small scale poultry production technical guide docx

However, adapied breeds, local feed resources abd appropriate vaccines te available, along with provea technologies that can substantially improve productivity anc income generation, AO

Technical gude

ANIMAL PRODUCTION AND HEALTH

SMALL-SCALE POULTRY PRODUCTION

Techical guide

£8 Sonaiya

‘Deparment of Avimal scence (bse Avcowo Unversty Here, Noeta

and SE.Swan Vilage Posty Constant

‘Waimana, New Zesand

FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITED NATIONS Rome, 2004

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Smal scale pouty production i

Foreword

Keeping pouty makes a substantial conrbution te howsehold food security throughout the developing worl I eips diversify incomes and provides quality fod, energy, ferilizer and a renewable asset in over 80 percent ofr housebolds

Small-seale producers ave however constined by poor aevess fo markets, goods and services; they have weak instttion and lack la, keouledke anl apptuprats teebnojegie,

‘The tests that both production and preduciXi renoim well below potential and losses and

‘wastage can be high However, adapied breeds, local feed resources abd appropriate vaccines

te available, along with provea technologies that can substantially improve productivity anc income generation,

AO recognizes the imporant contribution tht poulty can make to poverty alleviation and

‘nas progranunes that focus on small-scale, low-inpr, family based poultry production These programmes tưget the more vulemble’ households especially those affected by natral Aisasters, HIV Aids and conflict, Tis manual provides a comaprebeasive and valuable technical

‘ide for those in goverment service or aid agencies wishing to embark on projects that

‘exploit the potential of sinalscale poultry pradction to improve the livelihoods of ike rural poor, All aspects of small scale pouty production are discussed i this book including feeding and nuttin, housing, general husbandry and flock health, Regional differences in production practices are described

FAO acknowledges and commends the effort that the authors ave put into making such & comprehensive and valuable reference for those involved in poultry produetion in the Seveloping world The viows expressed ac, however, those of the authors and do nat nocessrily ceflet those of FAO Members of the ternational Network for Family Poultry Development (INFPD) have been volved in producing a reviewing this document and thet ontiation is also gratefully acknowledged A majo aim of the INFPD iso bring together and disseminate technical information that suppers small-scale poultry producers thought the word

Snalseale pouty radeon

Chapter 1 Introduction

The socio-economic Importance of Family Poultry

Family poultry i defined as small-scale poultry keeping by households using family labour and, ssheresee possible, leally avaible feed resources The poultty may range freely nthe household compound and find much oftheir own food, geting supplementary amousis from the householder, Participants st 1989 workshop in Ile-tfe, igen, defined rural poultry as lock

‘of less tha 100 binds, of unimproved or improves bree, raked i citer extensive or intensive fuming systems Labour isnot salaried, but drawn for the family household (Sonata 19900), amily poulry was additionally clare as “small flocks managed by indivi fur fries

in order t obtain food security, income and gainful employment for women and chien” (GBranckaer, sete in Soniya, 1990) Family pouluy is quite distinet fom medium t0 he scale ooumercial poultry farming,

Family poultry is rarely the sole means of liveinood forthe family but i one of «number of| integrated ned complementary fering activites conributing to the overall well-being of the household Poulry provide a major income-generating att from the sale of bids ans exes Occasional consumption provides a valuable source of peocin inthe dict Poultry ho ph an important socio-cultural role in many societies Poultry Keeping uses fansily labour, and women (rho often oan as well as lok after she family flock) ae major beneficianes Women often Ihave an important role inthe development of family poultry prodction ae extension workers and in vaccination programs

For smallholder farmers in developing counties (especially in low income, food-deficient counires (LIFDC) family poultry represents one of the few opparunies Tor saving, investment and security against risk In some of these countries, fly poultry accounts for approximately 90 percent of the total poulty production (Branch, 1999) In Bangladesh for

‘sample, fly poukry represents moze than 80 percent of the total pouiy’ production, and 90 percent ofthe 18 milion rural households Keep pouluy Landless families in Bangladesh form

20 percent ofthe population (Fatah, 199, citing the Bangladesh urea of Statistics, 1998) dnd they Keep Between five and seven chickens er household In LIFDC countries, Fi

‘oultry-produced meat and eggs are estimated to contabute 20 to 30 percent of the ttl sna Protein supply (Alam, 1997, and Branckaer, 1999), taking second place to milk peodsets (38 percent, which are” mosty imported Similarly in Nigena, family poultry represen approximately 94 peccent of total poultry keeping, snd accounts for neatly four percent of the total estimated value ofthe livestock resources in the country Farly poultry represents 83 percent ofthe estimated 82 million adult chickens in Nigeria In Ethiopia, ral poultry accounts for 9 percent ofthe national total production of pouty meat and eggs (Tadelle ta 2000) Poultry are th smallest livestock investment a village household ean make, Yet the poverty- stricken farmer needs credit assistance even to manage this Fist investment step on the adder

‘ut of povery Poultry keeping is traitonally the rol of wonsn in many developing counties, Female-headed households represent 20 to 30 percent ofall ral households in Bangladesh

‘Salequ, 1999, and women ate more disadvantaged in ems of opions for income generation,

In subSahacan Africa, 85 percent of all households Keep poultry, with women owning 70 percent ofthe pouly.(Gueye, 1998 and Beanchaet, 1999, eting Word Poly 1)

Income generation i the primary goa of fray poulry keping Eggs can provide a esuar, thet smal, income while the sale of lise birds provides a more fleuble source of eash as required For example, n the Dominican Repwblic, family poulty contributes 13 percent of the income from animal production (Raven ef a, 1990) The importance of pouty to nưml households s illustrated by the example below fom the Unite Republic of Tanzania (see Table 1:1) Assuming a indigenous hen las 30 eggs per year, of which 0 percent ate consumed and the wenainder havea hatchablity of 80 percent, then each ben wil produce 12 chicks por yea

Inioducion

Assuming six survive to maturity (vith 50 percent morality), and assuming that three pullets and thre ae cockercls, he output fom one hen projected ovr ive years would teal 120 kg of meat and 195 (68 kg) exes

‘Table 1 Projected ouput from a single inital hen (United Republic of Tanzania)

‘Siac: Katatnge and Rate 1087,

A study on income generation in tansmigrant fanning systems in East Kalimantan, tadonesi (Gee Table 1.2), showed that fri pouley accounted for about $3 percent ofthe al income, and was used for food, schoo Fes and unexpected expeases such &s medicines (Ramen eta

1089,

Flock composition is heavily biased towards chickens in Africe and South Asia, with more

‘ducks in East Asia and South America Fock size ranges from S — 100 in Afsca, 10 ~ 30 in South America and $20 in Asia, Flock siz is elated tothe poultry fuming objectives of + ome consunption oly:

+ ome consumption and cultural reasons;

+ income and home consumption; and

+ income ony

(S00 Teble 13.)

In Bangladesh (Jensen, 1999), the average production rate per local hen of SO eggs year was regarded by som as low productivity: However, itis considered that $0 eggs per en pot your represents four halches fom four clutches of eggs lai, incubated and hatched by the mother hen, andthe outcome is 30 saleable chicken rated per year (assuming no exgs sold a eaten, 80 percent hatehabily and 25 percent rearing mortal), then iis a remarkably high products PRODUCTION SYSTEMS

Family pouliy age Kept under a wide range of conditions, which can be clasified ito one of Four broad production Systems (Bess, 1987)

Salsa poy production 3 Table 1.2 Annual budget fora family frm with Ost ha iigated paddy, 0.1 ba vegetable sganlen, 100 ducks and two bulsles in Indonesit

Q00,

ble 1.3 Flock size and poultry faming objectives in Nigeria

Free Range Extensive Systems

1 Affica, Asia and Latin Ameria, 80 percent of frmers keep poultry in the first two extensive systems, Under fre-range conditions, the bits ate not confined and can scavenge for food over

1 wide area Rudimentary shelters may be provided, and these may of may not be used The binds may roost outside, usualy in ees, and nest inthe bush The Mosk contains bids of diferent species an varying ages

Backyard Extensive Systems

Poul’ are housed at night but allowed free-range during the day They are usually fed a

‘andl oF grain in he morning and evening to supplement scavenging,

Semi-Intemsve Systems

‘Those ate a combination of the extensive and intensive systems where bids are confined to a cern azea with acceso shelter They ae commonly found in ura and per-arban as Well 35

‘ural stations f the “run” sytem, the bieds ae confined in an enclosed area ouside dating

‘he day and housed at night Feed and water are availble in the house to avoid wastage bye,

‘wind and wild animals,

{Im the European system of fee-ange poultry keeping, there are two other types of housing

‘The Fist of these isthe “ark” system, there the poultry are confined overnight (or secunty against predators) in a bulding mounted on two ris or skids (usually wooden), which enable t

tw be moved fom place wo place with draught power Atypical size is 2 * 2.5 m 0 old about

‘outside The Told unit usualy smal enough to be moved by ene petses Neither ofthese N40

"ystems i commonly found a developing counties

+ Slatted Moor system: wire o¢ wooden slatted oor ae used instead of deep lite, which allow socking rate to be inereased to five bitin of floor space Birds have reduced

‘contact with faees and are allowed sme Freedom of movement

«Battery cage sytem: this i usually used for laying birds, which are Kept throughout ther productive if in cages There i high iil eapita investment, andthe system is sty

‘confined to ange-sale commercial eg layer operations

Intensive systems of rearing indigenous chickens commercially is uncommon, @ notable rae exception being in Malaysia, where the industry developed in respoase othe heavy demand for indigenous chickens in whan areas Supramaniam, 1988) However, this accounts for only 10 'n every 100.000 (0,002 percent) ofthat county's adigenous chicken

Smllscole poly production

‘Table L4 Production and

‘considerations,

Development initiatives inthe past have emphasized genetic improvement, usually through the inodueton of exotic genes, rung that improved feed would have no effect on indigenous hinds of ow genetic potential Thre is a growing swarenew of the need to bale the ate of tenetic improvement with improvement infeed availablity, health care and management Theze isalso an ineressed recognition of the potential of indigenous breeds and thei ole i converting locally available feed resources int sustainable production,

This manual aims to provide those involved with poultry developmen in developing

‘countries with a practical guide and insight int the petental of family poultry to impeove ra livelihoods and to mee the increasing demand for poultry product.

