McGraw hill PMP project management professional study guide

The planning process requires the project manager and the projectteam to develop the various core and subsidiary management plans necessary for project completion.. These knowledge areas

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PMP Project Management Professional Study Guide

by Joseph Phillips ISBN:0072230622McGraw-Hill © 2004 (588 pages)

This book shows you not only what, but how to studyfor the PMP exam With 100% complete coverage of allexam objectives and simulated questions, this guidecovers project initiation, scope management, qualityassurance, and more

- Examining the Project Management Processes

Part II - PMP Exam Essentials

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Back Cover

Get the book that shows you not only what—but how—to study

 100% complete coverage of all official objectives for the PMP exam

 Exam Readiness checklist at the front of the book—you’re ready for the exam when all objectives on the listare checked off

 Inside the Exam sections in every chapter highlight key exam topics covered

 Simulated exam questions match the format, tone, topics, and difficulty of the real exam

Covers all PMP exam topics, including:

About the Author

Joseph Phillips, PMP, IT Project+, is the Director of Education for Project Seminars, a project management trainingcompany He has successfully implemented projects for pharmaceutical, banking, manufacturing, insurance, andother industries Phillips has also taught PMP exam prep courses and given risk management and IT project

management seminars for Fortune 500 companies, the US military, not-for-profit agencies, and universities

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PMP Project Management

Professional Study Guide

Joseph Phillips

'Microsoft is a registered trademark of Microsoft Corporation in the United States and other countries

McGraw-Hill/Osborne is an independent entity from Microsoft Corporation, and not affiliated with Microsoft

Corporation in any manner This publication may be used in assisting students prepare for a Microsoft CertifiedProfessional Exam Neither Microsoft Corporation nor McGraw-Hill/Osborne warrants that use of this publicationwill ensure passing the relevant exam.'

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PMP® Project Management Professional Study Guide

Copyright © 2004 by The McGraw-Hill Companies All rights reserved Printed in the United States of America.Except as permitted under the Copyright Act of 1976, no part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed inany form or by any means, or stored in a database or retrieval system, without the prior written permission of

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/Osborne does not guarantee the accuracy, adequacy, or completeness of any information and is not responsible forany errors or omissions or the results obtained from the use of such information

For my son, Kyle

About the Author

Joseph Phillips, PMP, IT Project+, is the Director of Education for Project Seminars, a PMI Registered Education

Provider He has managed and consulted on projects for industries including technical, pharmaceutical, manufacturing,and architectural, among others Phillips has served as a project management consultant for organizations creatingproject offices, maturity models, and best practice standardization

As a leader in adult education, Phillips has taught organizations how to successfully implement project managementmethodologies, information technology project management, risk management, and other courses Phillips has taughtfor Columbia College, University of Chicago, Indiana University, among others He is a Certified Technical Trainerand has taught over 10,000 professionals Phillips has contributed as an author or editor to more than 30 books ontechnology, careers, and project management

Phillips is a member of the Project Management Institute and is active in local project management chapters He hasspoken on project management, project management certifications, and project methodologies at numerous tradeshows, PMI chapter meetings, and employee conferences When not writing, teaching, or consulting Phillips can be

found behind a camera or on the working end of a fly rod You can contact Phillips through

www.projectseminars.com

About the Technical Editor

Cyndi Snyder is s a professional consultant, facilitator, instructor, author and partner in Vista Performance Group.

She is an experienced leader in developing strategic and operating plans that have resulted in organizational growthand maturity Cyndi has 10 years of experience managing a variety of projects from public sector program

development to acquisitions and system implementation

Cyndi has experience in training for the corporate, public sector and academic environment She currently instructsfor UC Irvine, CalTech, and USC Cyndi also participates in the UC Irvine Project Management Program AdvisoryCommittee In addition she was a contributor to the Project Management Competency Model was published by theProject Management Institute

Cyndi is a member of the Project Management Institute and is the Chair of the Chapter Leadership Development andExcellence Committee for 2003 - 2005 She received and award for Outstanding Chapter President of the Year for

2002 Cyndi is a certified Project Management Professional (PMP) and earned her Masters in Business

Administration from Pepperdine University

About LearnKey

LearnKey provides self-paced learning content and multimedia delivery solutions to enhance personal skills and

business productivity LearnKey claims the largest library of rich streaming-media training content that engages

learners in dynamic media-rich instruction complete with video clips, audio, full motion graphics, and animated

illustrations LearnKey can be found on the Web at www.LearnKey.com

Acknowledgments

Books, like projects, are never done alone

I'd like to thank Cyndi Snyder for keeping me on track and focused on PMP requirements and test-centric ideas Abig thank you goes to Gareth Hancock for his patience, guidance, conversation, and overall support for this book.Thank you to Jody McKenzie and Julie Smith for their keen organizational skills, attention to details, and ability tokeep me moving Mike McGee and Carl Wikander-thank you for tightening my writing, clarifying my thoughts, andhelping me to be a better writer Thanks also to Jessica Wilson, Carol Burbo, Paul and Linda Medoff, and the

talented people in the production department for all of their hard work

Thank you to my friends and colleagues for their encouragement as this book was created: Linda Barron, BradBobich, Stacey Beheler, Scot Conrad, Kallie Cremer, Emmett Dulaney, Rick Gordon, Greg Kirkland, Don Kuhnle,Nancy Maragioglio, Deanna Moreland, Heather Rippey, Phil Stuck and my brothers Steve, Mark, Sam, and Ben

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Introduction

This book is divided into two major sections The first section, which consists of Chapters 1, , and 3, discusses thebroad overview of project management and how it pertains to the PMP examination Section two contains Chapter 4through 13, which detail each of the nine knowledge areas and the PMP Code of Professional Conduct

If you are just beginning your PMP quest you should read the first section immediately as it'll help you build a strongfoundation for the PMP exam If you find, however, that you've already a strong foundation in project managementand need specific information on the knowledge areas then move onto the second section PMP candidates that haveyears of project management experience - move onto the second section

The book is designed so you can read the chapters in any order you'd like However, if you examine the Guide to theProject Management Body of Knowledge you'll notice that the order of information presented is the same as theorder of information in this book In other words, you can read a chapter of the PMBOK and then read a moredetailed explanation in this book We're kind of a like a guide to the guide

