagram What is the soil texture of soil sample A?

1 Look at soil sample A:

Soil sample A has 10% sand, 20% silt and 70% clay Thus it has a fine texture

Now look at the following soil samples in the table

a Fill in the blanks What is the texture of the following soil samples?

Samples Sand Silt Clay

2 Read and complete the following passage

Soil with a coarse texture consists of relatively large particles Thus it retains air in the spaces between the particles, but it does not retain water Coarse-textured soils are usually well drained However, many important nutrients are leached out of the soil These soils are usually red or brown in colour

A medium-textured soil consists of a mixture of .(1) and .(2) particles (3) it retains .(4) and .(5) .(6) .(7) are usually imperfectly drained Therefore important plant .(8) are available for plant growth These soils are usually .(9) or (10) with grey mottles

A fine-textured soil consists of relatively (11) (12) Thus it (13) water, (14)

it does not hold (15) Fine-textured soils are blue or green in (16) They are (17 (18) drained

The words may be used to fill the gaps

thus ; water ; small ; soils ; large ; medium-textured ; brown ; nutrients

red ; particles ; holds ; small ; air ; but ; poorly ; colour ; usually ; nutrients

3 Answer the following question

a Why does a coarse-textured soil retain air?

b Give one disadvantage of a coarse-textured soil

c Why is a medium-textured soil usually imperfectly drained?

d Are the particles of a fine-textured soil predominantly sand, silt or clay?

e Why is the fine-textured soil often flooded after rain?

f Why is rice often grown in a fine-textured soil?

g In which type of soil are root crops (e.g sweet potato, cassava, etc) grown in your area? Give one reason why you think this is so

D Soil structure Define the soil texture as quickly as possible, then write the soil structure

- Soil texture: A: ……… B: ……… C: ………

- sand 80% - sand 20% - sand 20%

- silt 10% - silt 70% - silt 20%

- clay 10% - clay 10% - clay 60%

- Soil structure: A: ……… B: ……… C: ………

1 Read and complete

Sample A is a coarse-textured soil, sample B is a medium-textured soil and sample C is a fine-textured soil Each sample is mixed with water and shaped like a ball What happens when water drips onto each sample?

- The coarse-textured soil breaks up easily It has a loose structure

- The medium-textured soil moderately easily, friable structure

- The .- does not solid structure

2 Speaking (pair-work) Answer the following questions

a Why is it difficult to cultivate a fine-texture soil?

b Why is a medium-textured soil suitable for plant growth?

c What happens to coarse-textured soil in a heavy rain storm?

d What are the advantages of each type of soil?

e What are the disadvantages of each type of soil?

f How can farmers cultivate a coarse-textured soil?

g How can a fine-textured soil be used most efficiently?

by the growth and decay of plants, animals, and soils micro-organisms If a farmer is to

provide the best possible conditions for crop growth, it is desirable that he should understand what soils are, how they were formed and how they should be managed

The topsoil and surface soil is a layer about 8-45 cm deep which may be taken as the greatest depth which a farmer would plough or cultivate and in which most of the plant roots are found

Loose, cultivated, topsoil is sometimes called mould

The subsoil, which lies underneath, is an intermediate stage in the formation of soil from the rock below

A soil profile is a section taken through the soil down to the parent rock In some cases this may consist of only a shallow surface soil 10-15 cm on top of a rock such as chalk and limestone In other well-developed soils (about a metre deep) there are usually three or more definite layers (or horizons) which vary in colour, texture and structure

The soil profile can be examined by digging a trench or by taking out cores of soil from various depths with a soil auger

A careful examination of the layers (horizons) can be useful in forming an opinion as to how the soil was formed, its natural drainage and how it might be farmed Some detailed soil classifications are based on soil profile

II Check your understanding

A Read the text carefully, then answer the following questions:

1 What are the four main constituent parts of soil?

2 What should the farmer understand about soil?

3 How many types of soil are there?

4 What soil is called mould

5 How are soils formed?

6 How do you take a soil sample?

7 What can a soil sample tell you?

B Find the words with opposite meaning to the following words in the passage

- simple : - development : - concentrating :

- loose : - deep : - single :

- not wanted : - wash away : - general :

C Look at paragraph 2 and say what these words refer to:

line 1: which line 9:

line 2: which line 13:

line 8: which line 17:

D Look at the passage again Which words correspond to the definitions below:

1 how particles are arranged in a substance

2 the process of pressing particles closely together

3 a ditch dug in the ground

4 the middle, or most important, part of anything

5 a system for taking away water

6 a group into which something is put

7 what is based on to classify soil in full detail

8 loose cultivated surface soil

9 small organisms living in soil

10 prepare and use land for growing crops

E Matching the given words with each picture from smallest particle to largest A gravel B clay C sand E stone F silt G rock

1

1 2 3 4 5 6

PART B: I READING B AGRICULTURAL POLICY Agricultural policy in the United Kingdom since 1973 has been determined primarily by Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) of the EU, which aims to ensure stable markets, a fair standard of living for producers, and regular supplies of food at reasonable prices for consumers The costs to EU taxpayers of the CAP, which accounts for more than 50 per cent of the EU‟s budget, and the mechanisms of maintaining farm prices through grants and subsidies, and through tariffs on cheaper imports, have come under increasing criticism since the early 1980s by Britain, by developing countries, and by the United States Various reforms have been implemented in an attempt to reduce costs, subsidies, and the huge levels of overproduction, which generated „‟butter mountain‟‟ and „‟wine lakes‟‟ during the 1970s and 1980s These have included schemes to encourage farmers to take land out of agricultural production, to adopt more environmentally kind, but less productive methods of farming, to impose production quotas on certain products, like milk, and to reduce subsidies on others In Britain agricultural marketing is carried out by private traders, producers‟ cooperatives, and marketing boards for certain products The number of marketing boards has been steadily reduced over the past 20 years In November 1994 one of the largest, the Milk Marketing Board for England and Wales, ceased to exist and was replaced by a producers‟ cooperative, Milk Marque Britain‟s food industry is one of the world‟s largest and most successful, with a highly developed retail, supply, and distribution network Its supermarket chains supply an ever-increasing choice of food products to the British consumer and are among Europe‟s most profitable companies The 1997 merger of Guinness and Grand Metropolitan created one of the world‟s biggest food and drinks conglomerates II Word study A Find the words in the text which have similar meaning to the following words 1 define : a 6 suitable: f

2 firm: b 7 fund: g

3 norm: c 8 project: h

4 collective: d 9 provide: i

5 usual: e 10 systems: j

III Grammar Word Formation

A Practice New words are formed by adding a suffix to other words

Find the words formed in this way in the passage to complete the exercise below

-………  …………

6.agriculture  agricultural

B Complete the following sentences, using the right form of the given word

1 The government gives some subsidies to the basic food to the normal

production (maintenance)

2 Five dollars for a big chicken is enough in New York (reason)

3 There should be a complete of all the local authorities (implement)

4 British Agriculture just 2% of the population and .1.9% of GDP

but it achieves high levels of efficiency and (employment ; contribution ; produce)

5 Will the new power station be able to supply us cheap energy ? (require)

6 Agricultural policy aims to ensure stable markets, a fair standard of living for ,

and regular supplies of food at prices for consumers (produce ; reason)

7 Various reforms have been in an attempt to reduce costs, subsidies, and the

huge levels of (implementation ; overproduce)

8 In Britain agricultural marketing is carried out by private traders, producers‟

, and marketing boards for certain (cooperate; produce)

IV Comprehension check

1 What are the main points of the policy?

2 What is the aim of the policy?

3 Who gets the most benefits from the policy?

4 Are there any agricultural policies in your country?

5 Do the policies help to develop the agriculture?

6 What is the agriculture of your country?

7 What is the most dominant sector in the agriculture?

8 Where is rice mainly grown?

9 What population does the agriculture employ?

10 What percentage of GDP does the agriculture account for?

11 What do you think about your agriculture now and in he future?

12 Are there any plans for developing your agriculture?

13 According to you can we develop our livestock rising like Holland or USA?

14 As a future agronomist do you have any special plans for the agriculture?

15 What economic sector can be developed best in our agriculture?

  

Never put off till tomorrow what you can do today

§ UNIT 2 TROPICAL SOILS

I Word study

1 Fill in the gaps with given words

due to ; erode ; waterlogged ; compound ; presence ; friable ; laterite ; penetrate

a Metals are ……….by acids

b Common salt is a ………of sodium and chlorine

c The train was delayed ……… the bad weather

d The dogs were trained to detect the ………of drug

e Soil with large particles is………

f Almost roads in the countryside are made of ………

g The heavy rain had ……… right through her coat

h The area is often ……… in rainy season

II READING A

1 Pre-reading task

a What countries are tropical?

2 Read the passage and answer these questions as quickly as possible

a What colour is laterite?

b What are the three major soil types mentioned in the passage?

