M mercedes maroto valer carbon dioxide storage and utilization vol2

Environmental and emissions performance issues round off the book.Oxy-fuel combustion for power generation and carbon dioxide CO 2 capture ISBN: 978-1-84569-671-9 Oxy-fuel combustion is

Developments and innovation in carbon dioxide (CO2)

capture and storage technology

to advanced material and component use, and the incorporation of alternative energy conversion technology, such as hydrogen production Environmental and emissions performance issues round off the book.

Oxy-fuel combustion for power generation and carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) capture

(ISBN: 978-1-84569-671-9)

Oxy-fuel combustion is a power generation and carbon dioxide (CO2) capture option for advanced power plant in which fuel is burnt in an oxygen-rich environment instead of in air This allows for a reduction in NOx and SOxemissions as well as producing a high-purity carbon dioxide (CO2) flue gas stream This high-purity CO2 stream allows for more efficient and economical capture, processing and sequestration This book critically reviews the fundamental principles, processes and technology of oxy-fuel combustion, including advanced concepts for its implementation

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Woodhead Publishing Series in Energy: Number 16

Developments and innovation

in carbon dioxide

storage technology

storage and utilisation

Edited by

M Mercedes Maroto-Valer

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Published by Woodhead Publishing Limited, Abington Hall, Granta Park,

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Contributor contact details xiii

1 Overview of carbon dioxide (CO2) capture and

s b ouzalakos and m m ercede s m aroto -V aler , University of

Nottingham, UK

1.2 Greenhouse gas emissions and global climate change 2

1.4 Development and innovation in carbon dioxide (CO2)

1.5 Development and innovation in carbon dioxide (CO2)

Part I Geological sequestration of carbon dioxide (CO2)

2 Screening and selection criteria, and characterisation

techniques for the geological sequestration of

s b achu , Alberta Innovates – Technology Futures, Canada

2.2 Screening for storage suitability and site selection 28

Contents

2.4 Estimation of carbon dioxide (CO2) storage capacity 47

3 Carbon dioxide (CO2) sequestration in deep saline

r J r osenbauer and b t homas , US Geological Survey,

4 Carbon dioxide (CO2) sequestration in oil and gas

reservoirs and use for enhanced oil recovery (EOR) 104

b V ega and a.r k oVscek , Stanford University, USA

4.2 Carbon dioxide (CO2) enhanced recovery mechanisms 1094.3 Co-optimization of enhanced oil recovery (EOR) and

4.4 Future trends: geologic storage in tight rocks 118

5 Carbon dioxide (CO2) sequestration in unmineable

coal seams and use for enhanced coalbed methane

m m azzotti and r onny p ini , ETH Zurich, Switzerland, g s torti ,

Politecnico di Milano, Italy, and l b urlini , ETH Zurich, Switzerland

5.6 Mass transfer and enhanced coalbed methane (ECBM)

5.7 Field tests 151

Part II Maximising and verifying carbon dioxide (CO2)

storage in underground reservoirs

6 Carbon dioxide (CO2) injection design to maximise

underground reservoir storage and enhanced oil

r Q i , t.c l a F orce and m.J b lunt , Imperial College London, UK

8 Measurement and monitoring technologies for

verification of carbon dioxide (CO2) storage in

r.a c hadWick , British Geological Survey, UK

8.2 Background to storage site monitoring 2048.3 Detection and measurement of carbon dioxide (CO2) in the

8.4 Detection and measurement of carbon dioxide (CO2)

9 Mathematical modeling of the long-term safety of

carbon dioxide (CO2) storage in underground

k p ruess , J b irkholzer and Q z hou , Lawrence Berkeley National

Laboratory, University of California, USA

9.2 Coupled processes: a challenge for mathematical models 243

Part III Terrestrial and ocean sequestration of carbon

dioxide (CO2) and environmental impacts

10 Terrestrial sequestration of carbon dioxide (CO2) 271

r l al , The Ohio State University, USA

10.2 The terrestrial pool and its role in the global carbon cycle 27310.3 Emissions from agricultural versus other activities 27610.4 Basic principles of carbon sequestration in terrestrial

10.8 Soil and terrestrial carbon as indicators of climate change 296

11 Ocean sequestration of carbon dioxide (CO2) 304

d g olomb and s p ennell , University of Massachusetts Lowell, USA

11.2 History of carbon dioxide (CO2) deep ocean storage

11.3 Legal constraints of deep ocean storage of carbon dioxide

11.4 Sources of anthropogenic carbon dioxide (CO2) for ocean

11.8 Injection of carbon dioxide, water and pulverized

12 Environmental risks and impacts of carbon dioxide

m d s teVen , k l s mith and J J c olls , University

of Nottingham, UK

12.4 Atmospheric enrichment of carbon dioxide (CO2) 332

13 Environmental risks and performance assessment of

carbon dioxide (CO2) leakage in marine ecosystems 344

J b lackFord , s W iddicombe and d l oWe , Plymouth Marine

Laboratory, UK, and b c hen , Heriot Watt University, UK

13.2 The physical and chemical behaviour of carbon dioxide

13.3 Marine ecosystem impacts of carbon dioxide (CO2)

Part IV Advanced concepts for carbon dioxide (CO2)

storage and utilisation

14 Industrial utilization of carbon dioxide (CO2) 377

m a resta and a d ibenedetto , University of Bari, Italy

14.2 The conditions for using carbon dioxide (CO2) 37814.3 The carbon dioxide (CO2) sources and its value 38014.4 Technological uses of carbon dioxide (CO2) 381

