The Zakon Series on Mathematical Analysis Basic Concepts of Mathematics Mathematical Analysis I Mathematical Analysis II (in preparation) 9 781931 705028 The Zakon Series on Mathematical Analysis Mathematical Analysis Volume I Elias Zakon University of Windsor The Trillia Group West Lafayette, IN Terms and Conditions You may download, print, transfer, or copy this work, either electronically or mechanically, only under the following conditions. If you are a student using this work for self-study, no payment is required. If you are a teacher evaluating this work for use as a required or recommended text in a course, no payment is required. Payment is required for any and all other uses of this work. In particular, but not exclusively, payment is required if (1) you are a student and this is a required or recommended text for a course; (2) you are a teacher and you are using this book as a reference, or as a required or recommended text, for a course. Payment is made through the website http://www.trillia.com. For each individual using this book, payment of US$10 is required. A sitewide payment of US$300 allows the use of this book in perpetuity by all teachers, students, or employees of a single school or company at all sites that can be contained in a circle centered at the location of payment with a radius of 25 miles (40 kilometers). You may post this work to your own website or other server (FTP, etc.) only if a sitewide payment has been made and it is noted on your website (or other server) precisely which people have the right to download this work according to these terms and conditions. Any copy you make of this work, by any means, in whole or in part, must contain this page, verbatim and in its entirety. Mathematical Analysis I c  1975 Elias Zakon c  2004 Bradley J. Lucier and Tamara Zakon ISBN 1-931705-02-X Published by The Trillia Group, West Lafayette, Indiana, USA First published: May 20, 2004. This version released: May 20, 2004. Technical Typist: Betty Gick. Copy Editor: John Spiegelman. Logo: Miriam Bogdanic. The phrase “The Trillia Group” and The Trillia Group logo are trademarks of The Trillia Group. This book was prepared by Bradley J. Lucier and Tamara Zakon from a manuscript prepared by Elias Zakon. We intend to correct and update this work as needed. If you notice any mistakes in this work, please send e-mail to lucier@math.purdue.edu and they will be corrected in a later version. Contents ∗ Preface ix About the Author xi Chapter 1. Set Theory 1 1–3. Sets and Operations on Sets. Quantifiers 1 Problems in Set Theory 6 4–7. Relations. Mappings 8 Problems on Relations and Mappings 14 8. Sequences 15 9. Some Theorems on Countable Sets 18 Problems on Countable and Uncountable Sets 21 Chapter 2. Real Numbers. Fields 23 1–4. Axioms and Basic Definitions 23 5–6. Natural Numbers. Induction 27 Problems on Natural Numbers and Induction 32 7. Integers and Rationals 34 8–9. Upper and Lower Bounds. Completeness 36 Problems on Upper and Lower Bounds 40 10. Some Consequences of the Completeness Axiom 43 11–12. Powers With Arbitrary Real Exponents. Irrationals 46 Problems on Roots, Powers, and Irrationals 50 13. The Infinities. Upper and Lower Limits of Sequences 53 Problems on Upper and Lower Limits of Sequences in E ∗ 60 Chapter 3. Vector Spaces. Metric Spaces 63 1–3. The Euclidean n-space, E n 63 Problems on Vectors in E n 69 4–6. Lines and Planes in E n 71 Problems on Lines and Planes in E n 75 ∗ “Starred” sections may be omitted by beginners. vi Contents 7. Intervals in E n 76 Problems on Intervals in E n 79 8. Complex Numbers 80 Problems on Complex Numbers 83 ∗ 9. Vector Spaces. The Space C n . Euclidean Spaces 85 Problems on Linear Spaces 89 ∗ 10. Normed Linear Spaces 90 Problems on Normed Linear Spaces 93 11. Metric Spaces 95 Problems on Metric Spaces 98 12. Open and Closed Sets. Neighborhoods 101 Problems