TROPICAL SOIL

The soil of hot, tropical areas varies in texture, structure and colour and in their value for agriculture A group called Tropical Red Earths is a very common soil type in, for example, tropical Africa The group includes yellow, orange and brown soils as well as red Their colour

is due to the presence of certain minerals, mainly iron and aluminium oxides They are usually rich in clay but they are quite friable and easily cultivated A common type of soil in this group is laterite It is a red-brown soil, which becomes very hard when it is dry Laterite often forms a very hard crust on or below the surface Plants are unable to grow through it and water cannot penetrate it These soils are usually eroded by water running over the surface

Black or dark-coloured soils are found in lowland areas, which become flooded or

waterlogged, and in valleys They are usually rich soils and valuable for cultivation (rice) The grey and light-coloured soils contain calcium compounds and are often found over limestone rock

A Say whether the information in the following sentences is true or false Correct any false or partly false information

1 There is only one type of soil in tropical countries

2 Soils which are rich in iron oxides are common in tropical Africa

3 These soils are fine-textured and usually solid in structure

4 Laterite is an example of Tropical Red Earths

5 Laterite has properties which make it difficult for plants to grow

6 Laterite is a well-drained soil

7 Important nutrients are leached out of laterite soils

8 Black or dark-coloured soils are poorly drained

9 Black or dark-coloured soils usually have large soil particles

10 Black or dark-coloured soils retain important plant nutrients

B Writing and speaking Answer the following questions

1 Can you say anything about the pH value of Tropical Red Earths from the information given in the passage?

2 Find out about the properties of soils in your area (type of soil, colour, texture and structure of the soil) Which crops grow on them?

C The pH value of soil water

We use the pH scale to describe the acidity or alkalinity of a soil A soil with a pH value between 1 and 6 is acid, whereas a soil with a pH value of 7 is neutral and a soil with a pH value between 8 and 14 is alkaline Most soils have a pH value between 8 and 6 Most crops

do not grow well in very acid or very alkaline soils

……….tea coffee citrus bananas …… ………

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14

1 Writing1 Now make similar sentences about tea, coffee, citrus crops, rice, tomato and sweet potatoes as the given example Example: Bananas grow well in slightly acid or neutral soil, but they do not grow well in very acid soil a Tea

b Coffee

c Citrus …

d ………

e ………

2 Writing 2 Write comparison Example: blackberry/cherry Blackberry grows well in acid soil, but carrot doesn‟t a grape/cauliflower … ………

b soybean/celery ……….………

c onion/peanut ………

d ………

e ………

f ………

Acid and Alkaline Tolerance

Quite acid (4.0 – 6.0) Slightly acid (6.0 – 7.0) Neutral to alkaline (7.0 – 7.5)

- blackberry

- blueberry

- bracken

- chestnut

- coffee

- conifer

- lupine

- marigold

- moss

- oak

- potato

- peanut

- raspberry

- sweet potato

- tea

- watermelon

- apple

- apricot

- beans

- buckwheat

- cherry

- egg-plant

- gooseberry

- grains

- grape

- parsley

- pea

- peach

- pear

- pumpkin

- soybean

- strawberry tomato

- alfalfa

- beet

- broccoli

- cabbage

- carrot

- cauliflower

- celery

- clover

- cucumber

- leeks

- lettuce

- onion

- silver beet

- spinach

- swiss chard

- zucchini

Acid and alkaline tolerances of selected crops

3 Exercise 3 (pair-work)

Ask and say about the tolerance of the crops in the box as example below

- A: What crops grow well in an acid soil?

- B: Blackberry, potato and watermelon grow well in acid soil

- A: What crops do not grow well in an acid soil?

- B: The crops do not grow well in an acid soil such as: onion, spinach and cauliflower

- A: In what soil do beans grow well?

- B: Beans grow well in slightly acid or neutral soil, but they do not grow well in very

acid soil

III READING B

1 Read the following passage and answer these questions

a Which of these would you expect to find in tropical soils? Discuss and explain your

answers

- soil erosion

- nutrient deficiency

- an excessive amount of water

- an insufficient quantity of water

- an excess of nutrients

b How much kaolinite clay do tropical soils usually contain?

c What is this section of the reading passage about?

- tropical soils and their management

- the differences between tropical and temperate soils

- the differences between tropical and temperate soil management

THE MANAGEMENT OF TROPICAL SOILS

The management of tropical soils involves different principles from those of temperate soils This is because both the climate and the soils are different In the tropics there is a low temperature range and a high average temperature The rainfall is usually very heavy in the rainy season but inadequate in the dry season, where there is one

Tropical soils contain a large amount of kaolinite clay and if they are low in iron and aluminium, their structure may be excessively poor and unstable If, on the other hand, the soil contains adequate amount of iron and aluminium, their oxides and hydroxides will

cement the kaolinite particles together in relatively large aggregates and this will improve soil structure

When managing tropical soils, therefore, two basic principles are involved The first is to use a method of farming which involves a minimum of clean cultivation since the latter

leaves the soil bear and consequently liable to water erosion and loss of nutrients by leaching The second is to use a method which maintains sufficient organic matter in the surface soil This helps to keep bases and phosphates available in the soil, is a good source of plant

nutrients and maintains good structure in the surface soil

2 Writing and speaking (pair or group-work) Find the answer to the followings

a Give two ways in which tropical climates differ from temperate climates

b Name two common bases found in some tropical soils

c Name two factors, which improve soil structure and explain their effect

d Explain why a soil may contain insufficient phosphates

e Give one function of iron oxide in the soil

f Give the two advantages of each of the basic principles in managing tropical soils

IV Grammar SENTENCES and SENTENCE PATTERNS

A Phrases and Clauses

The various parts of speech are grouped into phrases and clauses which make up the basic sentence

1 Phrases

Phrases are groups of related words that do not contain a subject-verb combination or express a complete thought There are noun, prepositional, participial, verb and infinitive phrases

* Noun phrase: - my brand new car - the famous film star

* Prepositional phrase: - over the wall - around the block

* Participial phrase: - playing the piano - buying the book

* Infinitive phrase: - to think - to draw

2 Clauses

Clauses are groups of related words that contain a subject-verb combination Independent clauses express a complete thought and can stand by themselves as sentences Subordinate clauses serve as part of a sentence but do not express complete thought and cannot stand by themselves They are subordinate to independent clauses

* Independent clauses:

- the weather was warm and dry

- John got free tickets to the play

- They took the wrong road

* Subordinate clauses:

- by the time June arrived

- because he works at the theatre

- when they came to the turn

* Complete sentences:

- By the time June arrived, the weather was warm and dry

- John got free tickets to the play, because he works at the theatre

- When they came to the turn, they took the wrong way

B Practice Analyze the following sentences

1 Underline and name the phrases in the following sentences

a We have only three days to practise until the band contest

b In this case some of the nitrate retains in the subsoil

c This gives two further important principles in tropical soil management

d The first of these is to prepare the land and sow the crops early enough to use the surplus nitrogen after the dry season

e The second is to grow crops with sufficiently deep roots to use nitrogen before it is

washed into subsoil

2 Find and underline the clauses in the following sentences

a Precipitation is rain, snow, fog, sleet, hail and frost, which undergo two main processes: condensation and evaporation

b The place where you live is a microclimate of the large general climate

c Microclimates can be a rich source of diversity, so your design should take advantage of them rather than eliminate them

d You can create different habitats and diversify the range of plants and animals that will grow in your garden

e You may be able to grow an almond tree if you live in a cool moist climate simply by positioning it against a sunny sheltered wall

f Although much farming is still by traditional methods, there has been a significant change in the technologies available since independence

g The raising of livestock, particularly horned cattle, buffalo, horses, and mules, is a

central feature of the agricultural economy

h The demand for chemical fertilizers and high-yielding seed varieties has increased

markedly, particularly since the much-publicized “Green Revolution” of the 1960s and

early 1970s - which particularly benefited richer farmers in wheat-growing areas like Uttar Pradesh and Punjab states

PART B

I READING C 1 Pre-reading task a Is India in Europe? b What is Indian agriculture? c What agricultural products of India are popular in the world? AGRICULTURE OF INDIA About two-thirds of India‟s population depends on the land to make a living Agriculture generates an estimated 28 per cent of gross domestic product (GDP) Most farms are very small - the average size of holding nationally is 2.63 hectares, but more than a third of holdings are considered too small for the subsistence needs of farming family In term of area sown the leading crop is rice, the staple food of a large section of the Indian population Wheat ranks next in importance to rice, and Indian also among the leading producers in the world of sugar cane, tea, cotton, and jute Annual production of these commodities in the mid-1990s was sugar cane, 275.5 million tones; rice, 82 million tones; wheat, 65.8 million tones; tea, 737,400 tones; cotton lint, 1.9 million tones; and jute, 1.5 million tones Other important crops are vegetables, melons, sorghum, millet, maize, barley, chickpeas, bananas, mangoes, rubber, coffee, linseed, groundnuts (peanuts), and various spices The raising of livestock, particularly horned cattle, buffalo, horses, and mules, is a central feature of the agricultural economy In the mid-1990s India had about 193 million cattle, substantially more than any other country in the world These animals, like buffaloes, horses and mules, are utilized primarily as beasts of burden, although the vegetarianism associated with the Hindu custom is followed by few, especially in north India Lack of pasture and water supplies means most Indian cattle are of poor quality The country‟s 78 million buffalo are largely raised in the delta regions In the dry regions of Punjab and Rajasthan camels (1.5 million) are the principal beasts of burden Sheep (44.8 million) and goats (118 million) are raised mainly for wool Although much farming is still by traditional methods, there has been a significant change in the technologies available since independence The area under canal irrigation systems financed by the government has expanded enormously; there has been an even greater expansion in the area watered by well-based systems By the early 1990s about 45 per cent of the total cultivated area was irrigated The demand for chemical fertilizers and high-yielding seed varieties has increased markedly, particularly since the much-publicized “Green Revolution” of the 1960s and early 1970s - which particularly benefited richer farmers in wheat-growing areas like Uttar Pradesh and Punjab states 1 Comprehension check A Find the word or words, which may link with the following to make a phrase * Example: a method (noun phrase)  traditional method  effective traditional method  an effective traditional method * practice 1 government………