14.6 Carbon dioxide (CO2) conversion as ‘storage’ of excess

15.3 Carbon dioxide (CO2) fixation microorganisms:

15.4 Carbon dioxide (CO2) fixation by microalgae 418

r z eVenhoVen and J F agerlund , Åbo Akademi University,

Finland

17 Photocatalytic reduction of carbon dioxide (CO2) 463

J eFFrey c s W u , Department of Chemical Engineering, National

Taiwan University, Taiwan

Chapter 1

Dr Steve Bouzalakos and Professor

M Mercedes Maroto-Valer*

Centre for Innovation in Carbon

Capture and Storage (CICCS)

US Geological Survey

345 Middlefield RoadMS-999

Menlo Park

CA 94025USAEmail: brosenbauer@usgs.govChapter 4

B Vega and A R Kovscek*

Energy Resources Engineering Department

Stanford University

367 Panama St room 065Stanford

CA 94305-2220 USA

Email: kovscek@stanford.edu(* = main contact)

Professor Dr Giuseppe Storti

Dipartimento di Chimica, Materiali

e Ing Chimica ‘Giulio Natta’

Politecnico di Milano, Sede

The University of Texas at AustinUniversity Station, Box X

Austin

TX 78713-8924USA

Email: tip.meckel@beg.utexas.eduChapter 8

Dr R A ChadwickBritish Geological SurveyKingsley Dunham CentreKeyworth

NottinghamshireNG12 5GGUK

Email: rach@bgs.ac.uk Chapter 9

Karsten Pruess*, Jens Birkholzer and Quanlin Zhou

Earth Sciences DivisionLawrence Berkeley National Laboratory

University of CaliforniaOne Cyclotron RoadBerkeley

CA 94720USAEmail: K_Pruess@lbl.gov

Dr D Golomb* and Dr S Pennell

University of Massachusetts Lowell

Michael D Steven*, Karon L Smith

and Jeremy J Colls

PlymouthPL1 3DH UKEmail: JCB@pml.ac.uk Baixin Chen

School of Engineering and Physical Sciences

Heriot Watt UniversityEdinburgh

ScotlandEH14 4ASUKChapter 14 Michele Aresta* and Angela Dibenedetto

CIRCC and Department of Chemistry

University of BariCampus Universitario

70126 BariItalyEmail: m.aresta@chimica.uniba.it

Chapter 15

Bei Wang and Christopher Q Lan*

Department of Chemical and

R Zevenhoven* and J Fagerlund

Thermal and Flow Engineering

National Taiwan University

No 1 Section 4 Roosevelt RoadTaipei 10617

Taiwan (R.O.C.)Email: cswu@ntu.edu.tw

Woodhead Publishing Series in Energy

1 Generating power at high efficiency: Combined cycle technology for sustainable energy production

Eric Jeffs

2 Advanced separation techniques for nuclear fuel reprocessing and radioactive waste treatment

Edited by Kenneth L Nash and Gregg J Lumetta

3 Bioalcohol production: Biochemical conversion of lignocellulosic biomass

Edited by K.W Waldron

4 Understanding and mitigating ageing in nuclear power plants: Materials and operational aspects of plant life management (PLiM)

Edited by Philip G Tipping

5 Advanced power plant materials, design and technology

Edited by Dermot Roddy

6 Stand-alone and hybrid wind energy systems: Technology, energy storage and applications

Edited by J.K Kaldellis

7 Biodiesel science and technology: From soil to oil

Jan C.J Bart, Natale Palmeri and Stefano Cavallaro

8 Developments and innovation in carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) capture and storage technology Volume 1: Carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) capture, transport and industrial applications

Edited by M Mercedes Maroto-Valer

9 Geological repository systems for safe disposal of spent nuclear fuels and radioactive waste

Edited by Joonhong Ahn and Michael J Apted

10 Wind energy systems: Optimising design and construction for safe and reliable operation

Edited by John D Sørensen and Jens N Sørensen

11 Solid oxide fuel cell technology: Principles, performance and operations

Kevin Huang and John Bannister Goodenough

12 Handbook of advanced radioactive waste conditioning technologies

Edited by Michael I Ojovan

13 Nuclear reactor safety systems

Edited by Dan Gabriel Cacuci

14 Materials for energy efficiency and thermal comfort in buildings

Edited by Matthew R Hall

15 Handbook of biofuels production: Processes and technology

Edited by Rafael Luque, Juan Campelo and James Clark

16 Developments and innovation in carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) capture and storage technology Volume 2: Carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) storage and utilisation

Edited by M Mercedes Maroto-Valer

17 Oxy-fuel combustion for power generation and carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) capture

Edited by Ligang Zheng

In an ideal world, we wouldn’t need carbon capture and storage But in an ideal world the inhabitants would have been quicker to spot that large-scale burning of fossil fuel could interfere with their planet’s carbon cycle and have serious consequences By building a world economy over the last 150 years that flourished on the cheap and accessible energy that was available from coal and oil, we short-circuited the natural cycle We have transferred from the solid Earth to the atmosphere huge quantities of carbon that would not otherwise have seen the light of day for many millions of years We now know to our cost that the carbon cycle couples into the processes that control the Earth’s climate and that we have triggered rapid climate change True, the Earth’s climate has always changed, but most natural change has happened sufficiently slowly for plants and animals to migrate or adapt to the new conditions What we are doing is too fast to allow this Although fossil fuels are the main cause of the rise in greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, there are also significant contributions from deforestation and changes in land use.