Salsa poly roti

Chapter 2

Species and Breeds

Different Poultry Species and Breeds

All species of poultry are used by rua smallholders throughout the word The most important

‘species in the topes are chickens, guinea fowl, ducks including Museowy ducks, plgeens,

‘rkeys and geese Loca suans ate used, but mast species are not indigenous The guinea fo (Numiddue) onginted in West Alea; the Muscovy duck (Catrina maschata) in South

‘Americ: pigeons (Columba fea) in Ewope: turkeys (Meleugrididae) in Latin America: pheasants (Phaianidae) in Asia; the commun duck (eas) in Europe; and goose ser) in

An

Flock composition is determined by he objectives ofthe poultry emerrise (see Chapter 1)

In Nigeria for example, the preference is for the smooth-eathered, multicoloured native chickens or Muscovy ducks, Multsolouted feathers serve as camouflage for scavenging bis against predators, including birds of pres, which ean more easily sce solid colours (especially

‘whie) Foundation sock is usually ebuained from the market as grower pallets and young sodkeglc A hen to coc eatio of about 5:1 is common Both sexes are retained for 150 to 300, ays, for she purposes of culling, sling, home consumption and gifts, most of which require saul bide

Im the last 0 years, there has een a great advance inthe development of hybrid breeds for intensive commercial poultry production This tread is most noticeable in chickess, turkeys and

‘cs, The new hybes (those ofehiekens in particular) are widely distributed and are present,

in every country inthe topics, even i the most remote villages, The hybrids have been

‘carefully selected and specialised Solely for the production of either meat or egas These end bproductspecalised hybrid strains are unsuitable for breing purposes, especialy fr mixing

‘with cal wllige scavenger stock, asthe have very Tow mothering bility and broodiness For the smallholder, Keeping hybrids means considerable changes are required in

‘management, These changes are expensive for the fllowing easons:

+All zeplacement day-old hicks must be putchased

+ Hatchery chicks requite aia! brooding and special stating Teed

+ Hybrids require higher quality balanced feed fr optim meat and exe production

+ Hybrids require more erefol veterinary hygiene and disease management

+ Bge-laying hybrid hens require supplementy artical light (a steadily increasing day- Fength up o 17 hours of total light per dy) for optima (notable) egg production,

‘The meat and eggs from intensively raised hybrid ok age considered by many tational consumes to have less avout, and the meat to have too sofa texte, Consumers will thas

‘often pay a higher pice for vilage produced poss mest and eas Thus for rural family poulry Keepers, its more appropiate to eintin and imprrve leal bi to meet this demand,

‘standardize the chanictrsis and productive performance of indigenous chickens,

There is no comprehensive lst of the breeds and varieties of chickens used by rural smallholders, but thee is considerable information on some indigenous populations front

‘asious regions Most of thsi based on feather colour and other easily measured Body features {genetic waits), but more detailed dta are becoming availabe Examples of local chickens from ferent parts of the tropes are iven in Fables 2.1 to 2.3 below These evaluations were usually cased ou under intensive management conditions in research stations, asthe objective

‘was to evaluate the lea! binds? productivity More recently data the performance of Toca

5 Species and Breeds chickens under extensive management have become available, which makes it possible to

‘ompareperormance under extensive and intensive systems (sce Table 2.3)

‘Table 2.1 Performance of local breeds in South Asia (intensively housed)

Source: Asha and uae, 988, Des cans Toca glade

‘Characteristics such as adult body weight and ege weight vary considerably among indigenous chicken populations, although reproductive traits, such asthe number of laying seasons pee year, the number of eggs per clutch and hatchabilty are more consistent Dest hens in Bangladesh range from 190 to 200 days of age at fist egg (an easy measure of age-a-sexusl- smarty), and they lay 101 15 eggs per season in 3 to 4 cltches (3 ot mes) pr yea, witha htchabilty of 1o 87 percent percent of eggs set) (Hague 1999)

‘Table 22 Local chicken breeds of Ethiopia

‘ae very imi roosting in wees a night and although great walkers, they fly very ble

Ginca fowl thrive in both cool and hot conditions, and ther potential to increase meat end particularly egg production in developing countries deserves beter recognition The ist eg Is pomally laid st about 18 weeks of age, and unlike many indigenous birds (wbich produce a

‘ingle clutch a year), guinea hens lay continuously until adverse weather sein In West Aiea, laying is largely confined othe rany seasoa Guinea hens under fec-ange conditions can 1)

mai se py production

up wo 60 eggs per season, while well-managed bitds under intensive management can ly upto

200 eggs per year The guinea hen “goes body” (sits on eggs in the nest) fer laying, but his

an be overcome by removing most ofthe eggs A clutch of TS t 20 eggs is commen, and he

‘incubation period for guinea fowl is 27 days Domesticated guinen fowl under extensive ot

‘emi-intesive management Nigeria were reported to lay 60 10 100 eggs witha ferlity ate of

‘SSS Comedia Hor 196; Kale OWT Maratea, 8, Hamas

Domesticated guinea fow ae of three principal varieties: Peal, White and Lavender, The Pea

is by fr the most common Wt has puplisarey feathers regularly doted or “peared” with

‘white The White uines fowl as pure white feathers while the Lavender tas ight grey feathers sdovied with white, The male and female guine fo ditfer so lie in appearance Tether colour and body weight (4 to 1 kg) thatthe inexperienced farmer may unknowingly keep all males all females as “breeding” stock, Sex ean be distinguished at eight weeks or moe by a

‘ference in thei voice ery

Domesticated guinea hens lay more eggs under intensive management French Galor guinea hens ean produce 170 eggs in a 36-week laying prio, For example rom a setting of 15S eggs,

a ferliy rate oF 88 percent and hatchabity of 70 1075 percent, ts possible to asain 113

‘uinca Kees (chicks) per hen In deep liter or confined range conditions, a 24-weck lying petod can produce $0 10 75 guinea heets phen

“Table 2-4 Reproduction and eg characteristics of guinea fowl varieties

10 Specie and Breeds

Varies Peart Lavender white

Ducks have several advantages over other pouty species, in particular their disease wolerance

‘They ace hardy, excellent foragers and easy to herd, particularly ia wetlands where they te to flock together In Asia, most dick production is closely associated with welland rie faming, particule in the humid and subtopies An aed advantage that ducks normally lay most of their eggs within the thee hours afer sunrise (compared with five hous for chickens) This makes it possible for ducks to freely range inthe rice fields by day, while being confined by nigh A disadvantage of ducks (lative to other poultry), when kept in confinement and fed balanced rations, is their high feed wastage, due tothe shovelshape oftheir bl This makes their use of feed Tess eficent and thue their mest and eggs more expensive than those of chickens (Farell, 1986) Duck feathers and leather down can also make an important

The Indian Runner

‘This isa very ative bred, native to Asia, and ideal for free-range Iisa very good egg layer and nec ess water than most other bres, requiring ony basin in which it can immerse is

‘beak up to the nostrils I is the most graceful ad elegant of all dicks on land with its upright

<ariage and slim body It stands a an angle of about 80° tothe ground but when sated ean be sost perpendicular

The Khai Campbell

Originally bred in England, tis bred is derive Srom three breeds: the wild Mallar, the Rouen andthe Indian Rnner The femile sn overall Khaki colour, andthe male hat a bronze-eeen head The female is best known for her prolific exe laying aalty, ith an average of 90 percent (ona hen/day basis) with an average 73 ram epg Weight

The Pekin

Originally bed i China, thi atractive mest brood is favoured by commercial producers throughout the word, eis large and mesty with an wpright stance and abroad round head thas white to lemoa-yelow plumage and a yellow skin iis bard 2 reasonable layer, and grows rapidly Although timid, iis docile and easly confined bylaw fences It is well suited to both large, specialized duck farms and smallholdings Pekin ducks ae the major meat duck breed in

‘Thatlad, Malaysia, Philippines, the Democratic People's Republic of Korea and Chins,

‘The male Muscovy can besome very large (451055 ky) while the female i smaller (2.310 28, ka), The feather colouring is usualy a combination of black and white, ranging fom mostly black to mostly white, The male has characteristic re fleshy outcrops aroun the eyes called