Exam Readiness Checklist

Study Guide Coverage

Chapter #

Initiating the Project

Determine project goals 1 2 5

Determine project deliverables 1 2 5

Determine process outputs 3

Document project constraints 1 5

Document project assumptions 1 2 11

Define project strategy 1 4 5

Identify project performance requirements 1 4 5 7 8

Determine resource requirements 5 6 7

Provide comprehensive project information 5 10

Planning the Project

Refine project requirements 3 4 5

Create Work Breakdown Structure 1 2 4 6 7

Develop Resource Management Plan 9 10

Refine project time and project cost estimates 6 7

Establish project controls 3 5 6 7 8

Obtain Plan Approval 1 5 6 7 10

Executing the Project

Commit project resources 9 12

Implement Project Plan 1 2 3,

Manage project progress 1 2 3 6 7 10, 12

Communicate project progress 10

Controlling the Project

Measure project performance 6 7 8 10

Refine project control limits 6 7 8 11

Implement corrective actions 4 8 10

Evaluate corrective actions' effectiveness 4 8 10

Ensure project plan compliance 5 8 10, 11

Reassess project control plans 6 7 8 10

Respond to risk triggers 11

Monitor project activity 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10, 11, 12

Confirm formal acceptance of project deliverables 1 3 5 12

Finalize Lessons Learned documentation 1 3 5 10

Facilitate project closure activities 1 2 3 5 10

Preserve product records and tools 1 2 3 6 7 10

Release project resources 9

Professional Responsibility

Ensure integrity and professionalism 12, 13

Contribute to project management knowledge base 10, 13

Enhance individual competence 9 13

Manage stakeholder interests 1 2 4 5 8 9 10, 13

Interact with project team and stakeholders 1 2 3 5 8 9 10, 13

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We'll also examine the project framework, general management expertise, and other related areas of project

management The information you'll learn in this chapter will help you succeed in the world of PMP, so let's getstarted!

Defining What a Project Is-and Is Not

Meet Jane Jane is a project manager for her organization Vice presidents, directors, and managers with requests toinvestigate or to launch potential projects approach her daily-or so it seems to Jane Just this morning the SalesManager met with Jane because he wants to implement a new direct mail campaign to all of the customers in the salesdatabase He wants this direct mail campaign to invite customers to visit the company web site to see the new line ofproducts Part of the project also requires that the company web site be updated so it's in sync with the mailing.Sounds like a project, but is it really? Could this actually be just a facet of an on-going operation?

Projects vs Operations

In some organizations, everything is a project In other organizations, projects are rare exercises in change There's afine line between projects and operations, and often these separate entities overlap in function Consider the followingpoints shared by projects and operations:

Both are hopefully designed, executed, and managed by someone in charge

So what is a project-and how do you know if you're managing one? The definitive book from the Project

Management Institute, A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (simply referred to as the

PMBOK), defines a project as 'a temporary endeavor undertaken to create a unique product or service.' Temporary means that the project, thankfully, has an end date Unique means that the project's end result is different than the

results of other functions of the organization

On the Job

In your organization, projects may be defined slightlydifferent than here Some organizations qualify everyaction as a project

In the preceding example, Jane has been asked to manage a direct mail campaign to all of the customers in the salesdatabase Could this be a project? Sure-if this company has never completed a similar task and there are no internal

departments that do this type of work as part of their regular activities Often projects are confused with generalbusiness duties: marketing, sales, manufacturing, and so on The tell-tale sign of a project is that is has an end date andthat it's unique from other activities within the organization Some examples of projects include

Designing and building a new airplane

The end results of projects can result in operations For example, imagine a company creating a new airplane This

new airplane will be a small personal plane (like one of those bubble cars from The Jetsons) that would allow people

to fly to different destinations with the same freedom they use in driving their car The project team will have to design

an airplane from scratch that'd be similar to a car so consumers could easily adapt and fly to Sheboygan at a

moment's notice This project, to create a personal plane, is temporary, but not necessarily short term It may takeyears to go from concept to completion-but the project does have an end date A project of this magnitude mayrequire hundreds of prototypes before a working model is ready for the marketplace In addition, there are countlessregulations, safety issues, and quality control issues that must be pacified before completion

Once the initial plane is designed, built, and approved, the end result of the project is business operations As thecompany creates a new vehicle, it would follow through with their design by manufacturing, marketing, selling,

supporting, and improving their product The initial design of the airplane is the project-the business of manufacturing

it, supporting sold units, and marketing the product constitutes the ongoing operations part of business

Operations are the day-to-day work that goes on in the organization A manufacturer manufactures things, scientistscomplete research and development, and businesses provide goods and services Operations are the heart of

organizations Projects, on the other hand, are short-term endeavors that fall outside of the normal day-to-day

operations an organization offers

Once the project is complete, the project team moves along to other projects and activities The people who areactually building the airplanes on the assembly line, however, have no end date in sight, and will continue to createairplanes as longs as there is a demand for the product

Progressive Elaboration

All projects begin as a concept A project concept, to create a new product or service, typically includes a broadvision of what the end result of the project will be The temporary project results in the unique product or servicethrough progressive elaboration Progressive elaboration is the incremental design and refinement of the initial concepttoward the project plan

Progressive elaboration is an iterative process designed to correctly and completely fulfill the project objectives This

is evident in how the planning and execution processes each contribute to one another A similar example can be seen

in the process to create a Work Breakdown Structure (WBS) The WBS begins with the project vision, which is thenelaborated upon to create the project scope, and then expanded again into the WBS, and so on

Consider a concept to build a new building that would handle the manufacturing and shipping of blue jeans It wouldbegin broadly, with materials delivered, the assembly equipment, and the outward-bound shipping bays As theproject team continues to research the needs and expectations of the project, the project vision would be refined,honed, and polished to a detailed outline of what the project would deliver As you can see in Figure 1-1, throughincremental steps, the project plan is developed and the unique project deliverables are created

Figure 1-1: Progressive elaboration is the refinement of project concept to project plan

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Defining Project Management

Project management is the supervision and control of the work required to complete the project vision The projectteam carries out the work needed to complete the project, while the project manager schedules, monitors, and

controls the various project tasks Projects, being the temporary and unique things that they are, require the projectmanager to be actively involved with the project implementation They are not self-propelled

Project management is comprised of the following nine knowledge areas Chapters 4 through 12 will explore theknowledge areas in detail



Project Integration Management This knowledge area focuses on project plan develop and execution.