2 area ………

3 systems ………

4 economy ………

5 expansion ………

6 region ………

7 product ………… …………

b depend (verb phrase) depend wholly depend wholly on the land depend wholly on the land for food 1 consider ………

2 cultivate ………

3 lead ………

4 increase ………

5 produce ………

6 grow ………

7 supply ………

8 farm ………

9 crops ………

10 fertilizer ………

8 irrigate ………

9 utilize ………

10 change ………

B Answer the following questions 1 How many percent of gross domestic product does Indian Agriculture generate? 2 What size are farms in India? 3 What are the main farming products of Indian Agriculture? 4 How many cattle are raised in India? 5 Where are most buffaloes raised? 6 Why are most Indian cattle of poor quality? 7 What are camels in India mainly used for? 8 What is the Green Revolution about? 9 What agricultural products does India export to other countries? 10 Why isn't the raising of livestock in India increased? C Writing 1 Write out five leading agricultural products of India

………

………

………

………

2 Write about the raising of livestock in India ………

………

………

………

………



Make hay while the sun shines

§ UNIT 3 SOILS - A LIVING ORGANISM

I Word study

A Which set of words do the definitions refer to?

1 Get back from used material by treating it

2 Force that attracts objects in space towards each other and on

the earth pulls them towards the centre of the planet

3 Way a surface of soil looks firm, soft or hard

4 Way in which the mineral fractions together build the soil

5 Organism so small that it can be seen only under a microscope

6 Substance from which soil is built

7 Way or techniques that assist micro-organisms and nutrients in

B Match the word on the left with the word with opposite meaning on the right

1 alkali solution … a develop 11 adequate … k release

2 soluble … b decline 12 decay l alkaline

3 absorb … c lose 13 increase m dry

4 acidic … d centrally 14 mulch n percolation

5 moisture e deposit 15 promote … o inorganic things

6 evaporation f poisons 16 solubility p build-up

7 roots g decrease 17 nutrients q harmful

8 organic matter … h keeping 18 leaching r lack

9 breakdown … i acid solution 19 laterally s bear

10 beneficial … j precipitable 20 benefit t leaves

II READING A:

1 Pre-reading questions

a Is soil a living organism? Why do people think of soil as a living organism?

SOILS - A LIVING ORGANISM

You can think of soil as living organism which recycle waste, promotes active growth, stores and cleanses water, and act a basic life source for all living things And like all living things, soil can be healthy or unhealthy

A healthy soil has a good balance of water, gases, mineral fractions, living organisms and decaying organic matter Together these components interact to give life to the soil

Soil Components

1 Water / moisture

Water in soil becomes a weak acid or alkali solution, which carries the soluble nutrients that plants absorb through their roots

We talk about the pH of the solution; the pH refers to acidity or alkalinity which, in soils,

is a measure of solubility of nutrients The pH is measured on a scale of 0 to 14 If a soil has a

pH of 8 then some nutrients will be more soluble than others and the soil is said to be

alkaline If a soil has a pH of 5 then the solubility of its nutrients will be different and the soil

is said to be acidic A soil with a pH of 7 is neutral

Soil pH can be changed by adding lime to an acid soil to make it more alkaline, and

sulphur can be added to an alkaline soil to make it more acidic Most plants grow within a pH range of 5.5 to 8

It is important to understand how water moves through the soil so that when you add water you can help to keep it there and prevent leaching of valuable plant nutrients Water moves through the soil under the force of gravity While plant roots absorb some of the water, much

of it moves downwards into the lower soil layers and is eventually absorbed into the

underlying water table During periods of heavy rain or over-watering, soil nutrients are washed from the root zone

Moisture moves upwards due to the evaporative effects of sunlight and wind, and from the pull of soil water by the plant roots to the leaves

By reducing evaporation from the soil surface and percolation you can increase the

amount of water available to plant roots This can be achieved by surface mulching, digging organic matter into the soil and constructing swales

Water also moves laterally along bedding rocks in the water table You can plant rooted plants to benefit from this water source

deep-2 Air

Gases in soils change their pressure and type during the day and different seasons They also move into and out of soils How freely they move depends some extent on the texture and structure of the soil

Gases in the air are exchanged with those given off by plant roots and by soil

micro-organisms If there is adequate oxygen then soil tends to be sweet smelling If there is little oxygen then other gases such as sulphur dioxide can build up and the soil will smell rotten

It has recently been found that ethylene gas is particularly beneficial to plant growth (Ethylene gas is known as the 'ripening' gas and is given of as bananas, oranges and other fruit ripen.) In soil ethylene cycles with oxygen, increasing the build-up of micro-organisms and other soil materials Techniques that let more oxygen into the soil, such as forking small areas or deep-ripping fields, are soil improvers because they assist the ethylene cycle

III Comprehension check

A Are the following statements true or false according to the passage?

1 Soil can promote the active growth of trees

2 The pH is a measure of solubility of nutrients

3 A soil which has a pH under 7 is said to be acidic

4 Farmers often add some lime to a soil to make it more acidic

5 Moisture may move upwards due to the evaporative effects of sunlight and wind

6 Soils are different from each other because they have the different pH of solubility

7 When water moves through the soil, it may bring plant nutrients into water table

8 How freely gases move out of soil depends on the texture and structure of the soil

9 Oxygen with ethylene may help to increase the build-up of micro-organism

10 One of the techniques of improving soils is to let more oxygen into the soil

11 Soil is considered as living organism because it acts as a basic life resource for all living things

12 The pH of the solution in a soil is never changed

13 The understanding how water moves through the soil is very important for farmers to prevent leaching of valuable plant nutrients when watering

14 Mulching the soil surface or digging organic matter into the soil can reduce evaporation from the soil surface

B Speaking (pair or group-work) Ask and answer the following questions

1 What are the main soil components?

2 How do they interact to each other?

3 What soil is regarded to be healthy and what unhealthy?

4 What is the PH value?

5 What can the PH tell you about the soil?

C Translation Translate the following sentences into Vietnamese

1 A healthy soil has a good balance of water, gases, mineral fractions, living organisms and decaying organic matter Together these components interact to give life to the soil

2 Water in soil becomes a weak acid or alkali solution, which carries the soluble nutrients that plants absorb through their roots

3 We talk about the pH of the solution; the pH refers to acidity or alkalinity which, in soils, is a measure of solubility of nutrients

4 It is important to understand how water moves through the soil so that when you add water you can help to keep it there and prevent leaching of valuable plant nutrients

5 While plant roots absorb some of the water, much of it moves downwards into the lower soil layers and is eventually absorbed into the underlying water table

6 Gases in soils change their pressure and type during the day and different seasons They also move into and out of soils How freely they move depends some extent on the

texture and structure of the soil

7 Gases in the air are exchanged with those given off by plant roots and by soil organisms

micro-IV GRAMMAR SUBJECT and PREDICATE

The subject is the topic of the sentence The predicate is what is said about the subject

Subject Predicate

- New York City is the major cultural centre

In most cases, as in the preceding examples, the subject of a sentence comes first, followed

by the predicate However, there are instances when the subject is placed after the predicate, omitted from the sentence, or placed inside the verb

- Into the valley of death rode the six hundred

- Wash the car by tonight (subject 'you' is understood)

- Are your parents coming tomorrow?

- There are four chickens in the yard (there occupies the place of the subject, but four chickens is still the subject of the sentence)

A Forms of the subject

The most common forms of the subject are nouns, pronouns, and proper nouns

- Carol came to the party last night

- Why don't you pick up some lettuce for tonight?

- Who left these socks here?