Life on Earth depends on the benign greenhouse effect of our atmosphere

It provides surface temperatures that we do not find on neighbouring planets and that allow water to exist as ice, liquid and vapour By burning fossil fuels, we increase the atmospheric concentration of CO2 which, along with other greenhouse gases, increases the greenhouse effect and increases mean global temperature including in the oceans The atmospheric consequence

of warming the oceans is the same as that of turning up the gas under a pan

of gently simmering water – movements become faster and more violent In weather terms this means more extreme weather conditions – storms, floods, droughts Continental ice masses, particularly Antarctica and Greenland, begin to melt faster and contribute to a rise in sea level beyond that expected from thermal expansion

None of this is particularly good news and, although it is denied by a few, the evidence for the human influence on observed climate change is overwhelming The more fossil fuel we burn the greater the rise in atmospheric

CO2 and the worse the perturbation of the Earth’s climate The problem is

Foreword

that virtually all the world energy is supplied by fossil fuels, and weaning ourselves off them will take decades until we make the transition to other energy sources.

The best scientific forecasts suggest that massive reductions in emissions have to be achieved by 2050 if there is to be any hope of containing damage to the climate This is a problem that has been created largely by the developed world which owes its prosperity to the use of cheap and abundant fossil fuel Although estimates vary, around two thirds of the ‘excess’ atmospheric

CO2 is attributable to Europe and the USA Today, however, we have new players Developing countries whose economies are growing fast have rising energy requirements and often the cheapest available source of energy is coal, the fuel that carries the heaviest carbon cost per unit energy produced

It is urgent therefore that we find a way of managing emissions while we make the move to a low-carbon economy

The best way of managing emissions is not to produce them in the first place This means that improved efficiency and energy conservation are vital However something has to be done about the ‘essential’ (for the moment) emissions that we cannot avoid These come partly from vehicles that burn liquid fossil fuels and partly from a range of so-called fixed sources such as power stations, cement factories, oil refineries and a myriad of small local sources from office blocks to domestic houses This is where carbon capture and storage (CCS) comes in

CCS is a group of technologies that are designed to capture and immobilise emissions from the larger fixed industrial sources This involves separating the greenhouse gases from the other gases in the industrial exhaust streams and transporting them to a suitable site where they can be contained underground for many tens of thousands of years

This may sound relatively straightforward and indeed all the component technologies needed to achieve CCS have to a greater or lesser extent been demonstrated The problem is that these technologies have their roots elsewhere and were developed with other ends in mind It is only relatively recently that moves have been made to harness them together to achieve CCS There is thus enormous scope for improvement of the systems

In reality there are three different sets of technologies required: the technology for separation of greenhouse gases from the exhaust gas stream

at the point source, the pipeline or other means needed to transport the separated gas, and finally the technology for storing it Most current concepts

of storage involve pumping the gas underground into geological traps that have the demonstrated ability to retain gases for many tens of thousands of years Of the three different activities, the first is likely to be the technically most challenging and the most expensive and currently appears likely to amount to between half and two thirds of the total cost of CCS Overall, electricity generated in coal-fired power plant with its emissions reduced by

90% or more through CCS might be expected to cost between 30 and 50 % more than at present Although these costs would be very unwelcome in the developed world, they would not be unbearable; in the developing world, however, they would be very difficult to accept This means that there is an overriding urgency to reduce the cost of CCS It is to be expected that with time costs will come down as engineers and operators gain experience, but more than slow incremental improvement is needed before CCS becomes deployed worldwide on a scale that can be expected to influence climate change.

It would be wrong to assume, however, that the challenges are solely technical Because CCS is a new activity, a suitable regulatory framework has to be developed and because CCS was never contemplated when the existing wider regulatory framework was established, there will certainly

be conflicts to be resolved The framework will have to cover the legal obligations and rights of all parties and the basis for licensing of all aspects

of the operations Work has already begun on these problems in a number

of countries and within the EU

From a business point of view too, there are substantial logistical challenges All three main elements identified above involve major capital expenditure and have lead times of at least five years For a reasonably cost-effective system they need to come on line together Furthermore, they are the responsibility

of different consenting authorities for some of which CCS may not be their highest priority

This title addresses a number of the important challenges faced by CCS They are formidable, but the most important step is to recognize them early and to plan ways of dealing with them No one should pretend that CCS

is a complete answer to the problem of fossil fuels and climate change but, conversely, it is unthinkable that we can manage that problem without CCS

Lord Oxburgh

House of LordsWestminsterLondon SW1, UKEmail: oxburghE@parliament.uk

1

and storage technology

S BouzalakoS and M MercedeS Maroto-Valer, university of Nottingham, uk

Abstract: carbon dioxide (co2) capture and storage (ccS) is considered one of the most promising strategies to reduce co 2 emissions while enabling the continued use of fossil fuels and without compromising the security

of electricity supply This chapter first states the global CO 2 emissions from power generation and points out that climate change is a serious and urgent issue the chapter then discusses carbon management options and puts ccS technology into perspective an account is then given on current plans to deploy large-scale ccS demonstration projects around the world and obstacles that need to be overcome to achieve the current commercialisation target of 2020 Innovation in research, development and deployment is increasingly becoming an important driver of both the mature and developing ccS technologies this is clearly perceptible throughout the chapters of this book the chapter closes by offering an outlook of the future trends and recommendations of sources of further information on ccS.