‘aruneles The Muscoxy isthe predominant waterfowl in Afnca and Latin Ameria, a thrives

‘well under free-range conditions, Numbers are increasing in parts of Asia whee lean ed mest 'S popular (Hahn ef uf, 1995) When mated with breeds of domestic ducks, they produce fertile hybrid offspring ("male ducks) These mule docks are 2 mujer source of duck meat in Tatwan Province of China A three-way eros-sstem is used for white mule duck production stl, Pekin drakes are crossed with white Tsaya ducks to produce a crss-bred female line called the Kaiya dick These are then crossed with lage white Muscovy dakes, usually by tific insemination The resulting progeny saa dick, whic is stent bt grows rap has good soreas composition with more mist snd less ft than the Pek These thes-vy tosses hive the added advantages ofthe high ege production of the Tstya, the high growth rate of the Pekin andthe good carcass quality and meat texture of the Muscovy The white

‘eathers are move valuable as down tan those of daker-feahered dicks

‘vas some conceen about the ability of the impeaved genotypes to survive under traditional farming systems Tals conducted in the Mekong River Delia by The Bin (1996) found that, hybrid ducks raised for meat i rice Geks were more profitable than the local ducks, even though they consumed more Feed and cost more to buy intl However ehen ruse for eg trodueion in ice field anon canal, the hybrids didnot perform a well asthe local ducks,

‘most family producers, smaller-sized birds (weighing appronimatly 4K, sch as he Linexhian

dc Zie broeds in China) are easier to manage Geese are high i the broiess ti, and have 3 consequent low egg production of 30 1040 hatching eggs in thee to five laying eyeles) per

2 Specie and Breeds year At he other extreme are breeds of high fetity (and egg numb), which ae smaller and ave selected specially for use in breeding floks for their lek of broodines Breeds such as the Ze may lay 700 100 eggs anrually The importance of the wide gene pool variety in China

is significant forthe Asian region in paticulr and forte world in genera

Pigeons

Pigeons are scavengers (not fed any supplementary fed) in most counties, living onthe roofs

‘of houses and treated as “pes” that do not need to be fed They appear to prefer homestead

‘compounds to fields In some counties, they ae eaten oaly for stual purposes They aarmally lay two eggs ina clutch, and the young birds (squabs) halch afer 16 to 17 days The growing squabs ae fed by their mothers on crop milk produced in the mother's exop (fst somach)

“This enables young squas to grow very rapidly They each maturity in thee to five months at body weight of 200 to 300 for males, and 150g for females Adult pigeons are monogamous fori

‘Loca pigeons are specific to diferent regions inthe wopics Affiea has five breeds, within which Chad has thee local breeds Asia and the Peiic have five breeds, with loal breeds fund specific event the Cook Islands Latin America and the Caribbean stands ave only one bred, Europe hus sx breeds, two of which come from Belgium,

Turkeys

These bids are native to Latin America The breeds kept by rural producers inthe topics usunlly have black feathers, as distinct fom the wihite-feathered breeds that are raised imtensively Where there are no geese and ostriches, they are the largest birds in the farming system Body weight ranges from 7 to 8 kg in males and from 4t0 Sk i hens They have good reat conformation, produce about 90 ees per year and have medium to good hatchubliy

‘They are more susceptible to disease than ether chicken or ducks

Salsa pouty production 1

+ fre-range— poultry roast in tees at ight,

+ backyard poultry are confined at night; and

+ semi-inensive — pouty are enclosed using the day ina very inte seavenger resource bạc:

When feed resources are inadequate, few bide in production are beter than more binds ust

‘maintained, bu without enough food for production

Extensive Systems

Farmers attempt to balance stock numbers accontng othe scavenging feed resources available

in the environment in each season Under the fee-emge and backyard systems, feed supplies suring the dry season are usally inadequate for any production above Meck-matatenance level

‘When vegetation is dry and Ribrovs, the scavenging resources should be supplemented with Sources of minerals, vitamins, protein and energy Under most tational village systems, 3 grain supplement of about 35g per hea per day is given

‘There have been various approaches to utilising a wider base of fed resources for the lock One is the use of poultry species apart fom! chicken Waterfowl, especially duck, may be Aistbuted throughout the weld rural areas, where they can fee on sích eekofczs ẹ snls

tn aquatic plans in ponds and lagoons, Another approach ie the integration of poultry withthe Production of rice, vegetable, fish aml che livestock, An example isthe combination of Chicken with ate, as practised by the Fulani of Nigeria, where the chickens feed on the ticks

‘on the cate as wel as onthe maggots growing i the eatle dung Chickens eased in the eae

‘aal (compound) weighed an average of $00 ¢ more than those in the sume neighbourhood but outside the kaa (Ate and Ologbenl, 1992),

Semi-Intensive System

Under the sem-ntensive system, ll the nuiens require by the beds must be provided in the feed, usally inthe form of balanced feed purchased fom a feed mil As these ate often expensive and dificult w obi, smallholders use ether unconventional eedstafs or “ute the commercial feed by supplementing it wath grain by-products (which supply energy and some protein) A well-balanced fed however i dificult to achieve, as grains al plant proven oars (the by-products ofa few ol seeds are becoming incresingy unavailable fr livestock, tnd premixed trace minerals and vitamins ate usally too expensive for smallholders, Phosphorus and calcium can he obtined fine ashed (burt and crushed) bones; and calla fiom snail shel, fesh or seawater selfish shells, or limestone deposits Salto supply’ sod can come from evaporated seawater o land-based rock salt deposits, These mineral sources are rarely usd, Fed provided forbids kept under this system is therefore of a much poorer quality (balanced by dilution with eop by-prodets) than under either the extensive or lly intensive system

AVAILABLE FEED RESOURCES

‘The size and productivity ofthe village flock ultimately depen on the human population adits household waste and erp residues, and onthe availability of other seavengable feed resources,

‘There is a clear relationship between ege production and mucin intake, Ths is demonstrated in

Food Resources “

‘Banglades, where fewer eggs ae Ladin the ain season from August to September, but when suits are available in January and February, production increases (ler Hors, 1986), Ast of| Feed resources avaiable to smallholders was compiled from surveys undertaken in Nigeria (Sonsiya, 1995) These feedstuffs were mostly by-products of home food processing and agr0- industries, and were similar to those found in ther topical counts

The Seavengable Feed Resources Base (SFRB) include:

+ howsebiold cooking waste;

+ cote and cereal by-produets

+ roots and bers:

+ oilseeds

+ oes, shrub including Leneaena, Calliandra and Sasboni) and fruits;

+ animal proteins,

+ aqutis plants Lemma, Azolla and fpomoea aquatica; and,

+ commercially prepared feed

“These resources are described in greater detail in the fllowing section

“The Seavengeable Feed Resource Base

Gunaratn et al (5993; 1994), Roberts and Senartae (1992), Robers eta (1994) and Robens (1999) have recarched and classified the feed resources available Tor seavenging poultry in Southeast Asa, which they named the Seovengeable Feed Resource Base (SFRB), The SFRA

‘was defined asthe otal amount of fod product available tal scavenging animals ina given arc It depends on the nurber of households the types of food esops grown and ther crop culivating and crop procesing methods, as wel aon te climate conditions that determine che Tate of decomposition ofthe food products, Seasonal fluctuations in the SFRB occur due le Periods of fallow oF Mooding, cuivaon, harvesting and processing The SFRB includes fermits, sui, worms, insect, grain for sowing, harvesting by-products, seeds, grass, oder tte leaves, waterpants and non-traditional feed materials The SFRB can only be harvested by scavenging animals, of which poulley are the most versatile, although this varies with species Several ypes of poly seavenping together ean make more effective use ofthis resource

Keeping poulry under the free-range and backyard systems depends toa large degree om the quality of the fed avaiable from scavenging Therefore itis essential to Know what feed fesouoee are avilable, For example: a Mlock of 12 young growing chickens with five productive hens have access to an SERB of 450 g (dry weight) conning nine percent protein

fd 2300 keal of metabolizable energy (MEY, This supports about 22 pereent daly eg

‘production, with about thre eggluth, assuming 80 percent ofthe SFRB xao ve,

Methods of estimating SFRB

‘The value of the SFRB cin be estimated by weighing the amount of daily food

‘prodecvhousehold waste generated by each family as parameter“, which is then divided by the proportion of food producthousehold waste found in the crop of the scavenging bcd (assessed visually) as parameter “p” (Robens, 1999) This is then multiplied by the perentage ạfhoissholde that Keep chickens parameter")

‘nd 1959 Mt of ME (468 mega [Mel oF ME) (Ganarame ea 1993)

Sal xelcpodlry profizcton 15

In acase study conducted in Sri Lanka, collections of daly waste fom 4 households were made on 4 occasions (Gunarame et al, 1993) The collections were Weighed, examined and analysed for approximate composition, calcium and phosphorus Fifteen seavenging hens were collected late inthe morning and slaughtered and the crop and gizand contents examined and weighed

‘The results indicated thatthe fresh weight of food producthousehold waste per household averaged 460 +210 g per day and consisted of

+ 26 percent cooked rice;

+ 30 percent coconut residue:

+ Bpercent broken ice; and

+ 36 percent other (vegetable rimmings, egg shells, bread, dried fish and saps)