At times, noun phrases and clauses, gerunds and gerund phrases, and infinitive phrases can also function as the subject

- Noun phrase: - The girl on the right is my niece

- Noun clause: - What they said upset Bill

- Gerund: - Swimming is my favorite sport

- Gerund phrase: - playing checkers kept him from thinking about his injuries

- Infinitive phrase: - To see clearly is an artist's greatest task

1 Complete subject

The noun or pronoun and all its modifiers are known as the complete subject

- The ship in the harbor seemed small and frail

- What he said in the car surprised us all

- The trees, which had been damaged in the storm, were cut down the next day and burned

2 Simple and compound subjects

a The noun and pronoun by itself is known as the simple subject It is important to identify the subject because it controls the form of the verb used in the sentence

- The ship in the harbor seemed small and frail

- Daffodils open in early spring

- They reported the fire immediately

b The compound subject is composed of two or more nouns, pronouns, or phrases or clauses

to express the topic of a sentence

- Noun: - The wheat and oats ripened late this year

- Pronouns: - She and I used to be best friends in high school

- Noun clauses: - What he wanted and what he got were two different things

- Gerund phrases: - Hiking in the mountains and camping out at night are experiences

everyone should enjoy

B Forms of the predicate

The predicate always contains a verb An action verb generally will have an object as well

as various verb modifiers A linking verb will have a complement along with its verb modifiers

Thus, the predicate usually is composed of a verb, object or complement, and verb modifiers

1 Predicate with Action Verbs

The most common form of predicate is one in which the verb describes some sort of action The verb is followed by a direct object (d.o.) and, in some cases, by an indirect object (ind o.)

Example:

- John threw the ruler to his partner

- I bought two newspapers and one magazine

- Carl Lewis won four gold medals in the Olympics

- She called a taxi for him

Some action verbs can drop their objects and still make sense The predicate then consists

of the verb only

- They have been practising

- We were reading

- The report disappeared

- The weather has changed

Action verb can also take complement Nouns, pronouns, prepositional phrases, adjectives, and verb phrases can serve as complements in the predicate

- He taught the dog to roll over (infinitive phrase-complement)

- I called him prince (noun-complement)

- They made camp on the hill (prepositional phrase-complement)

- We saw Peter walking along that way (participial phrase-complement)

- Her pony behaved beautifully (adverb-complement)

- She lay down in the tall grass (adverb and prepositional phrase-complement)

2 Predicate with linking verbs

Linking verbs that express being, seeming, or becoming need a predicate or verb

complement to complete them The more common of these verbs include seem, become, grow, taste, smell, appear, look, feel, and sound

- He looks sick (he looks is incomplete The adjective sick acts as the predicate

complement.)

- I feel that you should apologize for your absence (The noun clause that you should

apologize for your absence is the verb complement.)

3 Compound Predicate

At times a sentence will contain more than one verb, object, or complement These

structures are known as compound verbs, compound objects, and compound complements

- I gave the stove to Francis and the bookcase to Jill (compound direct object)

- Sammy's week at camp was long and lonely (compound complement)

- Jenny reads the ad and takes note carefully (compound verb)

C Practice Underline the subject, predicate, direct and indirect objects in the following

sentences

1 They sent me a lot of postcards of the city

2 Her mother often buys clothes for her and her brother

3 His grandfather usually tells him interesting stories

4 When Annie was in Rio, she taught English to the Brazilian children

5 They grow different vegetables for their families in their gardens

6 A healthy soil has a good balance of water, gases, mineral fractions, living organisms and decaying organic matter

7 By reducing evaporation from the soil surface and percolation you can increase the amount

of water available to plant roots

8 They often wrote to me when they were at Oxford University

9 In order to change soil pH farmers add lime to an acid soil to make it more alkaline

10 You can plant deep-rooted plants to benefit from this water source

PART B FURTHER READING

AGRICULTURE OF AUSTRALIA

Although the agricultural sector is now far less significant in terms of GDP and

employment (5 per cent of the workforce in the mid-1990s), the prosperity of much of the country continues to depend heavily on livestock rising and crop farming The pastoral sector was established in the early days of settlement, when the first Spanish merino sheep were introduced from South Africa, and grazing lands today account for almost 90 per cent of the farmed area This reflects the fact that, although livestock is raised in all productive areas, much of the pastoral sector is located in the semi-arid zone of Australia; about one-third of sheep and an even larger percentage of cattle are raised on huge properties known as

„‟station‟‟ in this zone

Australia is the world‟s largest producer and exporter of wool, particularly fine merino, although income from wool exports is now less than 8 per cent of total export earnings

Overproduction led to a significant fall in international wool prices in the late 1980s; in

1990-1991 more than 10 million sheep were culled from the national flock in an effort to boost the market In 1992 Australia had some 146.8 million sheep, which produced 863,000 tones of wool and 41,000 tones of lamb and mutton Almost half the country‟s wool is produced in New South Wales and Western Australia Victoria is the leading producer of lamb and

mutton

Cattle are raised in all of Australia‟s states and territories, but Queensland is the leading producer; it had approximately 40 per cent of the national herd of 24.06 million heads in the mid-1990s Australia produces both beef and dairy cattle Dairying is confined primarily to the high-rainfall coastal fringe and to the southeast, especially in Victoria Farms usually employ high-tech methods In contrast, the huge cattle stations of the north are more

reminiscent of the American „‟Wild West‟‟, although the cowboys‟ mounts these days are as likely to be helicopters and motorcycles, as horses; the road train (a large truck pulling

several trailers) has also predominantly replaced the old stock routes in moving cattle around the territory and to market Output of beef in the mid-1990s was more than 1.7 million tones, and of milk 7.3 million litres

Although only about 10 per cent of the total area of Australia is under crop or fodder production, this acreage is not great economic importance Wheat crops occupy about 45 per cent of cultivated acreage, and fodder crops and other grains occupy 20 per cent Wheat production is highly mechanized and the crop is grown in all states; the south-eastern and south-western regions of the country are responsible for the bulk of production Annual

production has decreased in recent years because of shifts into new, higher earning crops Output was about 10.7 million tones in 1992, compared with more than 14 million tones in the early 1990s; about 70 per cent is exported About 32.7 million tones of sugar cane were produced in 1994 Many types of fruit are grown, including apples, bananas, grapes, oranges, pears, pineapples, and papayas The major wine-producing areas are in the Barossa Valley of South Australia, in Hunter Valley, New South Wales, and in parts of north-eastern, southern, and western Victoria Special varieties of grapes are grown, especially in the Murray Valley, for the production of raisins

Irrigation is of importance to arable farmers in all but the highest rainfall areas However, increased soil salinity is becoming a problem in several areas, threatening production

Experiments with bio-technologies are being carried out with the aim of reducing the impact

of soil salinity and cutting the use of expensive water resources

B Comprehension check Are these statements true or false?

1. Australian Agriculture employs half of workforce of the country

2. Crop-farming area accounts for 90 per cent of the farmed land of Australia

3. Australia is the world's leading country of wool export

4. Most cattle are raised in Queensland

5. Australia imports beef and milk

6. Nearly 45 per cent of farmed area is for wheat crops

7. Nowadays soil salinity is becoming a big problem in several areas in Australia

8. Australia is carrying out a lot of experiments with bio-technologies with the aim of reducing the impact of soil salinity

9. Irrigation is not important for the highest rainfall areas

II Word formation

Find the words in the passage which have the same root

Example: produce -> production -> products

……… _ _

Time and tide wait for no man

§ UNIT 4 UNHEALTHY SOILS

1 bear produce or provide (a natural product)

2 poor soil which is not enough fertile for farming

3 removing or being removed

4 break up the surface of soil before planting

5 barren land

6 process of gradually developing

7 keep something safe from harm

8 cutting and gathering of food crops

9 horny part of the foot of a horse, an ox or a deer

10 dangerous or disease-carrying substances

11 uncover or being unprotected

12 remain, cause to settle

13 wash away

B Fill in the gaps with one of the words above, making any changes necessary

1 What is the……….of wheat per acre?

2 From the plough to the tractor is a long ……….of farming methods

3 Vast areas of land have become ……….because of deforestation

4 The meadow has been……….up

5 The vaccine was used to……….the whole population against infection

6 The soil was washed away by the flood, ……… bare rock

7 Farmers are very busy during………

8 After having built the factory the water of the river was ………….by chemicals

9 plant nutrients may be ………… into subsoil by heavy rain

10 Natural salts are…………in the upper layers of the soil as the water evaporates

II GRAMMAR SENTENCE CONSTRUCTION

English has four basic sentence constructions: simple, compound, complex, and

compound-complex sentences Each construction uses the same basic elements of sentence structure parts of speech, phrases, and clauses

A Simple Sentence

The simple sentence is an independent clause with no subordinate clauses It begins with a capital letter and closes with an end mark Simple sentences can vary considerably in length

Example:

- I bought four apples at the farmers' market

- I bought four apples, a basket of tomatoes, a bag of green beans, and three melons at the farmers' market

- The farmers' market is a classic example of producers selling directly to consumers and avoiding the attempts of agents to control the supply or to manipulate the price

B Compound Sentence

The compound sentence contains two or more independent clauses but no subordinate clauses The two independent clauses usually are joined by a comma followed by a

conjunction (but, and, nor, yet) They may also be joined by a semicolon, a semicolon

followed by a linking adverb (therefore, however, because, since), or a colon

* Conjunction: - I don't know where he went, and no one has seen him since this afternoon

* Semicolon: - Harold the first fought in Northern Ireland; his campaigns generally were

successful

*Linking adverb: -Vivian wanted to stay another week in Ashville; however her parents

refused to send her more money

* Colon: - You must have heard the news: we're all getting bonuses this year!