Key words: carbon dioxide, co2 capture and storage, ccS, climate change, fossil fuels, power generation.

Fossil-fuel derived energy presently dominates most aspects of modern human activities and our current way of life, and is projected to remain the main energy source for the foreseeable future However, the combustion of fossil fuels in stationary and mobile power sources produces large amounts

of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, including carbon dioxide (co2) which accounts for approximately 57 % carbon dioxide-equivalent (co2-eq) of the GHG emissions from fossil fuel use (IPcc, 2007)

co2-equivalent emission is the amount of co2 emission that would cause the same time-integrated radiative forcing, over a given time horizon, as

an emitted amount of a long-lived GHG or a mixture of GHGs such as, for example, a mixture with methane (cH4) and nitrous oxide (N2o) the equivalent co2 emission is calculated by multiplying a given emission of GHG by its Global Warming Potential (GWP) for the given time horizon, and for a mix of GHGs the co2-eq is calculated by summing the equivalent co2 emissions of each gas It should be noted that while equivalent co2 emissions

is a standard and useful metric for comparing emissions of different GHGs,

it does not imply the same climate change responses (IPcc, 2007)

a recent study by Mckinsey & company (2008) states that approximately

47 % (approximately 2 Gtco2 in 2007) of total european co2 emissions could be addressed by the application of co2 capture and storage (ccS) technologies this includes predominantly large stationary sources, with coal power stations accounting for 52 % on a global scale, various recent reports estimate that ccS could potentially abate between 1.4 Gtco2 (Stern, 2006) and 4 Gtco2 (Iea, 2007) by 2030 With the increasing energy demand witnessed and projected, already soaring atmospheric co2 emissions will continue to rise as co2 emissions have been unequivocally linked to global warming and climate change (IPcc, 2007), mitigation measures are a matter

of urgency

a range of technologies, collectively termed co2 capture and storage (CCS), have been identified as a critical option in the portfolio of solutions available to combat climate change, allowing for the reduction of co2emissions while enabling the continued use of fossil fuels (IPcc, 2005) ccS involves three main steps: capture, transportation and storage overall, the technologies are fairly mature and plans are underway for their large-scale demonstration in the near future technological barriers are often a monetary concern, particularly for capture technologies that account for roughly two-thirds of the total cost of ccS Given the fact that ccS is a relatively new activity for both power plant operators and governments, a suitable regulatory framework has to be put in place to facilitate the wider deployment of the technology the development and use of co2 capture technology could take place within existing regulatory frameworks for power stations; however, the main issues for regulation of ccS concern activities offshore, especially geological storage, and transportation

change

the greenhouse effect is necessary to sustain life on earth, and in its absence the average temperature on the planet would be around –18 °c the major GHGs in terms of total emissions in 2004 were co2 from fossil fuel use (56.6 % co2-eq), co2 from deforestation, decay of biomass, etc (17.3 %

co2-eq); methane (cH4) (14.3 % co2-eq); and nitrous oxide (N2o) (7.9 %

co2-eq) (IPcc, 2007) carbon dioxide is the most important anthropogenic greenhouse gas, even though it is not as harmful as cH4 which is produced from fossil fuel combustion in smaller amounts (IPcc, 2007) climate scientists have no doubt that the earth’s climate will warm in response

to further release of man-made greenhouse gases into the atmosphere by intensifying the greenhouse effect However, there are uncertainties about the extent of warming that will occur and what the regional impacts of this will

be, precisely to date, the most credible estimation of future climate states

comes from mathematical climate models based on physical approximations despite uncertainties, all climate models predict substantial climate warming under greenhouse gas increases (IPcc, 2007).

taking into account the range of human activities, power stations are the largest contributor of anthropogenic co2 emissions with levels reaching approximately 0.17 Gtco2 in the uk in 2008 (Berr, 2009) this level

of co2 emissions is further emphasised by Fig 1.1, which shows that approximately 29 % of co2 emissions for 2006 in eu-15 countries were attributed to power generation according to the International energy outlook

2008 (eIa, 2008), the total world energy-related co2 emissions for 2005 were estimated at 28.1 Gtco2, and are projected to increase by an average

of 1.7 % per annum from 2005–2030

concentrations of atmospheric co2 have been increasing from approximately

280 ppmv in the pre-industrial era (Fig 1.2a) to 389.47 ppmv, as measured

in april 2009 (Fig 1.2b) the detrimental effects of increasing co2 levels

on global climate have been well documented, and it is clear that there is

a need to reduce co2 levels (Stocker and Schmittner, 1997; Palmer and räisänen, 2002; karl and trenberth, 2003; Stern, 2006) according to the latest united Nations Intergovernmental Panel on climate change (IPcc) report (IPcc, 2007), climate change has been proven to be unequivocally linked to human activity from observations of increases in global average air and ocean temperatures, rising global average sea levels and widespread melting of sea-ice in the arctic (Fig 1.3)