on Neighborhoods, Open and Closed Sets 106 13. Bounded Sets. Diameters 108 Problems on Boundedness and Diameters 112 14. Cluster Points. Convergent Sequences 114 Problems on Cluster Points and Convergence 118 15. Operations on Convergent Sequences 120 Problems on Limits of Sequences 123 16. More on Cluster Points and Closed Sets. Density 135 Problems on Cluster Points, Closed Sets, and Density 139 17. Cauchy Sequences. Completeness 141 Problems on Cauchy Sequences 144 Chapter 4. Function Limits and Continuity 149 1. Basic Definitions 149 Problems on Limits and Continuity 157 2. Some General Theorems on Limits and Continuity 161 More Problems on Limits and Continuity 166 3. Operations on Limits. Rational Functions 170 Problems on Continuity of Vector-Valued Functions 174 4. Infinite Limits. Operations in E ∗ 177 Problems on Limits and Operations in E ∗ 180 5. Monotone Functions 181 Problems on Monotone Functions 185 6. Compact Sets 186 Problems on Compact Sets 189 ∗ 7. More on Compactness 192 Contents vii 8. Continuity on Compact Sets. Uniform Continuity 194 Problems on Uniform Continuity; Continuity on Compact Sets . 200 9. The Intermediate Value Property 203 Problems on the Darboux Property and Related Topics 209 10. Arcs and Curves. Connected Sets 211 Problems on Arcs, Curves, and Connected Sets 215 ∗ 11. Product Spaces. Double and Iterated Limits 218 ∗ Problems on Double Limits and Product Spaces 224 12. Sequences and Series of Functions 227 Problems on Sequences and Series of Functions 232 13. Absolutely Convergent Series. Power Series 237 More Problems on Series of Functions 245 Chapter 5. Differentiation and Antidifferentiation 251 1. Derivatives of Functions of One Real Variable 251 Problems on Derived Functions in One Variable 257 2. Derivatives of Extended-Real Functions 259 Problems on Derivatives of Extended-Real Functions 265 3. L’Hˆopital’s Rule 266 Problems on L’Hˆopital’s Rule 269 4. Complex and Vector-Valued Functions on E 1 271 Problems on Complex and Vector-Valued Functions on E 1 275 5. Antiderivatives (Primitives, Integrals) 278 Problems on Antiderivatives 285 6. Differentials. Taylor’s Theorem and Taylor’s Series 288 Problems on Taylor’s Theorem 296 7. The Total Variation (Length) of a Function f : E 1 → E 300 Problems on Total Variation and Graph Length 306 8. Rectifiable Arcs. Absolute Continuity 308 Problems on Absolute Continuity and Rectifiable Arcs 314 9. Convergence Theorems in Differentiation and Integration 314 Problems on Convergence in Differentiation and Integration 321 10. Sufficient Condition of Integrability. Regulated Functions 322 Problems on Regulated Functions 329 11. Integral Definitions of Some Functions 331 Problems on Exponential and Trigonometric Functions 338 Index 341 Preface This text is an outgrowth of lectures given at the University of Windsor, Canada. One of our main objectives is updating the undergraduate analysis as a rigorous postcalculus course. While such excellent books as Dieudonn´e’s Foundations of Modern Analysis are addressed mainly to graduate students, we try to simplify the modern Bourbaki approach to make it accessible to sufficiently advanced undergraduates. (See, for example, §4 of Chapter 5.) On the other hand, we endeavor not to lose contact with classical texts, still widely in use. Thus, unlike Dieudonn´e, we retain the classical notion of a derivative as a number (or vector), not a linear transformation. Linear maps are reserved for later (Volume II) to give a modern version of differentials. Nor do we downgrade the classical mean-value theorems (see Chapter 5, §2)or Riemann–Stieltjes integration, but we treat the latter rigorously in Volume II, inside Lebesgue theory. First, however, we present the modern Bourbaki theory of antidifferentiation (Chapter 5, §5 ff.), adapted to an undergraduate course. Metric spaces (Chapter 3, §11 ff.) are