C Complex Sentence

The complex sentence is made up of an independent clause and one or more subordinate clauses When a subordinate clause introduces the sentence, it is usually followed by a

comma unless it is very short

- The library closes early in summer when the students are out of school After the clear days of Indian summer, the autumn skies grow heavily and dark Linda told us on the phone that they had had a flat tire last night and that the car wouldn't start this morning

- When you come in the front door, make sure you push it shut, because the lock doesn't always catch

D Compound-complex Sentence

The compound-complex sentence is composed of two or more independent clauses and one or more subordinate clauses

- John Lennon wrote many ballads, and he recorded them while he was in England

- The letter carrier, Who is always punctual, didn't come today; I wonder if she is ill

- He should telephone you as soon as he arrives; but if for some reason he doesn't call, tell

me immediately

E Practice: Which types of sentence do the followings belong to? Underline the subject and

predicate

a Wheat production is highly mechanized and the crop is grown in all states

b Special varieties of grapes are grown, especially in the Murray Valley, for the production

e As these raw materials are broken down they become humus

f When mulches are made from organic materials, such as hay, grass clippings, straw,

newspaper and old woolen, they will gradually add to the soil organic matter and nutrient bank as they break down

g Artificial fertilizers need to be soluble compounds so that plants can absorb the nutrients

h It is a red-brown soil which becomes very hard when it is dry

III READING A

1 Pre-reading task

a What does an unhealthy soil mean?

b What makes soil unhealthy?

UNHEALTHY SOILS

There are a number of reasons for damaged soils, however the fundamental cause of soil decline is the removal of surface vegetation With the exception of natural deserts, soil is always protected by vegetation In an effort to harvest greater yields, more and more marginal land has been ploughed up, and of course, the natural vegetation removed This has been disastrous for the soil which, after being dosed with chemicals, is then left exposed and

unprotected from animal hoofs, wind, rain, cold and heat In effect, thousands of years of evolution of soil interaction with plants, animals, air and water is reversed by modern

Overdosing with fertilizer has also led to the contamination of surface and ground water Excess fertilizers which are not used by crops are washed into rivers, lakes and streams in run-off Excess fertilizer can also be leached through the soil into the water table

Soil salinity is another example of unhealthy soil Basically, it is caused by rising water tables As the water table rises towards the surface, naturally occurring salts are dissolved and concentrated in the upper soil layer The concentration of salts is toxic to plants

This worldwide problem occurs in two ways:

1 Dry-land salting

Deep-rooted trees and shrubs are removed and replaced with shallow-rooted pasture

species which use less water As more water moves through the soil the water table rises and natural salts are brought to the soil surface Plants and crops die because they are unable to tolerate the high salt levels Farmers call this the 'White Death'

Dry-land salting is a particular problem in areas where vegetation has been removed from recharge areas, i.e hills and slopes

Bill Mollison recommends that people wishing to grow organic foods do not purchase land which has been used to grow bananas, sugar cane or deciduous fruit, as these crops will have been heavily doses with biocides If your land has been used for such crops, a forest of long-

term precious timbers may work as a 'cleansing crop'

Tree removal and salinity

A Before tree removal

Crop growing well Recharce area Water table

discharce area

B After tree removal

Crop dying Water table salt

Recharge area _ _- _ _salt _ _ discharge area _- _ - _ - _

2 Comprehension check

A Say the following statements are true or false Correct the false statements

a. One of the most fundamental reasons causing soil decline is the removal of surface vegetation

b. Soil is protected by vegetation

c. Unhealthy soil may be caused by excessive use of artificial fertilizers

d. Soil salinity also causes unhealthy soil

e. Natural salt is brought to soil surface by rising water table

f. Biocides are also a reason which causes soil decline

g. Some biocides exist unchanged in soil because they cannot move into the cycle of

j. There are five major reasons causing soil decline

B Writing and speaking

a What are the main reasons for damaging soils?

b What reason is the most common in many countries in the world?

c What reasons are popular in your area/country?

d How does soil salinity occur?

e What do farmers have to do to stop the soil decline?

C Decide which words the words in italic in the following sentences refer to

a In an effort to harvest greater yields, more and more marginal land has been ploughed up,

and of course, the natural vegetation removed This has been disastrous for the soil which,

after being dosed with chemicals, is then left exposed and unprotected from animal hoofs, wind, rain, cold and heat In effect, thousands of years of evolution of soil interaction with plants, animals, air and water is reversed by modern agriculture

b A special case has taken place in Australia where huge amounts of phosphates were

added to soils to grow European grasses and clovers

c Excess fertilizers which are not used by crops are washed into rivers, lakes and streams in

run-off

d Deep-rooted trees and shrubs are removed and replaced with shallow-rooted pasture

species which use less water

e Dry-land salting is a particular problem in areas where vegetation has been removed from

recharge areas, i.e hills and slopes

f Irrigation water which is surplus to the crops' needs causes the water table to rise

g Soluble fertilizers, which are often added regularly to the irrigation water, further

contribute to the concentration of salts in the upper soil layer

h Many biocides have a very long life in the soil This means they continue to exist

unchanged in the soil because they cannot move into one of the cycles of matter

D Translation Find the difference between the words „as‟ in the following sentences, then

translate them into Vietnamese

a Bill Mollison recommends that people wishing to grow organic foods do not purchase

land which has been used to grow bananas, sugar cane or deciduous fruit, as these crops

will have been heavily doses with biocides

b As more water moves through the soil the water table rises and natural salts are brought

to the soil surface

c Natural salts are then deposited in the upper layers of the soil as the water evaporates

d As the water table rises towards the surface, naturally occurring salts are dissolved and

concentrated in the upper soil layer

PART B

I READING B

1 Pre-reading task

a What agricultural products of The United States are world-popular?

b What agricultural products does The United States export?

c How many percent of workers does the agriculture of The United States employ?

d How many percent of annual GDP does it account for?

AGRICULTURE OF THE UNITED STATES

The United States has been the world‟s leading industrial nation since early in the 20thcentury Farming only accounts for less than 2 per cent of annual GDP and employs less than

3 per cent of US workers, yet the nation leads the world in many aspects of agricultural

production Farmers not only produce enough to meet domestic needs, they also enable the United States to export more farm products per year than any other nation in the world The total annual value of farm output increased from about $55 billion in 1970 to about $187 billion in 1992 Excluding inflation, the increase in the farm output was two per cent

marketing, and crops for remainder California led all states in the yearly value of farm

receipts; it was followed by Texas, Lowa, Nebraska, Illinois, Minnesota, and Kansas

Beef cattle rank as the most valuable product of the nation‟s farms, accounting for almost one quarter of total annual farm receipts Many are raised on large ranches in south-western states Dairy products represent about 12 per cent of the yearly value of farm marketings and are the second most valuable item coming from American farms Other major livestock and livestock products include pigs, chickens, eggs, turkey, and sheep and lambs

Leading agricultural crops are corn, vegetables, soya beans, fruits and nuts, wheat, cotton, and tobacco Illinois, Lowa, Nebraska, and Indiana together produce more than half of the annual corn crop, while Kansas usually leads all states in fearly wheat production For more

than a century and a half, cotton was the predominant cash crop in the South Today,

however, it is no longer important in some of the traditional cotton-growing areas east of the Mississippi River and is now concentrated in relatively flat areas amenable to large-scale mechanization, such as the lower Mississippi Valley, the plains of Texas, and the Valleys of California and Arizona Tobacco remains an important cash crop The leading tobacco-

producing states are North Carolina and Kentucky

Other leading crops include peanuts, peaches, tomatoes, and apples More than 60 per cent

of the oranges and about 50 per cent of the tomatoes are produced in Florida; some 90 per cent of the grapes are raised in California; and about 50 per cent of the commercial apples come from orchards in Washington State

7 livestock - cash crops

8 commercial crops - breed

B Complete the following sentences with one of the word above

a The number of farms in the United States from 5.6 million in 1950 to 2.1 million

in 1992 but average farm size from 86 hectares to 191 hectares

b Starvation and criminal are the of wars

c The fishing industry about 55 per cent of British fish supplies and involves both deep-sea fishing and fish-farming

d New plantings in 1994 totaled 17,300 hectares of which private owners almost

92 per cent (15,900 hectares)

e The United States leads the world in many … of agricultural production

f US farmers not only produce enough to meet needs but also enable to US to export more farm … per year than any other nation in the world

C Write complete the following sentences

a Grain consists of ………

b Vegetables consist of ………

c Livestock products include ………

d Fruit crops include ……….…

e Farming products include ………

f World leading crops………

II Checking your grammar

A Give some examples, using the comparison structures below

a S - V (not) + as/so + adj + as

1

2

short adj.+ er + than

b S - V + more / less + long adj + than

3

4

short adj.+ est

c S - V + the + most + long adj (of all)

5

6

B Writing & Speaking

1 Making comparison the farms in America with the farms in your country

2 Write the answers to the following questions

a Where do you think the following crops grow best in your country? Why?