Public electricity and heat production 29 % Other 8 %

Residential 12 %

Road transportation

1996) (b) Average annual atmospheric CO2 concentrations based on direct measurements at Mauna Loa Observatory from 1960–2009 (Dr Pieter Tans, NOAA/ESRL, www.esrl.noaa.gov/gmd/ccgg/trends)

1.2 Continued

389.47 ppmv (April 2009)

despite the increasing atmospheric co2 concentrations mentioned in the previous paragraph, energy-related co2 intensities, expressed as emissions per unit of economic output (table 1.1), have been projected to improve (i.e., decline) from 2005–2030 as world economies strive to use energy more efficiently Carbon dioxide intensity by non-OECD countries is projected to decline by an average of 2.6 % per year, from 529 metric tonnes per million dollars of GdP in 2005 to 274 metric tonnes per million dollars of GdP in

2030 For all oecd countries, average co2 intensity in 2030 is projected

to be 296 metric tonnes per million dollars of GdP the average for the

(a)

(b)

Year (c)

1.3 Observed changes in (a) global average surface temperature; (b)

global average sea level; and (c) Northern Hemisphere snow cover for March–April (IPCC, 2007)

entire world is projected to fall from 494 metric tonnes per million dollars

of GdP in 2005 to 282 metric tonnes in 2030 (eIa, 2008)

the united Nations Framework convention on climate change (uNFccc)

in 1994, through which the kyoto Protocol entered into full force in 2005, commits nations to achieving a: ‘stabilisation of greenhouse gas concentrations

in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system.’ For instance, the Stern review comments that the worst impacts of climate change could be substantially reduced if greenhouse gas concentrations were to be stabilised between 450 and 550 ppm co2-eq (Stern, 2006) In November 2008, the uk climate change act became law in the uk, setting up a target of 80 % reduction over 1990 co2levels by 2050; making the UK the first country to set such a long-range and significant carbon reduction target into law (DECC, 2009) Further global commitments were discussed at the 15th conference of the Parties (coP15) under the auspices of the united Nations Framework convention on climate

Table 1.1 Carbon dioxide intensity by region and country, 1980–2030, in metric

tonnes per million 2000 US dollars of gross domestic product (GDP) (EIA, 2008)

Non-OECD 694 711 529 440 388 344 306 274 –2.0 –2.6

Europe/Eurasia 1019 1166 804 615 531 469 410 368 –2.4 –3.1 Russia 900 1060 836 649 554 494 432 392 –1.6 –3.0 Other 1215 1339 762 573 504 440 385 342 –3.7 –3.2 Asia 755 624 498 411 363 322 289 261 –1.5 –2.5 China 1959 1242 693 552 478 421 373 334 –3.8 –2.9 India 295 333 287 221 189 165 148 135 –1.0 –3.0 Other 400 352 360 313 299 270 246 224 0.1 –1.9 Middle East 450 854 903 827 747 679 605 539 0.4 –2.0 Africa 398 448 421 362 327 292 255 220 –0.4 –2.6 Central and 317 310 305 290 262 234 209 187 –0.1 –1.9 South America

Brazil 212 211 219 224 208 192 175 162 0.2 –1.2 Other 403 398 379 342 303 267 234 205 –0.3 –2.4

Total world 716 624 494 427 384 345 311 282 –1.6 –2.2

change (uNFccc), in copenhagen, in december 2009, with the intention to create a legally binding, international treaty to replace the kyoto Protocol that expires in 2012 Negotiations in the run-up to coP15 showed disagreement

on how to tackle climate change and the expectations for a legally binding agreement were lowered (climatico, 2010) an accord was reached that, although it has significant elements, is not legally binding The key elements

of the accord include the objective to keep the maximum temperature rise

to below 2 °c, commitment to list developed countries emission reduction targets and mitigation actions for developing countries, and finance to kick start action in the developing world to fight climate change (http://unfccc.int/meetings/cop_15/items/5257.php) The success of COP15 will depend

on the challenge to develop the copenhagen accord into a legally binding treaty in 2010 (coP16 in Mexico)

the management of increasing co2 emissions typically revolves around three broad (but closely related) strategies as possible solutions, namely: (i) switching to a low-carbon economy, i.e., relying on renewable and/

or alternative sources of energy; (ii) increasing the efficiency and energy conservation of our current fossil-fuel energy generation; and (iii) applying ccS technologies to reduce co2 emissions in order to bridge the gap presented by working to change from our current fossil-fuel dependency

to a fully sustainable, low-carbon future these strategies are discussed in more detail below