‘The crop contents are shown below after Table 3

‘Table 3.1 Calculated values of SFRE for family Nock in diferent counties of Southeast Asia

Sou: Gunarae al, WON

‘The erop contents comprised:

+ T2percent household wast;

+ 13 percent grass;

+ 8 percent animal mater (earthworms, sails

«+ T percent paddy rie

For composition dels of erop contents and focd/products household waste, see Table 3.2 below

ach family flock had acess to the Food productbouseold waste fom two households, so that om average the amcunt avaiable to the Household flock was 550g of Dry Matter per day Daily egg preduction ranged from 11 to S7 percent, with an average of 30 percent This did not van siøallcanly over the 12 months ofthe study Chicken body weight at 20 days ranged from

41 to 100g, and a 70 days from 142 to 493g, Meraliy upto 70 days was 65 percent Losses

‘were abated to predators, paniculrly dogs, cats, mongooses, cows and othe binds of prey

‘More than 90 percent of the hen's day was spent scavenging over a radius of 110 to 175 m, Cattle and goat pens were favourte scavenging areas

ants and es): and

‘Table 3.2 Average camposition of major feed components and cop content of scavenging hens

Feed Resources 6 Factors affecting the SERB

‘Among the factors determining the size of the SFRB are: climate; number of houscholds;

‘umber and pe af livestock owned; crops grown and the religion ofthe household This was cleatyiustated in Sei Lankan study (Gonaratne etal, 1994), where results showed tha the

‘otal biomass ofthe avenging population was proportional tthe SFRB Ifthe avilable SFRB

‘exceeded, then production fll (birds de an hens lay fewer eggs) I there ia surplus SERB (such as good harvest or fewer birds due to disease or stock sale), then production increases (Qvore chicks and growers survive and moze eggs are lid) Hence the SFRB ailable in a community determines the predueton potential of the poultry M the SERB is known, other fictorsafecting production can be identified and the benefits of providing addional inputs assesed

‘Table 3.3 Amount of household waste, calulated SFRB and average flack biomass

‘The maximum productive size ofthe village flock depends on the SFRB, To keep the Mock size

in balance with the available SFRB, i i necessary (0 set fewer eggs for incubation, call unproductive bitds and sll stock as soon as they’ ate saleable Production capacity should also

‘be austed to match the seasonal variations in the SFR For example, diag harvest time,

‘when the SPRD is increased, extra chicks and growers may be rare, but atthe end of the dry eason bids may need 1 he cle, sold or consumed Supplementing the avaiable SFRB wi

‘other feed resources can improve the overall quality of the auton ofthe lock and reduce

‘hick mortality” Thi may then result ia more and larger growers, and the expanded Mock could then exceed the SRB Uf this happens, then production wil fll gain until de balance 1s restored Feed supplements are only beneficial if they result in increased ofFake eather than increased flock size,

FEED INGREDIENTS

“The online and CD-ROM versions afte FAO searchable database Feeds and Feeding provide

a full resource on this topic for all pes of Ivesook, including poultry, The following deseipions may supplement the above source

Cereals and cereal by-products

Examples of grains for supplementing scavenging poultry include millet, sorghum, maize, cod fice in the form of whole an broken gains,

Amounts supplied are inadequate when using the surveyed estinate of 35 g supplement _grunPbird day’ (Obi and Sonaiya, 1995), This and the tannin content of sorghum have ted to Search for alternative grains andthe evaluation of agzo-industial by-products,

Dehulted rice grain

‘This can be used with vegetable and animal proein supplements for all types of poultry Rough

‘orpaddy rice, off-coloured rice and broken rice have been used upto 20% 30 peteent in poultry

‘ations, Rice bran as a moderate quay protein of 10 14 percent, approximately 106 MI of

Smalt-scae poy production Hà

“MEikg (2 500 kal of ME), and about 11 percent Crade Fibe (CF), Hs ich in phosphorus and B Vitamins, Beease of its high ol content (14 1 18 percent easly oes rancid Po his reason it should make up no move than 25 percent of the ration This alo applies to rice Polishing Rice bran usally includes rie polishings, but is oflen adulterated with ie hullshusks, whieh are very high in fibre and sikoa, and have 2 low nutative value [Nevertheless rice bran is til an important fed resource

Maize starch reside (MSR)

This sa by-product ofthe extraction of starch from fermented, wet-illed maize, whieh is used asa breakfast coral in West Afca It usually has more than 16 pecent Cre Protet lthough the amount vanes according to the maize varity and processing metho,

By-product from local breweries and other local industries

Brewer's gain and yeas have Become common ingredients for poultry’

of dying the wet by-product can be very expensive tion, but the process

‘Legumes and legume by-products

Non-traditional legumes, such as boiled jack bean (Canavalia ensformis) and sword bean (Canavalia gladiata), have been show te be acceptable 19 laying hens, although they should not form more than ten percent of the ration because the sword ean is of low avttive value (dedibie, 199) Winged bean (Phosphocarpus teragonotobus) contains approximately

40 percent Crude Prsein and I percent oil and ts overall mtitive value is very simile to that

‘of soybean and groundnut eake for broiler meat chicken (Smith eta, 1984), Winged bean leaf Toliage is ls acceptable laying hens Unless the plant is grown with sake supports, the yield

Js very low, sehich makes ts culation on lage scale les economia, However ii uitsle

‘sa fed and fodder erp for smallholder poultry

Soybean Gtyeine max)

‘This crop is being grown increasingly for human consumption I he coryledons(eshy Beans)

ae used for human fod, the testa (bean-seed coat) is given to poultry Raw soybeans bea tested by boiling đo 20 minutet and then foto scavenging binds in amounts of up to 35, percent ofthe ration resulted in satisfactory perfermazce in roles and laying hens tn pallets Sin layers fed raw soybeans with no heat treatment as 12 percent ofthe ration, there was a significant redaction in body weight at 20 weeks, aswell as a delay of four days inthe onset of sexual matunty (as measured by age at the 50 percent egg production) The heat weatment destroys a trypsin a digestive enzyme present in te bMegine of polơy)nhibior, which fle timact, prevents digestion of raw soybea

Conpea (Vigna unguiculaa)

‘This legume cop is grown solely foe human consumption in Afi, Its by-products, expe the tesa (Seed coat, ar used asa fed for small ruinants and have also ben fed to poultry (Sonaiya, 1995), The testa repeesets about sh perent ofthe weight ofthe whole cowpea, but 's usualy discarded (in West Africa) when the esyledons are made into 4 puree for a lcaly popular fried cake With is crude protein conten! of 17 percent its apparent metaboizable energy (AME) value of 42 MJ of AME/ (1008 keal AMEKg) and its minerl profile (44g svg: 9.0 mg Cal 0.9 mg Pg), cowpea eta should bea good Feed resource, but the presence

Of tannin (53 mg/g) and trypsin inhibitor (124 ait) ml le dlizaden, Cowen tetm should not make up more than ten percent ofthe total feed of pouty mation

Feed Resources 46 Roots and tubers

Cassava (Mani esculenta)

“This is grown in lage quantities in Aiea, Asia and Latin America, both for human

‘consumption and as livestock feed Cassiva and its by-products (in the form of leaves, small tubers, pup, peels, cha, gar [fenented gated tubers) got sievings, whole fermented roots and ensiled cassava meai) are used The dried chips ar high in energy and fibre but low in len la gions where cassava is used for human food, the pels are the roost utful part of

he cassava plant for feeding livestock Amounts of 20 to 48 perent cassava poe! meal (CPM) have been fed to chickens, but its use is limited because of the high content ofthe poison hydrogen cyanide (HCN), as well as high Crude Fibre, low protein content and dust There 63 considerable range of HCN levels in cassava, according to variety When cassava completly replaces grains in aration, there isa consequent reduction in exe weight and a change in eg yolk colour Whether or not there are negative effects on egg fertility and hatchability is not known Cassava meal gives good growth in meat chickens alhough protein and other mtiens rust be carefilly balanced Molases or sugar may be added to sweeten the bitemess ofthe

‘cyanide and thus improve palatability Oilseds suchas fll fat soybean ean compensate forthe high fibre and low protcin content and forthe dustiness, To remove the cyanide, detoxification methods include ensiing, sun-rving, airdrying, roasting, boiling and soaking For smallholders, the most practical method is sun-drying (Senaiya and Omole, 1977) Palm oil can also moderate the effects of eyanide on poultry Some “sweet” varieties of cassava (which do not conain cyanide) are used in human food preparation, and these are offen fed to poultry, paricularly ducks

‘Sweet potato Ipomoea batatas)

Drie sweet potato forming upto 35 percent of the ration has boen fed sucessfully to broilers and layers The tubers ae boiled before use, which overcomes any problems with dst o fungal growth fom sorage

Glande coton seed cake (CSC) isa high-demand supplement fed to ruminants, but if available

i cam be fed in amounts up wo 25 percent in the diets of layers and boilers without adversely affecting egg production and growth (Branckaen, 1968) Poul are tolerant ofthe gosypol found in CSC, but it can cause an olive discolouration of egg yolks, which consumers donot like Addition of 0.25 percent fertous sulphate shouldbe added routinely to laying hen ations

‘coming up ten peteent CSC

Sesame (Sesamum indicum)