(rice ; coffee ; tea ; rubber ; citrus fruit ; coconut palm; tomato; carrot; melon)

b Do you think big farms are better or worse in your country? Why?

c Where do you think livestock is raised best in your country? Why?

3 Make comparison with the total annual value of farm outputs of US Agriculture, using the diagram below

- In 2002: ……… ……… 

No man can serve two masters

§ UNIT 5 REPAIRING AND IMPROVING DAMAGED SOILS

- a fence with grass

- crops used for covering soil surface

- holding something in position

- manure made from green trees

- fix some different types of manure

- dung with urine of animals

- cut

- plant species which have bacterium in their roots

- organic things used for mulching soil surface

- release the amount left ever after having used

- the flower of peas (edible fruit)

- amount of organic matter

- small pieces in the legume root

- protect from something by keeping away

- make something dry

- microscopic organisms

- animal excrement

- process destroying soil gradually

- make something less violent

2 Fill in the gaps with words above

a The methods used to repair soil will vary according to the climate and site

; however, in all cases is the very best soil improver

b Green manuring, mulch-covering and fertilizing are the ways which increase the

……… and nutrient status of soils

c The……… crop can be ……… two or three times while it is growing and then chopped into the soil before it flowers and seeds

d There are plants which have a ……… living in their roots

e Bacteria supply the plant with nitrogen in forms the plant can use and………

nitrogen into the soil around the root zone

f You can check the bacterium's presence by digging up a piece of root - it should have small white……… on it

g The root systems open up the soil to air and water and protect the surface from erosion and………

h Pumpkins and potatoes are particularly good………

i ……… are peas, beans, broad beans, acacias, and all plants with a ………

j A……… is a protective covering of the soil surface which moderates summer and winter temperatures by……… the soil from extreme heat and cold

k A mulch also prevents ……… , assists ……… of soil moisture, and acts as a………

l chickens and pigs have a strong manure which should be……… before it is applied

II READING A

A Pre-reading questions

a What techniques do farmers in your areas often use to repair and improve their damaged soils? List them out

REPAIRING AND IMPROVING DAMAGED SOILS

Soil can be quite rapidly repaired and rebuilt In permaculture, soil repair is fundamental to productivity and health The methods used to repair soil will vary according to the climate and site characteristics; however, in all cases organic matter is the very best soil improver The following techniques describe ways of increasing the organic content and nutrient status

of soils

1 Green manuring

This technique involves specifically planting a crop to cut and return to the soil as high quality organic matter Often gardeners do this in winter, using plant species such as rye grass, lupines or barley In summer they plant wheat, lucerne or buckwheat The green

manure crop can be slashed two or three times while it is growing and then chopped into the soil before it flowers and seeds This technique improves soil texture and structure, as well as providing fertilizer

2 Legumes

There are plants which have a bacterium, Rhizobium species, living in their roots The bacteria supply the plant with nitrogen in forms the plant can use and excrete surplus nitrogen into the soil around the root zone In return, the bacteria receive energy from the plant

All legumes are 'nitrogen-fixing' providing the correct bacterium which is present in the soil You can check the bacterium's presence by digging up a piece of root - it should have small white nodules on it Split the nodule open, if it is pink inside then the plant is nitrogen-fixing

Legumes are peas, beans, broad beans, acacias, and all plants with a pea flower

3 Cover crops

These are very like green manure crops They carry out the same functions (improve soil structure and texture); in addition they provide edible products Cover crops are especially good for hard, compacted soils The root systems open up the soil to air and water and protect the surface from erosion and desiccation Pumpkins and potatoes are particularly good cover crops

4 Organic mulch

A mulch is a protective covering of the soil surface It moderates summer and winter temperatures by insulating the soil from extreme heat and cold It also prevents erosion, assists retention of soil moisture, and acts as a weed barrier

When mulches are made from organic materials, such as hay, grass clippings, straw,

newspaper and old woolen underfelt, they will gradually add to the soil organic matter and nutrient bank as they break down

1 How can soil be repaired and rebuilt?

2 What methods are used to repair and improve damaged soil?

3 What techniques are used to increase soil organic matter and nutrient status?

4 What is green manuring?

5 How does green manuring affect the soil?

6 Why do farmers often grow legumes on the lands?

7 What species are legumes?

8 What functions do the cover crops have?

9 What species are the best cover crops?

10 What advantages does the organic mulch bring to soils?

11 Why are animal manures useful to soils?

12 When is the animal manure used better for plants?

13 What do farmers often do to reduce evaporation from the soil surface?

14 Why do soils need to be covered?

15 Are there any other techniques the farmers in your area often use to repair and rebuild their land?

C Writing and speaking.(group-work)

1 One of you has some problems with your soil such as: erosion; salinity or unhealthy…

In turn, ask and give advice on how to repair and improve it Which technique is the most efficient

D Fill in the gaps with words in the box

facilitated ; required ; bacteria ; obtain ; molecules ;

release ; rates ; to make ; nutrients ; transformed

CYCLING OF MATTER

Matter consists of many elements and…(1)…that make up the gases, vitamins, proteins, minerals, and other…(2)…of life The total amount of matter in the world is constant and cycles through living and non-living materials (air, rocks, trees, animals, etc.) The cycling of

matter is driven by the sun and is…(3)…by the flow of energy

There are various forms and…(4)…of cycling of matter An important example is the cycling of nitrogen - one of the major elements…(5)…for plant and animal growth Nitrogen, one of the main gases in air, is…(6)…into a soluble form by bacteria living in soil or water Plants use this form of nitrogen…(7)…protein, which then re-enters the soil as the plant matter dies and decays Animals…(8)…nitrogen by eating plant material or other animals, and…(9)… nitrogen in their excreta and when their bodies decay The nitrogen is then

returned to the atmosphere as a gas by the action of …(10)… - thus completing the cycle

III GRAMMAR SENTENCE STRUCTURE

A Complex Sentence

The complex sentence is made up of an independent clause and one or more subordinate clauses When a subordinate clause introduces the sentence, it is usually followed by a

comma unless it is very short

- The library closes early in summer when the students are out of school After the clear days

of Indian summer, the autumn skies grow heavily and dark Linda told us on the phone that they had had a flat tire last night and that the car wouldn't start this morning

- When you come in the front door, make sure you push it shut, because the lock doesn't always catch

B Compound-complex Sentence

The compound-complex sentence is composed of two or more independent clauses and one or more subordinate clauses

- John Lennon wrote many ballads, and he recorded them while he was in England

- The letter carrier, Who is always punctual, didn't come today; I wonder if she is ill

- He should telephone you as soon as he arrives; but if for some reason he doesn't call, tell me immediately

C Practice

Exercise 1 Find the subject and predicate, then decide which is compounds or complex?

1 If a soil is almost pure clay or pure sand then it will be a 'difficult' soil in which to grow plants

2 There are many animals living in the soil, which range from microscopic organisms to beetles

3 Plants and crops die because they are unable to tolerate the high salt levels

4 As these raw materials are broken down they become humus

5 Animals carry out many functions, one of which is to supply plant nutrients in the form of manures

6 There are plants which have a bacterium, Rhizobium species, living in their roots

7 You could try to find a cultivar which has a known resistance to fungal diseases and plant

it in a place where it receives drying breezes

8 As the water table rises towards the surface, naturally occurring salts are dissolved and concentrated in the upper soil layer

9 The bacteria supply the plant with nitrogen in forms the plant can use and excrete surplus nitrogen into the soil around the root zone

Exercise 2 Write complete the following sentences

1 If the weather is good the farmers in the area………

2 The soil is badly damaged because………

3 The farmer has added some lime to their soil………

4 Farmers often cover their soils………

5 They plant some kinds of legumes in their soil………

6 In all cases, it is better to use organic matter………

7 Mulches made from organic materials will gradually add to the soil organic matter and nutrient bank………

8 In permaculture, animals are very important part of the system because………

9 Animals carry out many functions; one of which………

10 Chickens and pigs have a strong manure which should be composted………

- small piece of soil

- a relatively small type of stone

- a type of insect with hard wings

- a soil with grits

- a soil with large sands

2 Fill in the gaps with given words in the box

compacted ; sawdust ; releases ; microscopic ; jute ; absorbed

molecules ; scraps ; shrink ; compacted ; beetle ; humus

a Cover crops are especially good for hard,……… soils

b Organic matter is anything which was once living, including food ………, grass clippings, hay, straw, leaves, ………, and even fur coats, ………bags and old cotton curtains

c There are many animals living in the soil, ranging from ……… organisms to

………

d As these raw materials are broken down they become……… - a fine, sticky, smelling nutrient-rich substance which slowly………plant and animal

sweet-micronutrients

e Humus naturally helps sandy soils to hold water and nutrients and conversely, helps