Project Scope Management This knowledge area deals with the planning, creation, protection, and

fulfillment of the project scope



Project Time Management Time management is crucial to project success This knowledge area covers

activities, their characteristics, and how they fit into the project schedule



Project Cost Management Cost is always a constraint in project management This knowledge area is

concerned with the planning, estimating, budgeting, and control of costs



Project Quality Management This knowledge area centers on quality planning, assurance, and control.



Project Human Resource Management This knowledge area focuses on organizational planning, staff

acquisition, and team development



Project Communications Management The majority of a project manager's time is spent communicating.

This knowledge area details how communications can improve



Project Risk Management Every project has risks This knowledge area focuses on risk planning,

analysis, monitoring, and control



Project Procurement Management This knowledge area involves planning, solicitation, contract

administration, and contract closeout

Defining the Project Life Cycle

One common attribute of all projects is that they eventually end Think back to one of your favorite projects Theproject started with a desire to change something within an organization The idea to change this 'something' was

project life Each phase within the life of the project created a deliverable.

For example, consider a project to build a new warehouse The construction company has some pretty clear phaseswithin this project: research, blueprints, approvals and permits, breaking ground, laying the foundation, and so on.Each phase, big or small, results in some accomplishment that everyone can look to and say, 'Hey! We're makingprogress!' Eventually the project is completed and the warehouse is put into production

At the beginning of the project, through planning, research, experience, and expert judgment, the project managerand the project team will plot out when each phase should begin, when it should end, and the related deliverable thatwill come from each phase Often, the deliverable of each phase is called a milestone The milestone is a significantpoint in the schedule that allows the stakeholders to see how far the project has progressed-and how far the projecthas to go to reach completion

Defining the Project Management Process

Will all projects have the same phases? Of course not! A project to create and manufacture a new pharmaceuticalwill not have the same phases as a project to build a skyscraper Both projects, however, can map to the five projectmanagement processes These processes are typical of projects, and are iterative in nature-that is, you don't finish aprocess never to return Let's take a look at each process and its attributes

Initiating

This process launches the project, or phase The needs of the organization are identified and alternative solutions areresearched The power to launch the project or phase is given through a project charter, and when initiating theproject, the wonderful project manager is selected

Planning

Can you guess what this process is all about? The planning process requires the project manager and the projectteam to develop the various core and subsidiary management plans necessary for project completion This process isone of the most important pieces of project management

manager to confirm that the cost and schedule are in sync with what was planned Finally, the project team will informthe project manager of their progress, who will, in turn, report on the project's progress to the project sponsor, tomanagement, and perhaps even to key stakeholders in the organization

Closing

Ah, the best process of them all The closing process, sometimes called the project postmortem, involves closing outthe project accounts, completing final acceptance of the project deliverables, filing the necessary paperwork, andassigning the project team to new projects Oh yeah, and celebrating!

Most projects have similar characteristics, such as the following:

They Are Demanding

The stakeholders, the people with a vested interested in the project, are all going to have different expectations,needs, and requests of the project deliverables No doubt there will be conflict between the stakeholders

They Have Clear Requirements

Projects should have a clearly defined set of requirements These requirements will set the bar for the actual product

or service created by the project, the quality of the project, and the timeliness of the project's completion

They Come with Assumptions

Projects also have assumptions Assumptions are beliefs held to be true, but that haven't been proven For example,the project may be operating under the assumption that the project team will have access to do the work at any timeduring the workday, rather than only in the evenings or weekends

Constraints Are Imposed

Within every project there is a driving force for the project You've probably experienced some force first-hand Forexample, ever had a project that had to be done by an exact date or you'd face fines and fees? This is a scheduleconstraint Or a project that could not go over it's set budget? This is a financial constraint Or what about a projectthat had to hit an exact level of quality regardless of how long the project took? This is scope constraint All are forcesthat tend to be in competition with each other

Specifically, there are three constraints that a project manager will encounter:



Project Scope The scope of the project constitutes the parameters of what the project will, and will not,

include As the project progresses, the stakeholders may try to change the project scope to include morerequirements than what was originally planned for (commonly called scope creep) Of course, if you changethe project scope to include more deliverables, the project will likely need more time and/or money to becompleted We will talk about scope in Chapter 5



Schedule This is the expected time when the project will be completed Realistic schedules don't come

easily You'll learn all about scheduling and estimating time in Chapter 6 As you may have experienced, someprojects require a definite end date rather than, or in addition to, a definite budget For example, imagine amanufacturer creating a new product for a tradeshow The tradeshow is not going to change the start date ofthe show just because the manufacturer is running late with their production schedule



Cost Budgets, monies, greenbacks, dead presidents, whatever you want to call it-the cost of completing the

project is always high on everyone's list of questions The project manager must find a method to accuratelypredict the cost of completing the project within a given timeline, and then control the project to stay withinthe given budget We will learn more about this in Chapter 7 Sounds easy, right? The following diagramillustrates the Iron Triangle of scope, schedule, and cost constraints

Consider the Project Risk

Do you play golf? In golf, as in project management, there is a theory called The Risk-Reward Principle You're

teeing off for the seventh hole If you shoot straight, you can lay up in the fairway, shoot again, and then two-putt forpar Pretty safe and predictable However, if you have confidence in your driver, you may choose to cut the

waterway and get on the green in one If you accept and beat that risk, you'll have a nice reward Choke and land inthe water and you're behind the game In project management, the idea is the same Some risks are worth taking,while others are worth the extra cost to avoid You'll learn all about risks in Chapter 11

Consider the Expected Quality

What good is a project if it is finished on time and on budget, but the quality of the deliverable is so poor it is

unusable? Some projects have a set level of quality that allows the project team to aim for Other projects follow theorganization's Quality Assurance Program such as ISO 9000 And, unfortunately, some projects have a general,vague idea of what an acceptable level of quality is Without a specific target for quality, trouble can ensue Theproject manager and project team may spend more time and monies to hit an extremely high level of quality when alower, expected level of quality would suffice for the project Quality is needed, but an exact target of expectedquality is demanded

Exam Watch

Project constraints influence practically all areas of the project process Consider constraints as a ruling requirement over the project Common constraints you'll encounter are time constraints in the form of deadlines and the availability of resources.

Management by Projects

In today's competitive, tight-margin business world, organizations have to move and respond quickly to opportunity.Many companies have moved from a functional environment-that is, organization by function-to an organization, ormanagement, by projects A company that organizes itself by job activity, such as sales, accounting, informationtechnology, and other departmental entities is a functional environment A company that manages itself by projectsmay be called a projectized company

An organization that uses projects to move the company forward is using the Management by Projects approach.