The feed consumption and conversion rates forbids fed various Forms of aw unhlled sesame seeds were beter than those for birds fed debulled but whole sesame seeds, confirming the practice of smallholders who use whole sesame seeds asa supplement for scavenging poultry Sesame seds should used in amounts between 20 and 35 percent ofthe raion

Groundnuts (Arachis hypogaea)

GGroundnuls may be used in the oil-etracted cake form to make up 8 to 24 percent ofthe ration

“Mouldy groundnuts may conn oxic substances, the mest dangerous of which i aflatoxin Coconut (Cocos nucifera)

‘Coconut meal ean be used to form $0 percent oF the ration, especialy swhen combined with a high-energy source such a cassava mea 18 low in Iysine, isoleuins, leucine and methionine,

Srallseat pou production 19 Sunflower Helianthus Anmuns)

‘Sunflower seeds can be fe whole, ofthe deconicsed met can be used to replace groundnut cake and soybean meal and up to two-thirds of fishes It ha the highest sulphur amino ack conten ofall the major olsceds

‘groundnut cake The meal can provide up to 30 percent ofthe ration However, the prouet Tow inthe sulphur amino acs Soybean ~ see under Legumes and legume by-products

Orheroitseeds

‘Othe oiiseeds that have ben fed to poultry under research conditions inlet, mara Niger sed (Mieg), breadiruit (Artocarpus ati), locust bean (Ceratonia sigue) Aan a bean, melon, mango and castor oi, Okra seed ibscusesculenn) has not yet been evaluated 25a protein source for poultry, and although itis lower in poten it compares favourably with Soybean in all other nutrient components Sine okra is widely grown by smallholders and the seeds are kept fr planting, it may be a potential source of protein for smallholder poultry Bambara groundnut (Voandsciasubteranea)

This is a good source of protein with «high Isne coment As the nut isnot widely eaten, the plant i grown manly as mulch crop andthe Foliage i scavenged by pouly

Coffe pulp

‘This is high in fibre, but asthe essential amino acid content is similar to that of soybean, it can

‘only be used in ited amounts

Gras pulp

No more than two percent citrus pulp shouldbe included inthe raion to avoid reduction in

‘growth rate and off colour eg yolks

Overripe bananas and plantains

These aze of greater palatability for poultry than green bananas, which contain fee ot ative

Fed Resouces 20 Derinded sugarcane pith and molases

‘Sugarane juice can make up to 25 percent ofthe pouty ration and molasses up to 30 percent, but it should be noted that over ten percent molasses results in watery fates Raw sugat however can be fed at up to $0 percent of the ration without watery faces Combining one part, molasses with three pars sugac gives good production without the digestive problems Molasses

is often added to rations at low levels of inclusion to make it more palatable, although thee may

be problems with evenly mixing the liquid, and with fangal toxins in the stored feed, encouraged bythe sugar levels

“Table 34 Optinuam levels of inclusion in poultey rations of some ingredients

OiLpdm of, die

‘pain stig, eee

Pai kere! meal

Paim oi

aber sed mea

Sugar cane molasses

‘material is spread out for drying on trays heated from below or placed inthe sun (Sonaiya, 1989) At the farm level, the blood may be supplied fiom the slaughter of livestock Abartos and slavghtehouses provide Irge volumes of blood for making up feeds atthe commercial level

Termites

Farina, et al, (1991) described a technique used to collect temites for scavenging poultry Brie, the straw of sorghum, millet and maize are chopped, pace in elay pots or ealabashes and moistened, The mouth of the container is placed over hole in a termite colony under

Smatscale pouty produsion 2 construction, The container is covered with jute sack to prevent drying out and ¢ heavy stone

is placed on itto secure iin position Aer thiee to four weeks, ne colony of termites should bye established inside the container The eggs and larvae ae pariculaly relished by chicks, svinea Keets and dockiags, while adult birds also feed on she adult insets Cate dung ean be

‘sed in place ofthe cereal ta,

Maggots

‘Alo end Sonaiva (1991) grew maggots on cowpea testa (seed coats) and monitored the

‘chemical composition of the mistue ever Ten days Cowpea testa samples were placed in 2

‘asker nea ait latin to atact Mes 10 ly eags on ther Every two days, sample was steeped in boling water to kill the maggots, They were then sun-dried and ground before analysis Resulls showed thatthe Crase Protein content ofthe mixture doubled by the second

ay, Soukoss (1992) produced maggots from Fibrous vegetable material end pouey’ droppings

"The method was developed for feeding fish, but can easily be adapted for smalhalder oul {A tank with a eapaciy of one eubie mete is filled with water 10 about 1S em from the tp Dried stalks of size, amaranth, groundnut, soy and other Tegumes are soaked in the Water to Which some pouty droppings are added, Fes and other insects ae straced tothe soaked material olay thie ena After ive fo seven days, eggs are hatched and larvae ae sufficiently

‘developed to be feo fish Beyond this period the maggo's develop ino adult fis, It vas

‘observed that up to $0 percent of the eggs lad hy flies died if expose tothe sun for severat hours A cover, atleast forthe hottest hous of the day, is therefore necesary Simalar tals have been eared out in Burkina Faso

Earthworm

ort er a (1992) produced eanhwors as soueeof protein for chicken feed nan ten of

25 mone kg of fesh earworm biomass was produced daly This is suficient supplement

at least 80 chickens with high-quality protein It must be noted, however, that earthworms (ad sails as well) may be important vectors for tapeworms Such as Puvainea and ailing and mm”

Other animal products

Aquatic animal products containing mineral sources include marine shells ffom mangrove oysters (Osrea ruipa), mangrove peiwiakles (Tympanostomusfuscars) and clams, and shells for nd soils: Marine shes ae abundantly avaiable in coastal areas Snails and ther shells are hanested from forests, but there is also ongoing development of productive snail farms It

‘is esimated that a box with a capacity of one cubic metre capacity on asa firm can yield 40 sail each year Ducks are an important bislogical contol of the sem-aquatic goken sna in

‘he Philipines and Bongladesh Other marine by-products, such as prawn dust and shrimp heads, supply both minerals ad protein

CONCLUSIONS

‘There ae fod resources availble for feeding pouty at all levels of production Smaller sing the semi-ntensive system who make thir own feed must base the rations on home: produced feed resources oF obtain the ingredients locally In backyard systems, available fesouroes should be supplemented with appropriate nusiens as necessary Food products from household waste fed to IRe-rage birds shoul also be supplemented, Potential sbstttes for expensive commercial feeds me casava, sticet pole, coco yam (Colocasia ecident), arowroot (Marantha arundinacea), coconut residues, coconut i palm oil and ther 200

‘eadivonal energy soures, Non-conventional eodduf which are good substitutes for fish mea ind soybean and groundnat off meals inchide earthworm meal, maggot meal, winged bea, Pigeon pea, jack bean, olla (4 pinata, A cavolnizna, 4 microplla), leaf meals and leaf protein concentrates,

to liferent regions, the importance of these fee resources for family poultry depends on

‘heir esilabilty in siMieient quanMUes for farm ute, simple preparation and processing

Feed Resources 2 methods, knowledge of the potential nutitive values and (for comparison) the price and avaiabiliy of conventional commercial feeds

For the family poultry situation with a seavenger Nock, fee-choice supplements with tree containers each containing either proten-ich, enerey-nch or mineral-sich fed sources wil

‘provide have an instinctual ability to select exactly what they need in the above food autient groups, a solution tothe problem of balancing mtn! intake for different age-groups Poultry and wl not overeat frm any one container Young growing poultry (unde Should always be fed in a “creep” system, where older stock cannot get acess to their feed two month of age) supply

Salsa poly production 23

Chapter 4

General Management

HOUSING AND RUNS

Under undomesticated conditions, poultry lạy exes in simple ness, perch in tees and spend much ofthe day scavenging for fed Chickens spend 2 large proportion oftheir time seating

‘expose hidden food Under the backyard and semiintensive production systems, pour are sully enclosed at night to discourage thieves and predators, and under intensive production, are totally confined day and night Some village households Keep thee few chicken inside the house oreven under their bed at might, to discourage thet

Given a choice of place to lay their eggs, hens will choose a soft “liter” base, and they prof an adequately sired (a cube of approximately 30 cm), darkened nest with some privacy Prior to laying, hens usually investigate a number of possible sits before entering & nest box

“They then show nesting behaviour, which includes a special protective nest-seekng voce, after which they sit and finaly lay When they have laid an egg they announce this with another ype fof “pride of achievement” cil These calls can also be head in a btiery cage house perches tre provided, hens will perch most of the ime rather than stand onthe wire floors, and ater dark most birds rost onthe perches Prching is a probable survival characteristic Wo avoid night predators The basic requirements for poultry housing are:

+ space

+ ventilation:

slight: and

+ protection (om weather and predator)

Space: density of birds per unit area

‘This is the most imporant basic principle in housing, as the space availble determines the

‘number and typeof poultry that ean be Kept For example a dep liter hoase measuring 6a by 11m can hold 200 laying hens ata stack density of 3 birds (3.6 find) Under the older system of measuring, stock density was measured inf per bird, which isthe inverse of birds erm used inthe metric system, incorporating 2 conversion factor of 0.0929 ai (for deta

ee the appendix entitled Abbrevitions and Conversions),

Linear space or length of perch per bird is measured in centimetres The recommended floor and perching space for the three main types of chicken is shown in Table 4