……… clay soil to become more open

f If the soil is gritty it will ……… when dry and swell when wet

g The soil animals aerate the soil, create water channels, break down large ……… to smaller ones which can be ……… by plant roots

PART B

I READING B

A Pre-reading task Read the following passage to find the answer to the questions below

a Write out the types of soil

b Write out the characteristics of soil

c The functions of micro-organism to soil

d The functions of organic matter

SOIL COMPONENTS (2)

1 Mineral Fractions

These are rock and clay particles in the soil It is possible to determine a soil's

characteristics by its feel When the soil particles are mainly sand and coarse gravel and the soil has a rough feel, its texture is said to be gritty If the soil is gritty it will:

drain quickly, and dry out quickly;

have few soil fungal diseases;

leach out soil nutrients (wash them to lower soil layers)

Clay soils have minute particles, giving the soil a smooth feel and a silky texture If the soil is silky it will:

drain slowly and hold water for a longer time;

shrink when dry and swell when wet;

hold soil nutrients on the surface of clay particles;

form a claypan (a concrete-like layer) when vegetation is removed from the soil surface

If a soil is almost pure clay or pure sand then it will be a 'difficult' soil in which to grow plants In both cases the soil texture and structure is improved by adding large quantities of organic matter

It is not really possible to have too much organic matter in a food garden Organic matter

is anything which was once living, including food scraps, grass clippings, hay, straw, leaves,

sawdust, and even fur coats, jute bags and old cotton curtains All of these will break down in the soil and become part of your soil nutrient bank

As these raw materials are broken down they become humus - a fine, sticky,

sweet-smelling nutrient-rich substance which slowly releases plant and animal micronutrients Its nature is such that it helps sandy soils to hold water and nutrients and conversely, helps

compacted clay soil to become more open

B Comprehension check Answer the following questions

1 What characteristics does a gritty textured soil have?

2 What characteristics does a silky textured soil have?

3 Why is it difficult to grow plants in clay soil?

4 How can gritty and silky textured soils be improved?

5 Are there any animals living in soils?

6 Are these animals harmful or useful to plant growth? Why?

7 What is organic matter?

8 Why is organic matter useful to the soil?

9 What do farmers do to increase the micro-organisms in their soils?

10 How do farmers improve their unhealthy soils?

C Writing Write complete the following sentences

1 If the soil is gritty it ………

2 If the soil is silky it ………

3 If a soil is almost pure clay………

4 If a soil is pure sand it ………

5 If a soil has good air-water balance with plenty of organic material it ………

……… …………

6 If the raw materials such as food scraps, grass clippings, hay, straw, leaves, sawdust, and even fur coats, jute bags and old cotton curtains are broken down they………

………

D Translation Translate the following passage into Vietnamese

Mineral Fractions are rock and clay particles in the soil It is possible to determine a soil's characteristics by its feel When the soil particles are mainly sand and coarse gravel and the soil has a rough feel, its texture is said to be gritty If the soil is gritty it will:

drain quickly, and dry out quickly;

have few soil fungal diseases;

leach out soil nutrients (wash them to lower soil layers)

Clay soils have minute particles, giving the soil a smooth feel and a silky texture If the soil is silky it will:

drain slowly and hold water for a longer time;

shrink when dry and swell when wet;

hold soil nutrients on the surface of clay particles;

form a claypan (a concrete-like layer) when vegetation is removed from the soil surface

If a soil is almost pure clay or pure sand then it will be a 'difficult' soil in which to grow plants In both cases the soil texture and structure is improved by adding large quantities of organic matter



Good wine needs no bush

TEST 1 (Unit 1 – Unit5) (score: 100 marks)

I SECTION 1: (Grammar and Vocabulary) (45 marks)

A Vocabulary Choose the best answer among A,B,C,D

1 Clay soils have minute particles, giving the soil a smooth feel and a texture

A gritty B silky C fine D B or C

2 A coarse-textured soil can retain………….…

A air B water C nutrients D B or C

3 A medium-textured soil has a structure

A loose B solid C friable D stable

4 often vary in colour, texture and structure

A soil augers B soil layers C soil profiles D soil micro-organisms

5 A soil with coarse texture is called

A clay B loam C silt D sand

6 All legumes are 'nitrogen-fixing' providing the correct bacterium which is present in the

soil

A gift B showing C indicated D existent

7 A mulch moderates summer and winter temperatures by insulating the soil from extreme

heat and cold

A changes B balances C maintains D exchanges

8 can tell us how the soil was formed, drained and cultivated

A top soil B soil layers C soil improvers D soil profile

9 All of these raw materials will in the soil and become part of the soil nutrient bank

A increase B develop C grow D break down

10 is a section taken through the soil down to the parent rock

A soil mould B surface soil C subsoil D soil profile

11 Chickens and pigs have a strong manure which should be composted before it is applied to

gardens

A mixed with compost B added to fertilizer C made to be weaker D A or C

12 Cover crops are especially good for hard, compacted soils

A coarse-textured soils B soils with friable structure

C soils with solid structure D deserted soils

13 Cover crops carry out the same functions; in addition they provide edible products

A eatable food B wood C materials D fruit

14 During periods of heavy rain or over-watering, soil nutrients are washed from the root

zone

A watering too much B watering little C waterlogged D flood

15 Climate is the primary determinant of vegetation

A main factor B main element C main role D main point

16 Find-textured soils do not hold

A air B plant nutrients C water D all are correct

17 Fine-textured soils are usually drained

A well B imperfectly C quickly D poorly

18 Gases in soils their pressure and type during the day and different seasons

A increase B change C exchange D decrease

19 Plant nutrients are often leached out of

A coarse-textured soils B fine-textured soils C medium textured soils D B & C

20 How freely gases move into or out of soil depends some extent on ……….… of the soil

A the pH B the organic matter C the texture and structure D the temperature

21 Humus is a fine, sticky, sweet-smelling nutrient-rich substance which slowly releases

plant and animal micronutrients

A absorbs B provides C becomes D gives

22 If the soil is silky, it will when dry and when wet

A swell / shrink B shrink / swell C compact / open D open / compact

23 If the soil is silky, it will soil nutrients on the surface of clay particles

A wash B leach C release D hold

24 The PH is a measure of solubility of………….…

A soil temperature B nutrients C water D soil texture

25 If the soil , it will drain slowly and hold water for a longer time

A is silky B has a fine texture C has small particles D all are correct

26 If there is oxygen the soil will smell rotten

A little B a lot of C inadequate D A or C

27 Reducing evaporation from the soil surface can be achieved by

A surface mulching B watering too much C constructing swales D A & C

28 Soil texture is the………….… of different particle sizes in the soil

A proportion B amount C quality D quantity

29 Soils are different from each other because they have the different.………….…

A PH of solubility B moisture C nutrients D texture and structure

30 If the soil , it will drain and dry out quickly

A has a fine texture B has a coarse texture C is gritty D B or C

B Grammar Choose the best answer among A,B,C,D

31 Nitrogen is one of the major elements for plant and animal growth

A requirement B requiring C require D required

32 Nitrogen, one of the main gases in air, is transformed into a soluble form by bacteria in soil or water

A lives B lived C living D live

33 When the soil has a rough feel, its texture is said

A being silky B to be silky C being gritty D to be gritty

34 There are many animals living in the soil, from microscopic organisms to

beetles

A ranging B range C to ranging D ranged

35 There are plants which have a bacterium, Rhizobium species, in their roots

A lives B lived C live D living

36 The animals aerate the soil, create water channels, break down large molecules to smaller ones can be absorbed by plant roots

A which B what C who D of which

37 The three most important elements to the soil by fertilizers are nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium

A adding B added C additional D add

38 As these materials are broken down become humus

A which B that C they D A or B

39 The animals themselves are a part of the soil nutrient bank and will eventually part of the organic matter

A be becoming B became C becoming D become

40 If a soil is almost pure clay or pure sand then it will be a 'difficult' soil to grow

plants

A which B in which C that D in that

41 The methods to repair soil will vary according to the climate and site

characteristics

A used B using C use D useful

42 The nature of organic matter helps sandy soils to hold water and nutrients and conversely, helps clay soil to become more open

A compacting B compacted C compact D to compact

43 Soil with good air-water balance and plenty of organic material will have millions of micro-organisms faster nutrient breakdown and cycling

A assisted B assisting C assist D B or C

44 In summer hot air from deserts draws in cooler, moist air from the oceans, bringing rain as it moves in

A raising B rose C raised D rising

45 It is not really possible too much organic matter in a food garden

A have B to have C having D A or C

II SECTION2: (Reading comprehension) (25 marks)

Reading 1: Fill in the gaps with given words in the box

presence; of; easily; mineral; main; more; correct; if; degree; acidity; nutrient; while