These project-centric entities could manage any level of their work as a project These organizations, however, applygeneral business skills to each project to determine their value, efficiency, and, ultimately, their return on investment

As you can imagine, some projects are more valuable, more efficient, or more profitable than others

There are many examples of organizations that use this approach Consider any business that completes projects fortheir clients, such as architectural, graphic design, consulting, or other service industries These service-orientedbusinesses typically complete projects as their business

Here are some other examples of management by projects:

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Building the Project Management Framework

Have you ever watched a house being built? Or built your own home? There's all the pre-building excitement:

blueprints, permits, inspectors, approval, contracts, aspirin, and more planning Finally, the workers come togetherand build a foundation and the house begins to appear In the first few months, what do you have? You've nothingmore than a skeleton of a house: the frame If you were to look at other homes, big or small, they'd have a similarlaunch process-and a similar way of having the house created

On a project, any project, there are fundamental activities that must happen before the work begins The rules,management principles, planning, and general guidelines for a project are the project management framework Theproject management framework is the skeleton of projects And, just like a house, even though every project has ageneral framing, the end results are typically different

The management of a project, the day-to-day activities, is the bones of successful project management A projectmanager must monitor, maintain, and control the work of the project to ensure timeliness, accountability, quality, andsuccess Just as you wouldn't randomly build a home without plans and a level of control, a project requires a level ofdetail and management to guarantee completion and acceptability

The five processes of a project are initiation, planning, execution, control, and closure (known as IPECC; you canremember these by thinking of syrup of ipecac-hopefully without the same unpleasant results.) The five processesinteract with one another and allow the project manager, the project sponsor, the project team, and even the

stakeholders to witness the progress, success, and, sometimes, failure of a project These processes are cyclic,iterative, progressively elaborated, and chockablock full of work, documentation, and project manager participation.The following illustration shows the relationship between the five process groups

If you were to skim through the PMBOK Guide, you wouldn't see any chapters related directly to the five processes.Instead, you'd find chapters on knowledge areas The five processes of the project management life cycle (IPECC)are spread across these knowledge areas This book will cross-reference the five processes with the nine knowledgeareas

The material in the following sections will acquaint you with the knowledge areas

Exam Watch

If you want to pass the PMP exam, learn and love the project management knowledge areas These

knowledge areas are the different facets of project management a project manager will work through in each of the processes Chapters 4 through 12 will detail all of the facts for each of the knowledge areas A grid outlining the interaction of the process areas and the knowledge areas is on page 38 of the PMBOK Guide You should be intimately familiar with this grid, and consider memorizing it to give yourself an edge up on the exam.

Project Integration Management

This knowledge area deals first with creating the official project plan The project plan details can vary based on thesize, impact, and priority of the project Once the project plan is created, Integration Management ensures the plan isfollowed Finally, Integrated Change Control is responsible for managing and controlling changes to the project.Project Integration Management includes

Managing, controlling, and documenting changes to the project plan

Case Study: Implementing Project Integration Management

Zings Sweater Company, an international company that sells fancy cotton, silk, and wool sweaters, has hired you astheir project manager Zings Sweater Company uses old-fashioned machinery to create some of the finest and mostcomfortable sweaters in the world Their busy manufacturing season is in late summer and again in early winter Theyare thrilled to have you on board

The Vice President of Sales for the Zings Sweater Company has a hot new idea to create a Frequent CustomerProgram for their clients His idea is that customers can enroll in the program when purchasing sweaters in their stores,through www.zingsweaters.com, and even through a direct mail campaign Once customers enroll, they'll receivecoupons, discounts, and e-mail announcements about new sweaters

Lucky you! You've been deemed the project manager of this massive, high-profile project Through an initial

feasibility study, the proposed project answers several business needs and has the potential to boost market share byseven percent

To create your project, you'll have to complete plenty of research, break down the work into manageable chunks ofactivities, and rely on Subject Matter Experts (SMEs) from outside vendors and individuals on your recently recruitedproject team As you work with your team, you'll have to rely on their findings, expert judgment, and evidence fordecisions

As the plan comes together, you'll document the current state of the company and make predictions about its future.Before any implementation begins, you and management will have to be in agreement regarding project requirements,expectations, and level of quality Of course, this information will be documented in your project plan Other inputs toyour project plan will include related historical information, information gathered from stakeholders, and knowledgelearned from your planning process

Once your plan has been approved and you've been given the green light, the project team will get to work

implementing the plan and working toward completion You'll monitor and control project tasks through work

authorization systems, guidelines set by the official project plan, and inputs from the experts on your project team Asyou document the work, you'll report on the project's progress, the level of value, and the project's ability to end onschedule and on budget

As this project moves forward, your project team may discover faster, better, or safer methods to complete the

Project Scope Management

The project scope encompasses all the required work, and only the required work, necessary to complete theproject Work that does not support the needs of the project is considered out of scope Project Scope Managementalso includes verifying the work that the project team is completing is in alignment with project requirements ProjectScope Management includes

Controlling project scope

Case Study: Enacting Project Scope Management

Your project with the Zings Sweater Company has a project scope In this instance, the scope of the work at thehighest level is to create a Frequent Customer Program Through your research, you and your project team will breakdown this work into a logical plan Requested work that does not fit within the project scope is out of bounds andshould not be completed as part of this project

For example, Nancy Martin, the Director of Retail Locations, requests that since you'll be creating a few databases

of customers you should also create a directory of all of the store employees with their photos, information regardingtheir favorite sweaters, and other neat facts While this request may have some merit, it is not in the original scope ofthe Frequent Customer Program you've been assigned to create Sorry, Nancy, your request is out of bounds, out ofscope, and won't be added onto this project

During the management of the Frequent Customer Program Project you discover that one of your team members ispromising store managers that customers will be able to request custom-tailored sweaters as part of this project.Nope That feature, while handy, is out of the project scope

At the end of the project, and often at the end of each project phase, you will walk the project sponsor and keystakeholders through the deliverables you've created This is scope verification-the activity of proving that what youhave promised through the scope is a reality for the customer of the project

The Vice President of Sales, the sponsor of the Frequent Customer Program Project, needs the database in place assoon as possible Through the planning process you know several databases will need to be created to store thecustomer information Marketing material will have to be developed There'll be training for the store employees Andthere's all the marketing material to write and produce Also, don't forget the Internet site will have to be updated tosupport the discounts You know, as an employee, that there are 220 Zings Sweater stores throughout the world andeach will need their point-of-sale software updated either in person or through a remote access solution

Hmm? Should it be done ASAP? This high-profile project will cost a considerable amount of money, time, and effort

in order to obtain the targeted seven-percent increase in market share Not exactly a project you want to rush throughand wreck

Next, you and your team estimate the amount of time each activity will actually take to complete As you begin toassign your team tasks and arrange the order of activities, you build a time estimate.