introduced cautiously, after the n- space E n , with simple diagrams in E 2 (rather than E 3 ), and many “advanced calculus”-type exercises, along with only a few topological ideas. With some adjustments, the instructor may even limit all to E n or E 2 (but not just to the real line, E 1 ), postponing metric theory to Volume II. We do not hesitate to deviate from tradition if this simplifies cumbersome formulations, upalatable to undergraduates. Thus we found useful some consistent, though not very usual, conventions (see Chapter 5, §1 and the end of Chapter 4, §4), and an early use of quantifiers (Chapter 1, §1–3), even in formulating theorems. Contrary to some existing prejudices, quantifiers are easily grasped by students after some exercise, and help clarify all essentials. Several years’ class testing led us to the following conclusions: (1) Volume I can be (and was) taught even to sophomores, though they only gradually learn to read and state rigorous arguments. A sophomore often does not even know how to start a proof. The main stumbling block remains the ε, δ-procedure. As a remedy, we provide most exercises with explicit hints, sometimes with almost complete solutions, leaving only tiny “whys” to be answered. (2) Motivations are good if they are brief and avoid terms not yet known. Diagrams are good if they are simple and appeal to intuition. x Preface (3) Flexibility is a must. One must adapt the course to the level of the class. “Starred” sections are best deferred. (Continuity is not affected.) (4) “Colloquial” language fails here. We try to keep the exposition rigorous and increasingly concise, but readable. (5) It is advisable to make the students preread each topic and prepare ques- tions in advance, to be answered in the context of the next lecture. (6) Some topological ideas (such as compactness in terms of open coverings) are hard on the students. Trial and error led us to emphasize the se- quential approach instead (Chapter 4, §6). “Coverings” are treated in Chapter 4, §7 (“starred”). (7) To students unfamiliar with elements of set theory we recommend our Basic Concepts of Mathematics for supplementary reading. (At Windsor, this text was used for a preparatory first-year one-semester course.) The first two chapters and the first ten sections of Chapter 3 of the present text are actually summaries of the corresponding topics of the author’s Basic Concepts of Mathematics, to which we also relegate such topics as the construction of the real number system, etc. For many valuable suggestions and corrections we are indebted to H. Atkin- son, F. Lemire, and T. Traynor. Thanks! Publisher’s Notes Chapters 1 and 2 and §§1–10 of Chapter 3 in the present work are sum- maries and extracts from the author’s Basic Concepts of Mathematics,also published by the Trillia Group. These sections are numbered according to their appearance in the first book. Several annotations are used throughout this book: ∗ This symbol marks material that can be omitted at first reading. ⇒ This symbol marks exercises that are of particular importance. [...]... two R-classes, [p] = [q] Seeking a contradiction, suppose they are not disjoint, so (∃ x) x ∈ [p] and x ∈ [q]; i .e., p ≡ x ≡ q and hence p ≡ q But then, by symmetry and transitivity, y ∈ [p] ⇔ y ≡ p ⇔ y ≡ q ⇔ y ∈ [q]; i .e., [p] and [q] consist of the same elements y, contrary to assumption [p] = [q] Thus, indeed, any two (distinct) R-classes are disjoint Also, by reflexivity, (∀ x ∈ A) x ≡ x, i .e., x... function value at x, i .e., the unique f -relative of x, x ∈ Df Therefore, in order to define some function f , it suffices to specify its domain Df and the function value f (x) for each s ∈ Df We shall often use such definitions It is customary to say that f is defined on A (or “f is a function on A”) iff A = Df Examples (a) The relation R = {(x, y) | x is the wife of y} is a