Fossil fuels (mainly coal) account for approximately 86 % of the overall world energy use (Iea, 2007; orr, Jr, 2009), and are foreseen to remain the dominant energy source for the largest part of the 21st century (Mckinsey & Company, 2008) Although there is significant concern about the increasing amount of co2 that will be emitted (Bachu, 2008b; IPcc, 2007, 2005), alternative or renewable energy sources still have fundamental hurdles to overcome For instance, there are many security and environmental issues still associated with nuclear energy generation, while on the other hand wind, solar, water, wave and geothermal power cannot currently provide sufficient amounts of base-load electricity generation to displace fossil-fuel power Many of these technologies also rely on the availability of resources, which depends on the geographical location and attributes of a country (Martinot

et al., 2007) Furthermore, the use of biomass leaves open the question of

the correct technology to be implemented if heavy energy demand is to

be met Hydrogen is likely to be an important energy-carrier in the future

(edwards et al., 2008), but it requires reliable and high-capacity production

that is independent of the decarbonisation of fossil fuels, as well as improved storage technologies, to achieve this role in a sustainable future

For the time being, the reduction of co2 emissions can be achieved by implementing efficient energy strategies Innovative technologies for power generation, such as Integrated Gasification Combined Cycle (IGCC), may increase the efficiency of conversion of the fuel’s chemical energy from 28–32 % of the recent past to 52 % Supercritical and ultra-supercritical coal-fired power plant technology may also offer a major option for high-efficiency and low-emission power generation, with efficiency projected in the region

of 50 % and approximately 30 % projected co2 emissions reduction Fuel flexibility can also contribute to the reduction of emissions For instance, moving from coal to oil to liquefied natural gas (LNG), the amount of CO2emitted per kWh goes down from 1 to 0.75 to 0.5 kg, respectively However, even with increased efficiency and reduction in emissions, the rapid expansion

of the worldwide demand for energy will ultimately produce a net increase

in co2 emissions a net reduction in emissions would require a rigorous carbon management strategy to be applied worldwide

co2 capture and storage (ccS) is a technically feasible strategy to reduce anthropogenic co2 emissions from large point sources, and particularly fossil fuel-fired power plants, by up to 90 % (IPCC, 2005) One of the key features of this technology is that it allows for the continued use of fossil fuels, including coal which is relatively cheap and abundant, while simultaneously reducing

co2 emissions to the atmosphere (IrGc, 2008) overall, ccS consists of three main steps: separating and capturing co2 from other exhaust gases; compressing the co2 to supercritical conditions in order to transport it to its storage location; and final isolation from the atmosphere by a variety of methods as illustrated in Fig 1.4

the carbon mitigation potential of the different strategies mentioned above requires a fixed timeframe For instance, Pacala and Socolow (2004) propose that a 50-year perspective could be long enough to allow changes

in infrastructure and consumption patterns but short enough to be heavily influenced by decisions made today Assuming the world continues on its current predicted path, i.e., business as usual (Bau), it is predicted that co2emissions will roughly double by 2054 Stabilising GHG concentrations in the region of 500 ± 50 ppm has been proposed as the target level to prevent the most damaging climate change avoiding the doubling of co2 levels in the business as usual case, in order to reduce substantially the likelihood of the most dramatic consequences of climate change, would require a monumental effort committing to a co2 emissions trajectory approximating a flat path requires an amount of co2 emissions reduction in 2054 roughly equal to all

co2 emissions today (Fig 1.5)

to assess the potential of the various carbon mitigation strategies, Pacala and Socolow (2004) introduced the concept of stabilisation wedges (Fig 1.5) The difference between currently predicted path and flat path from present

to 2054 gives a triangle of emissions to be avoided, a total of nearly 200

and storage options (IPCC, 2005)

Gas to domestic

Mineral carbonation

Natural gas + CO2 capture

Industrial uses

Gas

Gtc the stabilisation triangle can be further divided into seven wedges

of equal area each representing a reduction of 1 GtC/year by 2054 This is based on technologies that have the potential to contribute a full wedge to carbon mitigation ccS technology prevents about 90 % of fossil carbon from reaching the atmosphere, so a wedge would be provided by the installation

of ccS at 800 GW of load coal plants by 2054 or 1600 GW of load natural gas plants

(CO2) capture and transport technology

although many of the component technologies for ccS are fairly mature, there are no, as yet, fully integrated commercial applications (Fig 1.6) there are, however, a number of pilot-scale ccS projects around the world demonstrating confidence in the technology (Table 1.2) The UK government launched a competition in 2007 to build one of the first commercial-scale ccS projects by 2014 (Berr, 2008; aPGtF, 2009) as can be seen in table 1.2, other world governments and energy corporations are focusing on similar incentives to facilitate widespread deployment of ccS technologies

in the near future a programme of 10–12 demonstrations has also been called for in the eu to be operational by 2015, in line with the target of commercialisation of ccS by 2020 (aPGtF, 2009)

china, which is overtaking the uSa in co2 emissions (approximately 6.0 Gtco2 in comparison to the 5.9 Gtco2 by the uSa in 2006) from consumption and flaring of fossil fuels (EIA, 2008), is making significant

Stabilisation triangle

7 wedges

are needed

to build the stabilisation triangle

1 wedge

avoids 1 billion tonnes

of carbon emissions per year by 2054 Flat path

1 ‘wedge’

2054 2004

Year

1.5 Stabilisation wedges concept for reducing carbon emissions by

2054 (Socolow et al., 2004).

refinements needed Commercial

Potential future breakthrough technologies First projects

are coming online now

Component technologies are mature; integrated platform to be proven

Several projects are operational (e.g., Weyburn (Canada)) EU has limited EOR potential