During this process, you discover dependencies that have to be in place for the project to move forward You mapout the work in a logical order and discover there are several possible paths to completion You must decide whichsolution has an acceptable amount of risk, as well as how it should be coordinated with business cycles, other

projects, and separate business demands, and whether or not it is realistic enough for you and your project team tomove forward with it

Another part of time management is mathematical analysis of possible best- and worse-case scenarios for activityduration Through this analysis, your project management software, and expert judgment, you will create a projectcalendar that everyone can live with and work through As the project progresses, you'll have to monitor the

performance and confirm its alignment with what you've predicted When schedule variances occur, you'll have tofollow your Communications Plan to report these variances to management

Project Cost Management

There are several methods you can use to predict project expenses, depending on the project type For example, ifyou've done a similar project, you could rely on your historical information to predict the costs of the current project.Another method you can use is a mathematical formula called parametric modeling This formula works well withprice per unit, like cost per square foot, cost per metric, and so on In many instances, the proposed project mayhave widely different costs, and aspects that have never been completed before In these instances, the projectmanager will rely on traditional bottom-up estimations Bottom-up estimations start at zero, with each expenseaccounted for until a grand total is reached

In your cost estimate, you will also need to calculate the cost of travel, hardware, and software needed to completethe project Don't forget to factor in marketing material, training, petty cash, and monies for team rewards like tickets

to ball games, movies, and other intermittent incentives

Once the project moves into implementation, you'll be accountable for the approved budget and will have to keeptrack of procurements, fees, invoices, and the employees' time You'll need some accounting software or a few sharppencils Just kidding-rely on the accounting software

Throughout the project, management is going to want to see how things are progressing in dollars and sense Forstarters, you'll rely on actual costs against your predicted project baseline This will only tell you so much For

complex projects, you'll really need some advanced method to see the actual progress in monetary value For this,you'll use nine different formulas to calculate the value of the project, any cost or schedule variances, and evidencethat the project will likely finish on time and on budget The nine formulas comprise Earned Value Management

Managing project cost includes

Proving project financial accountability

Case Study: Enacting Project Cost Management

Your project for Zings Sweater Company is creating lots of excitement Sales reps, managers, and customer servicereps are eager to see the end results The goal of a seven-percent boost in market share really has upper managementexcited about your project But, of course, upper management is also concerned about the cost of the project Whilethey realize it takes money to make money, their concern is that the project expenses won't outweigh the benefits ofthe project

Because Zings Sweater Company has never created a project of this magnitude before, much of your estimates arejust that-estimates Your initial estimate, called 'the order of magnitude' estimate, has a range of variance from -25percent to 75 percent This initial estimate allows management to see the extremes of the project's likely costs

As the project progresses, your initial estimate evolves into the budget estimate This estimate accounts for theproject work, vendors, and materials needed to deliver the project You'll base this estimate on your conversationswith the project team, the decomposition of the work into a work breakdown structure, and through proposals andquotes from vendors This estimate gives management an estimate that is expected to vary no more than -10 percentand up to 25 percent You've created a very accurate bottom-up estimate that everyone can live with

To ensure the project stays within the accepted range of variance, you'll need a system to keep track of fees,

invoices, travel, and other expenses Management will need advance warning for capital expenses so they can plancash flow accordingly

The cost you assign to the project allows management to calculate the management horizon Management horizon is

the point in the future when the project will earn back the original investment and start creating new profits for theorganization-a happy day

Project Quality Management

In any project, there is a demand for quality Project quality management planning is the process to ensure that thedeliverables of the project satisfy its needs Project quality management includes

Enforcing set quality control systems

Case Study: Ensuring Quality

You and your project team are very excited about the Frequent Customer Program Project This project is highprofile, will add a new service to your organization, and will help the company grow and become more profitable TheVice President of Sales, the project sponsor, stops by during the initiating processes of the project to remind you howimportant this project is He tells you that the entire company is counting on you and your team to deliver a superior,top-notch solution that is of utmost quality

Nothing like some more pressure, eh?

You, being the expert project manager you are, have already been giving thoughts to the level of quality this projectrequires The customers will use this service on a regular basis, the customer service reps in each of the retail locations

will use this service, and all of the sales team will rely on the data from your creation to drive new sales and help thecompany grow.

As always, you begin with planning Quality planning requires a look to your company's quality assurance policy orquality program such as ISO 9000 or Six Sigma These quality methodologies, coupled with the requirements fromthe project stakeholders, will guide your team through the quality planning process

With your quality plan in tow, you and your project team follow your company's quality assurance policy and beginimplementing the quality plan Throughout the implementation, you take measurements, respond to the measurements,and make adjustments as needed For example, a manufacturer may take a sampling of one thousand units and expect

no more than three defective units per one thousand In your project, you have set a benchmark for acceptable levels

of quality for the project deliverables

You implement tools such as control charts and Pareto diagrams to measure quality and isolate reasons for defectiveresults With your team, you work on improving the results to meet the targeted quality benchmark As you haveplanned, and as the project sponsor expects, if work falls below quality, it has to be redone before the project canmove forward No one, especially the project manager, likes to have to redo work since it means lost time and sunk

costs Sunk costs are funds already invested in a project regardless of the project's success.