‘Table 4 Requirement of chickens for Hoor and perch space

Chicken ae Floor Spice Foor Space Perch Space

24 General management cages Over recent decades, animal welfare concerns have encouraged research on laying cage sSmctares to make designs beter sited tothe needs of hens, hile retaining costeflectiveness for production

Ventilation: air flow

‘Venilation is an important factor in housing A building with open sides i dea, otherwise sfose\endaioa at hd level shoud be allowed for inthe Tore of flor level nets, open in 3

‘ieotion to allow the prevaing wind 1 blow across the width of the Building, An air mass between the side walls of a poultry house resists being moved, even across an open-sided bulling The wider the building, the more the cesistant itis 0 air movement Buidings over 8

‘m6 fh) wide havea signtianty greater problem because ofthis inherent propery of ait to resist moverent I is recommended thit buildings relying on natal alow fr venation

‘Should ot exoeed 8 min with

Heat sess is a significant consiiat 10 sucessful production and can lead to death Although birds can withstond several deyrees below ffezing they donot tolerate temperatures

‘ver 40°C This depends on the relative humidity prevailing atthe time Poultry do aot possess

‘sweat glands snd-must cool themselves by panting out water in theie breath, which is evaporative cooling, When the humidity is to high, this cooing mechanism doesnot work very

‘wel Lethal temperatures for most chickens are 46°C upwards, and severe sess sts in above 40°C: In temperate regions, the chicken house may be constricted to face the rising moming

‘sun to gain beat Inthe topics however, an east-west onentation ofthe length ofthe bulking helps to minimize exposure to direct sunlight Building materials such as tin or other met should be avoided for this reason altbough white paint will fleet upto 70 percent of incident Solar heat radiation Ventilation concerns in building aligament may prevail over solar heat Control in tis aspect, as cross-flow venation requires the side of the bulding to face the prevailing wind

Ground cover can alo reduce reflected heat, Shade shouldbe provided, especially if there is litle air movement or if humidity is high With no shade, or when confined in higher {emperatures, poultry become heat stressed and irable, and may begin to peck atone snot When new pinfeathers are growing (especially on yeung stock), Hood is easily drawn, which

‘an lead to cannibals, The effects of heat tres ar:

+ progressive reduction in fed intake as ambien temperature sss:

«an increase in water consumption in an atrpt to lower temperate:

+ progressive reduction ingrowth ate: and

+ disturbances im reproduction (lower ex weight, smaller chicks, reduced sperm

‘oncentraton and a inreased level of abnormal sperm in cock)

Light: duration and intensity

‘A well-t house is essential A dark house leads to lethargic, inactive, unproductive bir Light important for feeding, as pouty identify food by sight This is especialy important for intensively managed day-old chicks, which need very bight 24-hour fighting for thee fis weck oli

Light is also an important factor in sexual maturity An increasing light proportion in the day, as naturally occurs from miawiner to midsummer, il accelerate sexual maturity in rowing pullets, bringing them to lay sooner If hens are aleady lying, the inreasng light proportion will increase egg production The opposite eet is als tre: a the light proportion ofthe day deteases (as naturally occur fom mid-summer fs slowed in growing stock, and ege production is reduced in laying heas These elles are to mid-winter), then sexual matty semevhat relueed towards the equator, a the difference in the daylight proportion of day

‘hangs les and es

‘This physologeal effect on poultry is important in teens of maintaining exg production in commerial Rocks, and fequies supplementary lighting programmes Regular and relable

cloeuici supply is required for such programmes, otherwise the eect ean be made worse by break inthe light supplementation system, A slow but steady increase maximises the rate of production However, lighting programmes producing an effective daylight peopotion in excess

15117 hours per day’ ean have a worsening effect on epg production, A 24-hour security lighting

"system ea have sch an let on egg production

Birds do best in sitions where there is plenty of natural light chat doss not mise the temperate ofthe hose, Natural light is preferable unless regula, reliable and wdl-diseibuled afc light canbe provide cis recommended tha the interior of the house be whitewashed

6 ellst light The intensity or brightness of the light is also important Ege production will decrease a ight imtensitis fone than five le (he “lux isthe metric unit of light intensity and can he measured by a meter similar to that measuring light ime into a camera lens, althous meat chicken will keep growing optimally at light intensities as low as to hx (oot bright

‘enough to read newspaper) These itensities are measured atthe eye-evel ofthe bind, aot

Re te light source Unless supplementary lighting is spaced uniferaly here may be areas in the building insuficienly lit to alow optima growih or egg production Designs for layout assure that te lightbulbs or tubes wil Be kept clean as dusty surfaces wl reduce light out

Protection: shelter sheds and buildings

Many’ fits inflence the type and choice of housing to protect poultry from the effets of weather and predators, These Flue the Teal climate, the available space, the sizeof the Tock and the management system In extensive systems, birds must be protected fom disease and Predators but also be abl 10 forage, Traditional lange anima fecing using live plans is not

‘enough protection against predators sch as snakes, ites, rats and ater vermin,

‘A simple and effective system to deter predator bird isto tie parallel Hines of sing across the main scavenging zea, the intervals between which measure Tess than the peda’

‘wingspan: 0, allernatvely, a tishng net supported on ples ean be spread actos he sie of he run where predator birds could swoop oa the scavenging chicks,

‘Leg taps cam be set for lege predators 18 not necessary set taps around ll the pens, as predators tend to atack the same pen on the second nigh Stel taps ean be boiled in walnut hulls or cocoa pes, both so caoufage them and to prevent rst The aps will be more effective i ot touched with are hands, as most predators havea Keen sense of smell stead, they should be handled with stick, rubber loves oe tongs

‘Rats, mongoeses and snakes are only a problem when she Beds are small Rats often come

up trough the earth oor, andthe fist signs of a at atack may be unusually quiet chicks huddled under the broader hester or in a commer, or dead ehicks with small bloody neck Scratches, Snakes il kill chick i they can get ino the brooder house A teblefsok ina

‘ead bid ean be left as bait the snake will wallow the hooks asi gulps down the bind and eventually die Holes around doors ang windows through which rats and snakes may enter should he plugged

Coops or baskets may be used to house mother hens and chicks in onder to reduce chick rmomality due to predtors, thieves and rain They also allow for separate fed) and water fupplementation, although the inadequate feed ustally provided in coops means thal some Scavenging remains necessary

2 General menagement

‘Table 4.2 Predator attack modes and contol methods

TRRN ‘Atak rr soa bid od wicks cet vary Ra psy rs weliags “That ra dip icy —

‘evil on bck One pct ie

Ramongoose ‘tehsil or sty ke etn bey cat and flowed asa poo

— Vi ealos cạp mứchoệc Use fant

Dự ai Gener ders ‘Try cath them Cas cn sm st —¬

‘rea ancy id on Tem Ps ehendandeas teat cep Willcany Maybe petal ‘ads my be ete nsome commit A pet

HOUSING IN FREE-RANGE SYSTEMS,

‘Overnight shelter which is roomy, clean and airy shouldbe provided under fee-ange systems Houses may be either Fixed of mobile If space permits, a mobile chicken house tay be appropriate, and to increase exg production, mobile folds or Feld units for laying beds can be )Ovided These rable units canbe rotated onthe range Adough housing is cheaper and there [less need for balanced eatons, the birds are exposed to the sun and proae to parasite infestation,

‘The stocking density on pasture should be calculated according tothe soil type and pasture management sjstem A night sheer for up to 20 free-range chickens can be tached to any evisting seucture, such a the fammer's outhouse, kitchen or dwelling In a deep liter sytem, there shoul be a density of at most three to four binds per square metre, In rgions where it rains heavily, the oor should be raised with a generous roof overhang, particularly over the nuance The mised floor can be a solid platform of earth or a raised bamboo platform The faised bamboo platform has the advantage of providing ventilation under the poultry, which hops cel them in hot weather and keeps them out of flood water inthe monsoons

‘The walls ofthe building ean be made of mud or bamboo, andthe windows and door of bhuboo slats The house cu also be free-standing, and may aso be suitable for semi-inensive

or ntensive production systems,

HOUSING IN SEML-INTENSIVE AND INTENSIVE SYSTEMS

Planning

Complete confinement is only advisable where:

‘there is good management;

+ reproduction i spread equally over the year

+ land is scarce or inaccessible all year round;

+ balanced rations are available:

+ apply of hybrid day-old ehicks i avaiable;

+ labours expensive;

+ parasite and disease contro are readily availabe; end

+ the objective is commercial production

“The reasons fr confinement ae, in order of pity, to:

+ reduce mortality due to predation in chicks under two months of age;

Small-scale poly production Ed + achieve higher daily gain and beter feed conversion in growers: and

+ allow beter supervision of production in laying hens

Inall confined systems, the location and building design must be carfilly considered The area surrounding the house shouldbe mown or grazed good location should meet the following

ould be easly accessible

+ Thete shouldbe a reliable water supply

+ The ground shouldbe well dined

It shouldbe a sufficient distance fom residential teas (fr enough to protet human health and clase enough o provide security forthe birds)

+ Te shouldbe well away from woodland

Converting existing fies can provide housing, although planing permission may have to

be obtained An umused outhouse kteen, for example, can be converted into a poultry house