one-to-one map of the set of... Mappings 13 and R[x] = {y | xRy} (i .e., the R-image of x) is called the R-equivalence class (briefly R-class) of x in A; it consists of all elements that are R-equivalent to x and hence to each other (for xRy and xRz imply first yRx, by symmetry, and hence yRz, by transitivity) Each such element is called a representative of the given R-class, or its generator We often write [x] for R[x] Examples (a ) The... and analysis In this post-McCarthy era, he often had as his house-guest the prolific and eccentric mathematician Paul Erd˝s, who was then banned from the United o States for his political views Erd˝s would speak at the University of Windsor, o where mathematicians from the University of Michigan and other American universities would gather to hear him and to discuss mathematics While at Windsor, Zakon. .. should be remembered that u is a set of pairs (a map) If all un are distinct (different from each other), u is a one-to-one map However, this need not be the case It may even occur that all un are equal (then u is said to be constant); e.g., un = 1 yields the sequence 1, 1, 1, , 1, , i .e., u= 1 2 3 1 1 1 n 1 (2) Note that here u is an infinite sequence (since Du = N ), even though its range Du... “(∀ n | n > k)”, respectively (such self-explanatory abbreviations will also be used in other similar cases) Now, since (2) states that “for all ε > 0” something (i .e., the rest of (2)) is true, the negation of (2) starts with “there is an ε > 0” (for which the rest of the formula fails) Thus we start with “(∃ ε > 0)”, and form the negation of what follows, i .e., of (∃ k) (∀ n > k) |xn − p| < ε This... fails The latter is true even if A = ∅; we then say that “(∀ x ∈ A) P (x)” is vacuously true For example, the formula ∅ ⊆ B, i .e., (∀ x ∈ ∅) x ∈ B, is always true (vacuously) Problems in Set Theory 1 Prove Theorem 1 (show that x is in the left-hand set iff it is in the right-hand set) For example, for (d), x ∈ (A ∪ B) ∩ C ⇐⇒ [x ∈ (A ∪ B) and x ∈ C] ⇐⇒ [(x ∈ A or x ∈ B), and x ∈ C] ⇐⇒ [(x ∈ A, x ∈ C)... Problem 7 of §§1–3 are relations Since relations are sets, equality R = S for relations means that they consist of the same elements (ordered pairs), i .e., that (x, y) ∈ R ⇐⇒ (x, y) ∈ S If (x, y) ∈ R, we call y an R-relative of x; we also say that y is R-related to x or that the relation R holds between x and y (in this order) Instead of (x, y) ∈ R, we also write xRy, and often replace “R” by special... in turn, is the inverse of R−1 ; i .e., (R−1 )−1 = R For example, the relations < and > between numbers are inverse to each other; so also are the relations ⊆ and ⊇ between sets (We may treat “⊆” as the name of the set of all pairs (X, Y ) such that X ⊆ Y in a given space.) If R contains the pairs (x, x ), (y, y ), (z, z ), , we shall write R= x x y y z · · · ; e.g., R = z 1 2 4 2 1 1 3 1 (1) To... 2 4 2 1 1 , then DR = DR−1 = {1, 4} and DR = DR−1 = {1, 2} Definition 2 The image of a set A under a relation R (briefly, the R-image of A) is the set of all R-relatives of elements of A, denoted R[A] The inverse image of A under R is the image of A under the inverse relation, i .e., R−1 [A] If A consists of a single element, A = {x}, then R[A] and R−1 [A] are also written R[x] and R−1 [x], respectively, . Upper and Lower Limits of Sequences 53 Problems on Upper and Lower Limits of Sequences in E ∗ 60 Chapter 3. Vector Spaces. Metric Spaces 63 1–3. The Euclidean n-space, E n 63 Problems on Vectors. 251 1. Derivatives of Functions of One Real Variable 251 Problems on Derived Functions in One Variable 257 2. Derivatives of Extended-Real Functions 259 Problems on Derivatives of Extended-Real Functions. later (Volume II) to give a modern version of differentials. Nor do we downgrade the classical mean-value theorems (see Chapter 5, §2)or Riemann–Stieltjes integration, but we treat the latter rigorously