Your project for Zings Sweater Company is progressing Your team is working under extreme pressure to finish all

of the different areas of the project-on time and on budget You are monitoring the work schedule, costs, disruptions,delays, and are keeping a constant eye on the quality of the work created Quality management is a knowledge areathat spans not only the implementation of the project plan, but all of the project processes

Project Human Resource Management

Project Human Resource Management is the process of successfully applying the right resource to the project work

in the most effective way to accomplish the project goals while maintaining cost and schedule Project Human

Resource Management includes

Developing the project team

Case Study: Applying Project Human Resources

Thankfully, you've been a project manager for years-just not with Zings Sweater Company However, the level ofconfidence your company has in you is tremendous They allow you to make decisions, control the budget, with someapproval, and generally give you a fair amount of autonomy on the project Of course, if the project fails, it's yourentire fault As this experienced project manager, you also have to take on the human resources issues such as

bargaining with managers for specific employees, accounting for team members' time, and occasionally discipliningteam members

Your human resource knowledge area will be based on the structure of your company In some organizations, theproject manager has very little power, and all decisions flow through a functional manager Other companies, likeZings, use a matrix structure which allows project managers some authority Nevertheless, project managers andproject team members still answer to a functional manager Other entities use a projectized approach where the

During the planning process, you learn what roles and responsibilities will be required to complete the project Based

on your current team, you learn that several required roles are missing Now you'll have to work with the projectsponsor and functional managers to recruit new team members with the needed talent on the project team In addition,there are some procurement issues since you've elected to bring in a few consultants and SMEs to join the projectteam

With this large project, and equally large project team, there's an immediate need for the team members to getacquainted and learn about each other You decide to take your team on a team-building outing: a wilderness survivalcamp At the outing, the team will learn about each other, learn to work together, and to work towards a commongoal

Another facet of your human resource management plan is training Many of the team members need their skillsupgraded to complete the necessary work In addition, there will be internal training on the usage of the FrequentCustomer Program to ensure the team knows how the software and web site should work

As the project moves through the implementation stage, you'll meet with the project team to discuss variances,problems, and other issues that may creep into the work But not everything is bad You also have created a methodfor recognizing the completion of work, completion of major milestones, and have set incentives for completingscheduled work on time and on budget

Project Communications Management

Project managers spend the bulk of their time communicating Half of communicating is listening When it comes toproject communications management know this: it's all about who needs what and when We'll discuss

communications in detail in Chapter 10 Project communication management includes

Following the Communications Management Plan to close out the project

Case Study: Applying Project Communications Management

Your project, the Frequent Customer Program, for Zings Sweater Company is huge and will require much of yourtime and attention to complete it as planned A project of this magnitude will require special care for communicatingthe project progress Your team, which is non-collocated, will require frequent updates, your sponsor will needweekly status reports, upper management has requested milestone reports, and even retail store managers would likeinformation on the project status

Your project team, however, is located around the world Many of the team members speak different languages and,obviously, live in different time zones You've created a method to allow for communications, timed meetings, and thecreation of subteams with designated team leaders The management of a collocated team requires additional thoughtand planning Everything contained in this paragraph is part of communication planning

You already know, based on past experience, that team meetings, vendor meetings, and status report meetings caneat up entire days of time-a necessary evil You also know there'll be plenty of informal communications, such as

hallway meetings, lunch meetings, and quick phone calls and e-mails With all of these communication demands on top

of the project, how will you be able to hold all of it together?

Ah, yes, the planning process During the planning process, you'll research and discover the exact communicationrequirements-based on stakeholder analysis-and then set a schedule to satisfy those communication requirements.Your communications management plan will detail the reports, meetings, and summaries required by this project And,

of course, you'll be allowed to revisit the planning process as needed to update and amend the CommunicationsManagement Plan

Communications, from meetings to memos, will need to be documented through minutes, organization, and

consistency Based on past projects, you've created an information retrieval system that allows qualified team

members and stakeholders to search and retrieve information that has been recorded in a database of knowledge.This information retrieval system accomplishes a record of communications, helps you make decisions, and helpsconclude the project based on the wealth of knowledge you've collected

The Vice President of Sales, the project sponsor, drops by your office early in the project to chat During this

conversation, he reminds you that you'll be doing monthly reports on the project and team performance Several ofthe project team members will be on this project full time and their managers want some accountability for theiremployees' time Now you must update the communications management plan: more communications, more reports,more requirements

As the project progresses, you'll follow your communications management plan for meetings, written

communications, and record keeping You'll also use several modalities for information distribution: e-mail, an intranetweb site, memos, and printed reports are just a few options you've chosen During the project, you'll also close outeach project phase with a Lessons Learned document that you'll use again in the final project closure

Project Risk Management

Risks are events that can affect a project for good or for bad Project risk management is the process of identifying,classifying, and weighing the risks to determine their impact on the project should they come into play Project riskmanagement includes

Actively monitoring and reacting to project risks

Case Study: Enforcing Project Risk Management

require extensive risk analysis as it will affect the way the company does business, the marketing campaigns aimed atfrequent customers, and, if all goes well, an increase in market share.

Your reliance on planning requires you and the project team to break down the work into manageable chunks, mapout the work from start to finish, and then begin identifying risks that could stop the project from completing You'llhave to discuss your work implementation strategy with key stakeholders to consider other business processes thatmay coincide with your plan, discuss areas of your plan that could result in loss of sales, and examine the plan for risksthat are acceptable, unacceptable, or risks that can be easily neutralized

Through qualitative risk analysis you will lead your team through risk planning sessions In these sessions, you'll rankthe risks according to probability and impact Then, once the ranking is complete, you'll calculate an overall projectrisk score Finally, you'll create plans for the major risks uncovered You'll also use historical information for similarprojects to look for trends in the risk analysis

In conjunction with qualitative risk analysis, you'll use a more in-depth approach to study the risks you've discovered:quantitative analysis In this process, you'll interview stakeholders, experience the work to see the risk impact, andapply tools such as decision trees, simulations, and formulas for the cost of mitigating the identified risks Sounds likefun, right?

Once you've created the risk response plan you'll apply the plan as needed as the work progresses With yourproject team and stakeholders you'll keep a lookout for signs that any identified risks are coming to fruition In

addition, you'll be allowed to revisit the planning process to update your risk management plan as new risks maycome to light or old risks are taken out of play

Through hard work and diligence you'll work with the project team and the project sponsor to ensure that risks areneutralized, documented, and that the risk management plan is updated and executed as needed

Project Procurement Management

Project procurement management is the process of purchasing goods or services from vendors Managing projectprocurement includes

Administering and closing project contracts

Case Study: Utilizing Project Procurement Management

Your project, the Frequent Customer Program, has many demands: technology, travel, marketing, training, and more.Based on your initial project plan, there are not enough internal resources to complete the labor Therefore, you'll be

forced to contract vendors to help with the project work This begins your procurement management.