All plants are affected by the (1) of acidity or alkalinity of the soil The less the (2) supply, the more acid the soil becomes Because (3) salts are basic, an acid soil has a low base content .(4) makes some elements unavailable to plants .(5) a soil is very acid, with a PH value of less than 5.0, lime can be added to (6) this acidity The (7)

constituent of lime is calcium, an important plant food The (8) of lime helps to make essential elements of plant food more (9) available to plants Nitrogen, phosphorous and potassium are (10) easily available in a well-limed soil than in an acid soil

Reading 2 Choose the correct answer

The forests of the tropics produce a magnificent growth of trees, but commercial

lumbering is inhibited by problems that increase the cost of removal The proliferation of species that is common to all tropical forests creates difficulties because many species are worthless The lumberman combs the forests, therefore, moving the valuable trees that are convenient to waterways, and floating them downstream to a sawmill Unfortunately, tropical hardwoods tend to grow slowly; an area once cleared needs substantial time to recover,

forcing the sawmill to become mobile Distance to market tends to be considerable, raising costs of transport Because of these difficulties, only the most valuable woods can absorb the high costs associated with production Other trees are left untouched

1 What is the main topic of the passage?

A The high costs of commercial lumbering in the tropics

B The number of useless trees

C The transportation difficulties

D The growth rate of hardwoods

2 According to the passage, one of the problems of commercial lumbering is:

A very few hardwoods grow in the forests

B many of the trees are useless for timber

C there is little variety in the types of trees in the forests

D selecting valuable trees is difficult

3 The lumbermen search the forests for valuable trees and choose the ones that

A are easy to cut down B mature very slowly

C are near to rivers D are tropical species

4 According to the passage, the sawmills have to be mobile because they are

A used to transport wood B floated up the rivers

C moved away from cleared areas D transported near the market

5 According to the passage, relatively few trees are removed from the forests because

A only the most valuable justify the cost

B the tropical hardwoods are expensive to produce

C the proliferation of species cannot absorb the high costs

D it is too expensive to transport the hardwoods

6 What can be assumed from the information in the passage?

A Tropical forests produce too many trees

B Too many species grow in the forests

C Not enough species grow near the rivers

D Useful species do not reproduce quickly

III SECTION 3: (Writing) (30 marks)

A Write complete the following sentences

1 If the soil is gritty it ………

2 If the soil is silky it ………

3 If a soil is almost pure clay it………

4 If a soil is almost pure sand it ………

5 If a soil has good air-water balance with plenty of organic material it ………

B Combine the following pairs to make a complete sentence, expressing purpose

1 The farmer has added some lime to their soil He wanted to make it more alkaline

2 Farmers often use different methods They want to improve their soils

3 They plant some kinds of legumes in their gardens They want to make them fertile

4 Farmers cover their soil They want to prevent their soils from erosion

5 They use organic mulches They want to add more organic matter to their soil

C Write questions for the underline words in the following sentences

1 The United States has been the world‟s leading industrial nation since early in the 20 th century

2 Farming only accounts for less than 2 per cent of annual GDP and employs less than 3 per cent of US workers

3 Farmers not only produce enough to meet domestic needs, but also enable the United

States to export more farm products per year than any other nation in the world

4 The small subsistence farm run by a farmer primarily to meet personal needs has

virtually disappeared from the American scene

5 Most agricultural products are grown on large commercial farms for shipment to urban and industrial markets

6 The number of farms in the United States decreased from more than 5.6 million in 1950

to about 2.1 million in 1993

7 In the early 1990s livestock and livestock products accounted for 50.5 per cent of the value of all farm marketing

8 California led all states in the yearly value of farm receipts

9 Beef cattle rank as the most valuable product of the nation‟s farms, accounting for almost

one quarter of total annual farm receipts

10 Most of beef cattle are raised on large ranches in south-western states

- make use of something well, properly

- strong effect on something

- row of trees or a hedge, fence that gives protection from the wind

- one complete movement of the earth

- fall of rain, snow or sleet, hail or amount of rain falling in an area

- main factor that can decide success or failure in something

- process of water being concentrated by evaporation

- the greatest or highest degree

- the sending out of heat, energy in the form of rays

- movement of water, air flowing in a certain direction

- ratio of useful work performed to the total energy used

- ecological unit consisting of a group of plant and living creatures interacting with each other and with their surroundings

- go through a distance

B Fill in the gaps with one of the words above

1 The main ……… of economic success is our ability to control inflation

2 They took full ………of the hotel's facilities

3 As well as providing fruit, orange could be used as a………

4 The irrigation system has a tremendous.………on the yield of rice

5 Insect………changes in form as they increase in size and maturity

6 Wind is caused by the earth‟s ……… and the differential heating of land and sea

7 Dark bodies………the greatest amount of light and later………it back as heat

8 Most comes from the sun as light energy

9 An understanding of wind patterns will help you to design your house which take advantage, or minimize the………of wind

10 you can design………which reduce failures of crops and animals caused by climatic………

II GRAMMAR Subordinate clauses

Subordinate clauses can be classified under three headings: noun clause, relative clause and adverbial clause

1 Noun clause

a I don't know where Ann lives

b Do you understand what he has just said?

2 Relative clause

a The writer who wrote 'student life' is my teacher

b There are plants which have bacterium living in their roots

3 Adverbial clause

a They want to learn English because they need it for their jobs

b The train had gone before we arrived at the station

A Practice

Underline the subordinate clauses in the following sentences

1 Light-coloured objects and organisms tend to reflect light, which can then be used or absorbed by other plants, water and materials, or sent back into the atmosphere

2 You can create different habitats and diversify the range of plants and animals that will grow in your garden

3 After being absorbed it is radiated back into the atmosphere as heat energy or turned into chemical energy by green plants when they photosynthesize

4 Fertilizers are added to soil to replace nutrients that have been used by previous crops, blown away or leached (washed away) into the subsoil by rain or irrigation

5 If the soil is gritty it will drain and dry out quickly

6 When the soil particles are mainly sand and coarse gravel its texture is said to be gritty

7 If the soil is silky it will drain slowly and hold water for a longer time

8 Artificial fertilizers need to be soluble compounds so that plants can absorb the nutrients

9 This means they continue to exist unchanged in the soil because they cannot move into one of the cycles of matter

B Word formation

There are many English words derived from other words with different prefixes or suffixes

such as: -ment; -ation; -ion; -ance; -al; -ent; -able; -ly; -en; -er; -or; -ist; en-

1 Find out the words with these suffixes or prefixes in the passage

Verb – Noun: -ment

Verb – Noun: -ation (-ion)

Verb – Noun: er (-or)

2 Words derived from other words with prefixes such as: un-; in-; dis-; pre-; re-; de; en

Find the words with these prefixes in the passage unfair; incorrect; distribute; rebuild

b What is the difference between climate and weather?

c Is climate predictable? (can people predict climate?)

CLIMATE

Climate is the primary determinant of vegetation Worldwide, different climates are

affected by precipitation, radiation and wind acting on the huge continental landmasses and ocean currents

When you understand and appreciate the workings of these wild energies you can design ecosystems which:

- modify climatic extremes;

- reduce failures of crops and animals caused by climatic extremes;

- provide greater energy efficiency

1 Precipitation

Precipitation is rain, snow, fog, sleet, hail and frost These forms of precipitation undergo two main processes which permaculturists use to their advantage: condensation and

evaporation Knowledge of these processes is used to:

- design structures for good temperature control;

- select appropriate technologies for heating and cooling;

- retain water in soil and in dams

Generally, by understanding patterns of precipitation you can plan your growing calendar

to take advantage of favorable conditions, and minimize the impact of unfavorable

conditions For example, it is useful to be able to predict the likelihood of drought and to plan accordingly designing water harvesting and storage systems

2 Wind

Wind is caused by the earth‟s rotation and the differential heating of land and sea For example, hot air rising from the deserts draws in cooler, moist air from the oceans, bringing rain as it moves in

Like precipitation, world climates have fairly predictable wind patterns (although these seem to be changing with global warming) An understanding of these patterns will help you to:

- harvest wind energy for electricity;

- design houses which take advantage, or minimize the impact of wind;

- plant windbreaks to provide protection for plants and animals

3 Radiation

Most radiation comes from the sun as light energy This energy can be absorbed by water, plants, soils and animals After being absorbed it is radiated back into the atmosphere as heat energy or turned into chemical energy by green plants when they photosynthesize

Dark bodies absorb the greatest amount of light and later radiate it back as heat coloured objects and organisms tend to reflect light, which can then be used or absorbed by other plants, water and materials, or sent back into the atmosphere (Figure 1 shows how a light-reflecting surface can be used to redirect sunlight to brighten a dark room.)

Light-2 Comprehension check

a Can you determine certain vegetation in the area basing on climate?

b Why are worldwide climates different from each other?

c Why do farmers need to understand the workings of wild energies?

d What are the forms of precipitation?

e How many processes does precipitation undergo?

f What can your understanding patterns of precipitation help you to do?

g What causes wind?

h How does light energy turn into chemical energy?

i What absorbs the greatest amount of light?

j What object reflects light most?