I all conversions, maximum use should be made of the space available through cazefl planning

+ plan ofthe building should be dra to scale

+ Use should be made of existing floors and wall, if suitable

+ Space requirements of the birds and manure disposal shouldbe fen into consideration, +A feasibility study should be carved out, taking into consideration future plas and requirements as well as the economies of converting the building

Construction

“The oor is extremely important An ideal foo fora desp liter house swell dined and made

‘of concrete, wih layer of heavy gravel or wire mesh embedded in itt keep out ral This pe

‘of floor is usually costly Wood, hambeo, brcks of large flat stones (according to wha is locally available) can be used, but are harder wo clean Clay ors are cheaper, but quite the application of afresh layer of claycitce between flock batches or atleast annually In areas

‘where construction matenals are cheaper than deep liter, and particularly in humid tegions

‘where liter material is nt avalable, aise hors ate sometimes used These ae made of wire sesh, expanded metal, Wooden sas or split bamboo, tallow the droppings to collet under the

‘house, and should be about oae metre above she ground 1 allow fa cleaning and vention Higher floors may result in an unstable building They are supported by pillars, which ate ether rtresistant or hive stone or concrete Fotings, and which are made of Such materials 38 Wood,

‘bamtoo, oil drums and concrete blocks Houses with raised floors on posts ean be protected

‘against ras with bales The baffles enn be made of a metal ella, tin ean tured wpside- down or a mctal band wound around the post, but must fit tightly to deter even the stallst rodent

‘The roof and walls of the house can be made of ay inexpensive local material neluding bamboo slats, sorghum salts, mud, wooden slat and palm fonds, as Tong as the sree 5 imade relatively mat-proof In colder regions, the walls should be thicker or insulated, But in

‘warmer climates thatch can be used, although st should be replaced frequently to minimize parasite and disease problems The inside ofthe walls should be as smooth a possible, to Drevent fick and mit infestation and to make cleaning easier ltvior length-ways building Prins are not adveale, as they rode eos flow venation

‘The roof should be watertight, and should overkang the walls by one metre ifthe windows have no shutters The roof can be made of thatch, sheet metal or tes Thatch is usualy the

‘cheapest option and provides good insulation twill probably have tobe replaced every three

‘ears, or immediately if ticks gt into it [should be interlaced with bamboo of wooden Sas to keep predlors out Sheet metal i usually to expensive, and in hot climates must be painted

‘with White or aluminium o reflect sun heat However, i i easly cleaned which san important

‘advantage where ticks ae a problem, A layer of plastic shosting sandwiched between banboo

‘las is good seal against rain and vermin, Flatened oil drums can be sed at a Tower cost Although usually more expensive than dah, sun- or oven-baked tiles wil last mach Tooger Because of ther weight, th frame fra tiled roof must be stnger than fr other materi, Window design depends on the lea climate, Chickens need more ventilation than humans,

‘bu should be shelved front wind, dust and ran During siorms, wood or bamboo hinged hates o curtains made fom feed sacks ean cover window openings om the windward sie of the house In humid climates, window design should take as much advantage of the wind direction as possible o reduce the amount of moisture in the house Window areas are best

‘covered by wire mesh or expanded mictal Wooden slts or bamboo canbe uted, depending 0 swvalabe funds and materials However, the thicker the material the more ventilation will be reduced Doors should be male of metal, wood of bamboo The top half ofthe door could be

‘wire mesh Doors should be sufficiently strong to withstand being opened and closed many times a year

abled roofs reduce solar heat lading whea compared with ator lean-torofs The itch

‘or “angle of rise on a gabled roo i important for many reasons Traditional village tated fabled roofs ae usually constricted using bush timber, and at a steeply pitched angle (greater than 42° fom the horizontal), which helps the rof to withsand stormy winds Sallower Pitched roofs are maze suscepile to being blown off in strong winds, pancularly when the Pitch angle is 15° to 20° Shalower pitched roofs have less roof surface area, which reduces the fost of surfacing material, hut because they are more affected by story winds, they need Stronger suppor frames, which resus ina much higher overall roof cost A 42" pitch i the

‘opsimum compromise between roof surfacing costs and oof suppor cost

‘The maximum width for an open-sded poultry bung, under conditions ofa slight breeze,

‘which allows air movement across the she athe eight of the bid, is 8 mi (26), To maximise the volume and velocity of airflow across the shed width, the end walls ofthe shed should be closed This forces the arto flow across the shed width especially ifthe win isnot alzeady

‘coming fom that side Cente ridge ventilation isnot recommended, as it discourages aiflow serss the fll shed width Ae enters atthe prevailing wind side and is draw up atthe centre to tat the ridge, excluding the other al ofthe building

‘roups for larger numbers of hens, These are usually made of wood, aad should meastre pproximtely 30 cm om all sides, with nest lor area oF about 0.1m

Perches and roosts

(Chickens prefer to roost at night on perches Pershing space of 1S o 20 em should be alloted foreach bid Birds lower inthe socal peck order can also use the peehes during the day The srosr-section ofeach perch bar should be 2 to Sem Thei length depends upon the number of birds to be howsed The perches shouldbe placed within a iam, and aligned paalel to the

‘wal, and horizontally, witha siding, removable platform called the “droppings oad” about 20-cm below the perches to cach the manure droppings The fst perch bar should be placeé 20

to 25.em out from the back wall, and subsequent ones at 30 t0 40 em intervals The droppings board shold touch the back wall and extend 30 cm in font ofthe Font perch baz as hs will allow the bis to land from their Tight fom the floor before seeking a percing spot Droppings boas shouldbe a maximum of 75 em ffom the floor ofthe house, andthe perch han shouldbe about 20 cm above the droppings board, facilitate cleaning of the droppings hoa Fos deposit over half hee droppings night, andthe use of the droppings boards dus helps to Keep the Nooe clean The manute can then be easly collected, dred and sored in empty

‘Shalscol pouty production 20 feed sacks for use as an excellent fetlizer fr plans requiring organic nitrogen The area under the droppings board then Becomes an ideal site ora communal nes

Providing feed

tn bot intensive and semvintensve systems, laying hens need constant access to food an

‘water, and feeders should be distributed evealy throughout the chicken house In the semi intensive system, birds scavenge during the day, mostly for protein (from sich sources 25 insees, worms tnd arva, minerals (fom stones, grits and shells), and vitamins (fom leafy gfêehe 0i ml and nots), but energy supplements such as maiz, sorghum and mallet are important for higher productivity and shouldbe given, Chapter 3 on Feed Resources dissusses ingredients and feeding systems in more det

Feeders

{A good feeder shoul be:

+ durable enough to withstand fequent cleaning:

+ stable enough not to be knocked over,

+ of the core eight and depth:

+ bird proo suc that binds cannot get int or roost i i) and

+ equiped with lipo prevent bird fom spooning fed out ont the floor with her beaks

‘Tho heigh of the fed nse the feeder, which should never be move than ene-thinl fll, should

be level with the back ofthe beds, to preven hem fom scratching eomaminated liter into the

‘Reders and to limit fed wastage "This is achieved by advstng the height ofthe feeder ill

‘To tedace spoilage and mould problems, feed should be supplied at sunese and at about 14.00, hous (or more Trequenely ifthe birds empty dhe fede, wih ll feed finished By sundown, Feeders can he made of wood, sheet metal or bamboo, and are best suspended from the roof lo Xep rats out The height ofthe feeder should be adjustable Supplementary vegetable matter should be fed at beak level, ether Hanging from the ceiling wrapped in a srng or placed ina fet or placed ina loor-standing bopper with wise or slated sies It should no be thrown on the Moor

Feeder space is measured a the linear distance of lip available to te birds This is ether he circumference ofa round te-feeder tray of twice đe length ofa tough if the bids feed from both sides f rough are wed, a Teast 10cm of feeding space should be accessible to each Bt

‘When crcl feeder are use, there should be tas 4 em feeding space per bid

‘Table 4.3 Feed and feeder space equiements for 100 chickens

30 General management access hole (reinforced to form a carrying handle 3s well about 20 em wide athe tp The gaps

‘between the upright slats can be 2 to Jem a the boom and about Lem at the top The Aexibilty ofthe bamboo strips allows the size ofthe earyvays to be enlarged, a the checks tow bigger, Ifthe chicks are reluctant to leave their mother” side, then a more tightly forme weave ca prevent thei exit ance they are placed inside the coae though an opening atthe op

‘The bamboo ean he preserved from insect atack with a coat af used engine i

‘Beer nuiton for young stock boosts their immune respense to disease challenge and to vaccine response by developing fall immunity Gunararne er al (1994) reported tht chick

‘mortality rates could be seduced by the use of ccep feeders but that this did not increase the growth rate, However, when the household waste was supplemented with pretein and fd in the

‘rep feeder, both the growth and the survival ate of chicks increased (Rabens eal, 1994 Table 4.4 shows that annus] egg production canbe doubled because of the increased laying

‘ime avaiable othe hens i thee chicks ate fd in a eeep feeder after hatching (ratseyo et al, 1985), Ith gaps in the creep Teer are adjusted, it can algo be used for provers over eight,

‘weeks, and if given less than the fll ration, they wil Tear to compete for food with eter

Providing clean water is 2 priority often neplested The amount of water, the eight ype of