During your planning process, you'll use make-or-buy analyses to determine what areas of the project must, orshould be, outsourced, and then establish requirements for vendors Zings Sweater Company has a qualified seller listthat you'll use to request proposals and proposals for the project work This vendor solicitation process will requireexpert judgment, historical information, and most likely input from management, the project team, and even otherSMEs to help determine the best price and legal contracts

Through bidder conferences, vendors will interview you on the project work, the level of quality, and the expectedrequirements for the work they may be completing The vendors can then use this information to create estimates,proposals, and bids to complete the project contract

Once the contracts have been awarded and the vendors go about completing the project work, you'll have to

monitor the vendor's performance for quality, results, and schedule control The vendors will provide their reportsregarding the schedule and any variances to keep you abreast of their progress You and the vendors will worktogether for the good of the project to ensure the integration of their work and your project team's work

Finally, the vendors will want to be paid You'll have contracts, statements of work, and invoices to confirm You willreview and approve invoices based on actual work completed, expedite the payment according to the contract terms,

or meet with the vendor to discuss any issues with the invoices At the end of the project, you will close out anyproject accounts, confirm that purchase orders have been fulfilled, and that invoices have been, or are being,

processed

Inside the Exam

The PMP exam is not for rookies The application process alone can filter out the unqualified and the merely curious.You've purchased this book to find out more information on how to pass the exam, what the exam entails, and toprep for your exam-a wise decision Now make another wise decision: begin completing your PMP exam application.The application process can be lengthy since you'll have to track down past information relating to projects you'vecompleted

By starting sooner, rather than later, in completing your exam application, you'll be focusing more on completing yourexam studies than completing the exam application In addition, response time from the Project Management Institute(PMI) to accept and approve your application can vary from a few days to weeks Start now and you'll be on yourway

You won't see any questions about Zings Sweater Company on the exam You will, however, be presented withsimilar scenarios that will test your project management abilities Specifically, you'll need to know how the projectmanager works through the project processes You should be familiar with the project management process groups,what a project deliverable is, and the requirements of a project scope

Know that the project moves through phases to reach completion The project manager oversees the project work

as it moves through phases, but the project customer must approve the work Specifically, the results of phases mustpass through scope verification Scope verification is the formal acceptance of the project work

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Adapting Management Expertise

Project management is a complex endeavor Projects, like the previous example for Zings Sweater Company, haveseveral knowledge areas that are unique to the discipline Project managers typically need other managerial skills to besuccessful Several of the skills you can learn from a book, but most skills come from experience, emulating others,and sheer talent Let's take a quick look at some of the attributes of a successful project manager

All businesses have a responsibility to the monies they are allotted, have earned, and have acquired through

donations In project management, the work completed within a project must be measured for value and accountedfor The budget the organization has set for the project must be guarded Ultimately, the success of the project shouldgenerate an increase in funds, productivity, or efficiency for the sponsoring organization

Project Organization

Project managers must be organized How much time has been wasted looking for documentation, contracts, orpermits? How much money has been lost due to disorganization? How many projects have failed because the projectmanager did not keep and maintain accurate records? Organization is a methodical approach to storing and retrievinginformation, as it is needed Organization does not require a spotless desk, thousands of labeled file folders, or

archives of every project-related document Organization requires thorough, fast, and reliable access to project data

Negotiation Skills

Negotiation is giving and taking so that both parties can live with the outcome of the 'deal.' For example, your projectmay need more electrical engineers, while another project manager needs more business analysts Can you and theother project manager come to agreement to offset each other's business needs? Is one resource more valuable thanthe other? Another example of negotiation: a stakeholder demands the project be completed within three months at aset budget You know that the project, with its proposed budget, will take five months Can you and the stakeholdercome to a compromise between the project budget and the project schedule?

Team Leadership

Managing a project team is different than leading a project team It has been said that you manage things, but leadpeople In project management, you must create a relationship between the project team members and yourself toexcite, motivate, and inspire the workers to move toward the strategy and vision of the project deliverable

Management requires that you organize, document, and enforce the project plan so that the work progresses tocompletion The marriage of leadership and management is necessary for truly successful project management.

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Adapting Application Areas

Just as project management requires several general business skills, there are also instances when project

management overlaps specific application areas It is not necessary for you, the project manager, to know andparticipate in each of the application areas It may be relevant, however, for a project manager in a given industry tounderstand the terminology, flow of work, and expectations of their given industry Here are some common

application areas you may encounter

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Examining Related Areas of Project Management

Project management is the management of activities to change the current state of an organization to a desired futurestate of the organization Project management is a complex organization of decision-making, planning, implementation,control, and documentation of the experience from start to finish In addition to traditional project management, thereare related areas of project management that you may encounter, have encountered, or are actively participating in.These related endeavors often are superior to individual project management, are part of project management, orequate to less than the management of any given project

In this section, we'll dissect the related areas of project management and see how they tie together to change acurrent state to a desired future state

Program Management

Program management is the management of multiple projects all working in unison toward a common cause

Consider all of the work that could go into building a skyscraper Within the overall work, there could potentially beseveral projects that lead to the end result, as demonstrated in Figure 1-2 You could have a project for the planningand design of the building Another project could manage the legal, regulatory, and project inspections that would berequired for the work to continue Another project could be the physical construction of the building, while otherprojects could entail electrical wiring, elevators, plumbing, interior design, and more Could one project managereffectively manage all of these areas of expertise? Possibly, but probably not

Figure 1-2: Programs contain multiple projects working towards one goal

A better solution could be to create a program that is comprised of multiple projects Project managers wouldmanage each of the projects within the program and report to the Program Manager The Program Manager wouldensure that all of the integrated projects worked together on schedule, on budget, and ultimately towards the

completion of the program

In other instances, the program is an ongoing effort that really does not have an end in sight Consider the publication

of a newspaper, newsletter, web site, or magazine Essentially, the workers of these publications do the same

activities for each issue, but each issue is unique and different than the last

Another example is NASA's space program It's a program to explore space, and is comprised of individual projectswithin that program Each project under the program has its own goals, initiatives, and objectives that are in alignmentwith the overall mission of the space program Programs are a collection of individual projects working in alignmenttowards a common end

Case Study: Program in Action

Based on your findings, you recommend that the Frequent Customer Program Project be converted into a programwith a mission to increase market share by seven percent Within this program, there are many different projects thatcan be established and operated by individual project managers The project managers will work together under theguidance of the program manager to make certain that the completion of each project occurs in a logical order and insupport of all the other projects.