Membranes Chemical looping

Oxyfuel

CO2–EOR Depleted oil

and gas fields

CO 2 – EGR Saline

aquifers

Post-combustion Pre-combustion

Transport offshore

Transport onshore

Sleipner (Norway) field has been operational for around 10 years

Have been used for seasonal gas storage for decades

USA has existing CO 2

pipeline network of more than

5000 km Capture Transport Storage

1.6 Stage of CCS component technologies (EGR = enhanced gas recovery) (McKinsey & Company, 2008).

Naturkraft Kårstø Norway Naturkraft Gas 420 Post TBD 2011–12 Fort Nelson Canada PCOR Gas Gas process Pre Brine res 2011 ZeroGen Australia ZeroGen Coal 100 Pre Seq 2012 Antelope Valley USA Basin Electric Coal 120 Post EOR 2012

WA Parish USA NRG Energy Coal 125 Post EOR 2012 UAE Project UAE Masdar Gas 420 Pre EOR 2012 Appalachian Power USA AEP Coal 629 Pre TBD 2012 Wallula Energy USA Wallula Energy Coal 600–700 Pre Seq 2013 Resource Centre

RWE npower Tilbury UK RWE Coal 1600 Post Seq 2013 Tenaska USA Tenaska Coal 600 Post EOR 2014 HECA USA HEI Petcoke 390 Post EOR 2014

UK CCS Project UK TBD Coal 300–400 Post Seq 2014 Statoil Mongstad Norway Statoil Gas 630 CHP Post Seq 2014 RWE Zero CO2 Germany RWE Coal 450 Pre Seq 2015 Boundary Dam Canada SaskPower Coal 100 Oxy EOR 2015 Monash Energy Australia Monash Coal 60 k bpd Pre Seq 2016 Notes: Seq = sequestration; EOR = enhanced oil recovery; TBD = to be decided; Brine res = brine reservoir; Gas process = gas

progress in ccS projects GreenGen is a partnership between the chinese government, chinese energy companies and Peabody energy It is planned

to deploy incrementally to a 400 MW IGcc power plant with ccS by 2020 Near zero emission coal (Nzec) is another ccS project between china and the european union, and has the goal of deploying a coal-fuelled power plant with ccS by 2020 the australian government in april 2009 formally launched the Global carbon capture and Storage Institute (GccSI), a new initiative aimed at accelerating the worldwide commercial deployment of ccS technologies the G8 countries have committed to the development of 20 large-scale ccS projects to be operational by 2020, with the GccSI playing a vital role in developing the partnerships to make these projects a reality the department of energy (doe) in the uSa has formed a nationwide network

of regional carbon Sequestration Partnerships (rcSP) to help determine the best approaches for capturing and storing GHG the rcSP initiative is currently in the development phase (2008–2017) to conduct large-volume carbon storage tests

1.4.1 Carbon dioxide (CO2) capture and storage

economics, regulation and planning

A major difficulty in deploying CCS technology is the reluctance of corporations to invest given the absence of financial cost associated with greenhouse gas emissions, uncertainty over the future regulations governing coal-burning power plants and co2 storage, and the need for additional research, development and demonstration (Gibbins and chalmers, 2008) the absence of governmental regulations and policy frameworks creates additional uncertainty for companies considering investment in ccS (Bachu, 2008b) Volume 1, chapter 3, deconinck, provides a regulatory analysis and outlook for ccS technologies commercial-scale ccS deployment will require a regime to manage risks as well as supporting policies to facilitate technology investment (IrGc, 2008) Public perception and support are also vital for actual implementation of ccS technologies the main concerns society has over ccS are related to safety issues and the extent to which ccS provides a solution to climate change (Gough and Shackley, 2005; van

alphen et al., 2007).

estimating the cost of ccS technologies involves a high degree of uncertainty over how these costs may develop over time and in terms of potential variations in the technical requirements, scale and application of projects Mckinsey & company (2008) have recently released a report in which ccS costs are predicted, based on a case-study approach according

to the main findings of the report, early commercial CCS projects, potentially around 2020, are estimated to cost 735–50 per tonne co2 abated (Fig 1.7)

By far, co2 capture is the most expensive component and may account for

up to two-thirds of the total cost of a ccS project (725–32 per tonne co2abated) Further information on economic analyses of ccS technologies is provided in Vol 1, chapter 2, ogden, and further information on planning and economic modelling for co2 capture and reduction is provided in Vol

1, chapter 4, elkamel, Mirzaesmaeeli, croiset and douglas

1.4.2 Carbon dioxide (CO2) capture processes and

technologies in power plants

there are three main technologies for carbon capture from fossil fuel power plants:

∑ after combustion (post-combustion);

∑ decarbonisation of the fuel before combustion (pre-combustion); and,

∑ burning the fuel in pure oxygen (oxyfuel combustion)

Post- and pre-combustion processes include chemical and physical capture

of co2 by absorption (Vol 1, chapter 5, desideri) and adsorption (Vol 1, chapter 6, davidson), as well as co2 separation by membranes (Vol 1, Chapter 7, Basile, Gallucci, Morrone and Iulianelli) and gasification of fuels syngas/hydrogen for combustion and CO2 for capture (Vol 1, chapter 8, Higman) under oxyfuel combustion conditions, fuel is burnt in pure oxygen rather than air, resulting in more complete combustion and producing a flue gas constituting approximately 90 % co2 for easier separation (oxyfuel

1.7 Total cost of early commercial projects – reference case (7/tonne

CO2 abated; ranges include on- and offshore) (McKinsey & Company, 2008).

∑ CCS efficiency penalty of 7–12 % points

∑ Same utilisation as non-CCS plant (86 %)

∑ CO 2 compression at capture site

∑ Transport through onshore/offshore pipeline network of 200/300 km in supercritical state with no intermediate booster station

∑ Use of carbon steel (assumed sufficiently dry CO 2 )

∑ Injection depth of 1500 m in supercritical state

∑ Use of carbon steel (assumed sufficiently dry CO 2 )

∑ Vertical well for onshore/directional for offshore

Capture

Transport

Storage

combustion) (Vol 1, chapter 9, Mathieu) advanced oxygen separation and generation systems (Vol 1, chapter 10, kluiters, van den Brink and Haije), and chemical looping combustion systems (Vol 1, chapter 11, anthony) are also being developed as promising alternatives to the more common post- and pre-combustion capture processes

1.4.3 Carbon dioxide (CO2) compression, transport and

injection processes and technologies

transport of pressurised supercritical co2 from the point of capture to storage sites through an extensive pipeline network is considered to be the

most cost-effective and reliable method for onshore ccS (Svensson et al.,

2004) although there may be a risk associated with potential leakage through infrastructure failure or third-party intrusion, there is a lot of experience from the petroleum industry in the uSa and canada in the transport of natural gas, hydrocarbon liquids and co2 for enhanced oil recovery (eor) that could

be applicable to co2 transport for ccS Nevertheless, long-distance co2pipeline networks, both onshore and offshore, have technical challenges (e.g., safety and reliability) that need to be faced in order to minimise risks to the environment and human health Further innovation is focused on pipeline materials, infrastructure and modelling studies to minimise the risk of failure and to yield a better understanding of the consequences and behaviour of a

pipeline failure (Mazzoldi et al., 2008) theses issues and further details on the

various compression, transport and injection technologies applicable to ccS systems are respectively discussed in Vol 1, chapter 12, aspelund; chapter

13, downie, race and Seevam; and, chapter 14, Solomon and Flach

1.4.4 Industrial applications of carbon dioxide (CO2)

capture and storage technologies

Wider implementation of ccS is being encouraged in other industries responsible for significant contribution to global CO2 emissions, e.g., the cement and concrete industry (Vol 1, chapter 15, Ghoshal and zeman), and the iron and steel industry (Vol 1, chapter 16, Birat) It is estimated that the cement industry is responsible for approximately 5 % of global

co2 emissions (IPcc, 2005) the reduction of co2 emissions from cement production is currently being addressed by looking into post-combustion and oxygen combustion capture, and using the co2 for accelerated curing

of concrete products and cement-based waste stabilisation/solidification the iron and steel industry is also responsible for another 6–7 % of global

co2 emissions (IPcc, 2005) Strategies to control co2 emissions have focused on energy conservation measures However, further development and incorporation of ccS systems need to be adopted to further reduce co2

emissions this involves post- and pre-combustion capture processes in the core of the blast furnace, with the potential of retrofitting existing steel mills from the 2020s onwards New technologies may also be developed with ccS, and possibly without relying on ccS, through the use of hydrogen, electricity or biomass.

(CO2) storage and utilisation technology

1.5.1 Geological sequestration of carbon dioxide (CO2)Various options are possible for final storage of CO2 at present, injection into underground geological formations is the most promising and developed method (Holloway, 2005; IPcc, 2005; Bachu, 2008a,b), although these formations naturally need to be characterised and screened to ensure long-term sequestration (Vol 2, chapter 2, Bachu) there are three main types

of proposed underground storage site: deep saline aquifers (Vol 2, chapter

3, Rosenbauer and Thomas); depleted oil/gas reservoirs and enhanced oil recovery (eor) (Vol 2, chapter 4, kovscek and Vega); and deep unmineable coal seams (Vol 2, chapter 5, Mazzotti, Pini, Storti and Burlini)

Geological storage combines a number of engineering processes to ensure safe and long-term isolation of co2 from the atmosphere deep saline aquifers are likely to be the most promising of other geological options, but there is still uncertainty regarding their capacity and geological/geochemical properties to address the issue, innovative research is being focused to better understand the geochemical reactions between co2, impurity gases, formation brine, host rocks and cap rocks depleted oil and gas reservoirs are frequently said to be the likely first category of geological formation to inject co2 owing largely to the added benefit of EOR It is estimated that

80 % of oil reservoirs worldwide might be suitable for co2 injection for eor enhanced coal Bed Methane (ecBM) recovery is a technique under investigation for storing co2 in unmineable coal seams with the added benefit

of methane production

1.5.2 Maximising and verifying carbon dioxide (CO2)

storage in underground reservoirs

Petrographical studies and the established body of knowledge concerning

co2 storage/migration mechanisms in geological media from the oil industry, combine to improve our understanding of the co2 injection design approaches that can be adopted to maximise co2 storage and/or EOR in underground reservoirs (Vol 2, chapter 6, Blunt, Qi and laForce) Similarly, improved methods of sealing underground reservoirs for co2 trapping have been