Your company agrees that the creation of a program is a good idea and they create the following projects within theprogram:



The IT Development Project This project will create the upgrade to the retail point of sale system to

support the ID tags the customers will use to obtain their discounts This project team will create the softwareand databases to support the technology facet of the project The project manager for this project will workwith the program manager on budget, schedule, and integration with the other projects



The Web Sales Project Your company's web site, www.zingsweaters.com, does not currently have an

e-commerce enabled utility Customers can visit the site and see the catalog of sweaters, but they cannotmake purchases online This project will create a new web presence to allow customers to surf and purchasesweaters online and participate in the Frequent Customer Program



The Frequent Customer Program Training Project This project will create training documentation,

videos, and a web presence for internal training of how the new point of sale software, the ID tags, and theFrequent Customer Program will work to better the company The training process will take 20 minutes tocomplete through the web-based training (WBT) application The training for the retail managers will take onehour to complete through the WBT application The documentation of how to use the point of sale softwarewill be located at each register in the retail locations for quick reference



The Manufacturing Upgrade Project The equipment used to create the wonderful Zings Sweaters will

need to be upgraded in order to support the new demand of anticipated sales This project will oversee theadjustment and fine-tuning of current equipment and the installation of two additional machines on the shopfloor The assigned project manager will work closely with the Director of Manufacturing and the

Manufacturing Plant Manager in the procurement of the new equipment In addition, there will be strong ties

to the financial benefits of the new equipment, and the success of the other projects under this program



The Customer Marketing Project In order for this project to be successful, customers will need to know

about the new Frequent Customer Program This project will work with writers and designers to create aflashy campaign that will drive sales at both the retail stores and the web site In addition, the project willrecruit customers into the program by offering a ten-percent discount on any sweaters purchased when theyjoin

Subproject Implementation

Subprojects are an alternative to programs Some projects may not be wieldy enough to require the creation of afull-blown program, yet still be large enough that some of the work can be delegated to a subproject A subprojectexists under the parent project, but follows its own schedule to completion Subprojects may be outsourced, assigned

to other project managers, or managed by the parent project manager but with a different project team The followingillustration shows a project containing multiple subprojects

Subprojects are often areas of a project that are outsourced to vendors For example, if you were managing aproject to create a new sound system for home theaters, a subproject could be the development of the user manualincluded with the sound system You'd hire writers and graphic designers to work with your project team The writersand designers would learn all about the sound system and then retreat to their own space to create the user manualaccording to their project methodology The deliverable of their subproject would be included in your overall projectplan, but the actual work to complete the manual would not be in your plan You'd simply allot the funds and timerequired by the writers and graphic designers to create the manual.

Subprojects do, however, follow the same quality guidelines and expectations of the overall project The projectmanager has to work with the subproject team regarding scheduling, value, and cost to ensure the deliverables andactivities of the subproject integrate smoothly with the 'master' project

Project Portfolio Management

Have you ever had a fantastic idea to implement a new technology, design a new product or service, or other projectonly to have it discarded by management? Most organizations, big and small, only have so much cash to invest in newprojects

Project Portfolio Management is a management process to select the projects that should be invested in Specifically,

it is the selection process based on the need, profitability, and affordability of the proposed projects As you probablyalready know, not all proposed projects can realistically be implemented Some projects cost too much, while othersmay not meet a required level of return on investment The selection of projects can often be a political and

gut-wrenching process The planning process and the project initiation phase of a project allows a project to prove itsworth

Some projects, while valuable, still don't come into play for several reasons One of the most obvious could be lack

of money to implement the proposed project Or there may already be too many investments in other projects Orperhaps a lack of internal resources may require that the proposed project be shelved until a later date

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Certification Summary

This chapter covered the fundamentals of project management and the expectations for the PMP examination TheProject Management Body of Knowledge is the wealth of information relevant to the project management professionand what will be covered in the PMP exam

We discussed the five process groups of project management and how they interrelate throughout a project's lifecycle Overlaying these five process groups are the nine knowledge areas that a project manager must have expertise

in to be successful These nine knowledge areas comprise the project management framework

All projects, large or small, have a triple constraint: time, cost, and quality The project manager must work withstakeholders to balance these three constraints or the project will run out of time, cost more than what was planned,

or produce poor quality deliverables-or combinations of the three

Finally, we discussed how projects may exist within large entities called programs Recall that programs are acollection of projects working toward a common goal Programs are led by a Program Manager that the projectmanager reports to

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Key Terms

To pass the PMP exams, you will need to memorize these terms and their definitions For maximum value, createyour own flashcards based on these definitions and review them daily These definitions can be found within thischapter and in the glossary

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Two-Minute Drill

Exploring Project Attributes

Projects are temporary, unique, and create a product or service

All projects have their own life cycle, while the project management life cycle has five distinct phases:Initiation, Planning, Execution, Control, and Closure

Projects move from concept to completion through progressive elaboration

Not all projects get selected The decisions to choose one project over another may vary from organization

to organization The process, however, is always called Project Portfolio Management

Project Management Framework

Within the project management framework, there are nine knowledge areas, which span the project

management life cycle

Project Integration Management: focus is on managing all of the moving parts of a project

Project Scope Management: focus is on protecting, fulfilling, and delivering the project scope

Project Time Management: focus is on scheduling activities, monitoring the project schedule, and workingwith the project team and stakeholders to ensure the project completes on time

Project Cost Management: focus is on estimating and maintaining project costs

Project Quality Management: focus is on setting the quality expectations and then delivering the projectproduct with the expected level of quality

Project Human Resources Management: focus in on developing the project team to work together todeliver the project as expected

Project Communications Management: focus is on delivering needed information to the correct parties, atthe correct time

Project Risk Management: focus is on identifying, mitigating, and managing project risks

Project Procurement Management: focus is soliciting, selecting, and managing vendors to complete projectwork or supply project materials

Identifying Project Manager Characteristics

A project manager must have multiple skills to be successful, including the ability to communicate, manage

a budget, be organized, negotiate, and provide leadership for the project

Project managers in different sectors of business and non-profit entities will encounter situations unique only

to their area of expertise For example, a project manager of a construction project will have differentissues and concerns than a project manager of a manufacturing project

Project managers require organization

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Self Test

1 A series of activities to create a unique product or service by a specific date is best described as which

one of the following?

Informing the public about changes at the electrical company

3 Of the following, which one is the best example of progressive elaboration?