‘equipment and whore 4s situated a importet considerations Table 4.5 shows water

‘onsumption fates fr hot dry conditions, and these ean be halved fr temperate regions

“Table 4 Minimum water and watering space requirement for 100 birds in ot dry conditions

‘ther regions, especially in the abel and other drough-prone regions, fetching and carying

‘water is aerial task, usualy assigned to women and children tn the rainy season, clean water land feed must be placed in the house, as Inooding hens axe kept inside to prevent poor Iatchablity resulting fom contamination with mud and die

‘The simplest equipment is Gn can inverted into a soup plate or the bottom of a larger tin

‘an, A ole s punched sbout 2 em ftom the open end of the tn an The cans filled with wate,

‘Smatscale pouty production 1 covered with te pte and both quickly inverted, The poston ofthe punched hole and the

‘acum inthe in can wil eyulate the water Level in the pate Tin can waterers work ell bu quickly become rusty, especially in the humid tropes ela pot or gourd with holes around the

‘Sides sunk imo the ground for stability ean be used to water adil beds, Clay pots of any dimension can often be ordered from loeal pot makers, Because they are permeable they provide

‘water half a degre Celsius cooler than othe waters, as Beat fos through evaporation kecpe the water cooler This also means an appreciable loss of wate over ime, especially in very hot

‘ty areas, so thatthe pos may have 1o be made more impermeable by glazing If continnous

‘inking ough are sed, atleast em of tough should be allosd for each bird AKematvly,

‘one cup or nipple drinker may be provided for every ten bd,

BABY CHICK MANAGEMENT

Bay chicks should be kept warm and dry The nest whic they share at night with the mother hen, rust be kept clean In colder climates (below 20°C at night) the nest site should be Kept warn by liming twit sta and placing it nea stove or fireplace The chicks shoul remain with the mother hea for nine to fen weeks, earning fom her example how to scavenge and eval predators and other dangers Clean drinking water and fresh feed in a clean container shouldbe provided to supplement scavenging See Chapter 3 “Feed Resources" for more detail

on feeding techniques

There isa close elatonship between chick weight and growth and morality rates ln an experiment where young chickens had access to supplemenuary feed ina creep feeder (Rober tal, 1994), i was found that supplementary protein feed had a significant effect om the Survival rate and growth rate Chicks separated foen tbe mother hens during the day From the Sạc oĩ dược ta en wecle, and eé with chicken starter mash ad Wiitum, haa mortality rate of

20 pereent and a body weight of 319g at ten weeks, compared with morality rate of

30 percent and a body weight of 242 g forthe contol group which remained wih the mother inns See more supplementary dealin the section above, ened "Creep Feeding” A suitable strategy for rear chicks therefore would bea follows:

+ The chicks should be confined for the frst wecks of life and provided witha balanced feo

‘+ Avaecination programme shouldbe followed,

+ Sufficient supplementary feed should be provided during the remaining rearing period to allow the chickens to develop in aevordance wit ther genetic potential

+ Feed supplements and protection should be provided to naturally brooded chickens during the frst fourto eight weeks of lie

‘The composition ofthe supplementary fe will depend onthe avalable seavengable feed, but Tom of cafeteria fieechoice feeding ofa protein concentrate, energy coneentate and calcium

‘neal in each of thee containers may be the best sluton

‘The momtalty rate of naturally brooded eicks, whose any source of Teds fom seavenging undr free-range conditions is very high and often exceeds SO percent up weight weeks oF age

‘Wiekramenratne eta! (1994 Tound that predators accounted for upto 8 percent of morally and tat eoloued birds had a higher sural rte than white birds The high morality rate and {He large number of eggs requized for hatching ae the main causes of low oflake from scavenging poly Mocks Sith (1990) reported an ofiake sles and eonsbmpton) of ony 0.3 hickens per hewfear fou a survey dane'on Nocks in Nigeria This low oMlake has also beea

‘observed in Bangladesh and India

An efficient way of eereasing mort rate (a cosy loss sto confine and vaccinate the

‘hicks daring the rearing period This however is more expensive, the cost of feed in pareular increasing production costs A method used over the past ten years in many poultry evelopment projects in Bangladesh confines the chicks diring the frst cight weeks of ie

‘They are fed approximately 2kg each of balanced feed and thereafter kept under sem scavenging conditions At eight weeks of age, they are lest susceptible to attacks by predators

‘luc: Nitrogen i the form of urea isthe most volatile component of manure, an is lost as ammonia if moisture content is too high in the stored material Ifthe moisture costent is too high, then the stored manure releases ammonia, carbon dioxide, hydrogen sulphide and methane, which can have serious physiological effects on humans, Some ofthese components

fe also greenhouse gases, which contibue tothe global mrease in ambient temperate Poul manure is very useful as an organic ferilize, as animal and fish feed and as a raw material fr methane gas generation in biogas plans for cooking fel

Other hygiene management measures

Good vention discourages the spread of diseases and pests, In overnight houses, he provision of perches or loosely’ plated bamboo mats (sich as those used for sieving paced on {he foo ea hep to exp them dy

{the binds are housed inside, the Moor should be swept diy An ouside chicken house should te cleaned every week to break the breeding cyele of the common housefly Te akes about seven days te complete the breeding cycle fom fly egg to hatching ofthe adult house

‘Wood ash and sand spread on the Mlooe will discourage lice infestation Metall (eaphthaleae)

<nished sith ash cam also be applied tothe Tethers othe wings ofthe binds, of placed where

‘the chickens usually take their dust baths IF he chickens are already infested wih mies, the house eas be fumigated (ile the chickens ae ouside) with amg dread ia kerosene Lice live on the birds, and dust baths with napthlene powder in the ash willbe more sfective than

‘dust alone

‘The practice of keping chickens and ducks togetber should he discouraged This resus i wot lors giving ie fo diseases such at Fowl Cholera Ducks are alse mich mere tolerant tha thickens to Neweastle Disease, and ae thus offen caters ofthis Vial disease Aduls and Young stock of any poultry should be housed sepurtely to minimize croseinfections and ries rom bullying

MANAGEMENT OF FREE-RANGE POULTRY

The unrestricted free-ranging of pouluy i often a problem They wespass onto neighbouring fields snd gardens, and are constantly at risk fom predators Confinement i often not practical because ofthe cost of feed and Toneng, while surveillance is only feasible where the very od or

‘very young ofthe houschold hase rime to help Fencing of vegetable pots isin many cass the best option Placing meve cocks inthe village might reduce the movements ofthe chickens, as

‘he cooks and hens ofeach lock would keep mors to thei own teritory Cocks move within an cight-oten-bouseteitery, and hens within two or three houses,

Under the free-range system, the dilerence between the amouns of food gathered through scavenging and the total food requirement for maximum produetion should be Balanced with rutrients supplied fom supplementary feed To make up a popedy balanced supplement, iis

‘necessary 10 know the seavenger Teed resource base (SFRB) and the composition ofthe crop

‘contents (see Chapter 3, SFRB) If this isnot Known, iis recommended thatthe fowls have

‘accent (using a fee-choice cafeteria sytem) to three containers (or thes comparmens of 8 bamboo stem feeder of ingredients comprising a protein concentrate, a carbobyrate source (fot

‘energy) and «mineral source (ainly To caletum carbonate To eg shell Frmation fr the bea),

Sal scale poly production 3 Poultry should have fre aeess to this cafeteria sytem fortwo 4 three hours i the evening to supplement the day's seating

From a feed resource point of view, this recommendation is only svonomically viable (sustainable) ifthe consumption of supplementary Teed per egg produced equal 10 150 t0 180g oF less, Consumption of over 180 is only julie ifthe supplements are cheaper than the commercial Teed sed in intensive poultry production Supplements are usually recommended in the range of 80 to 80 /birddsy, $0 it i usualy quite viable Seasonal

‘aiations in the SFRB have a substantial effect on production, During the dry season, Seavenged feed from gardens, crops and wasteland (sich as grass shoots, sees, worms, insects

‘nd snails) tops, while the quantity and quality of hovseold kitchen waste decrease The feed supplement should be adjusted seasonally to maintain an optimum level of production or slkeratively the chicken population could be adjusted fo the amount ofthe SFR and he feed Supplement

Hens ia confinsment fed a balanced dict will conver food weight to egg weight at an eficieny of about 28 kg of feed per klogram of eag weight Changes in husbandry alone may Increase the productivity of scavenging village chickens, without the need for additional inpus

In planed orchards, a stocking rte of 120 to 180 bidsn wil clean up windfalls while aso feriizing the tees In this example the amount of ferlizer produced per ectare for 150 hens (Geighing two lalograms each) is based on the assumption of S00 g of fresh (70 percent,

‘moisture weight of manure produced per klogram of live weight per year This results in 330 g Gof eed manure (dred to a fen percent moisture content) per hen!yea, and tus the 130 hens Swill produce 49.5 kp of dry manure per year This has an equivalent fertiliser value of 13 peteent ammunium nitrate, 8 percent syper-phosphate and 29 percent potash (potassium) falls, Ths the 150 hens will praduce the equivalent per heciareiyear of 6.4kg of aramostium rita, 43 ky of super-phosphate and 4kg of potash sls

Planning flock production and size

Production involves birds fr meat and eggs For both meat and egg production, the umber of| clickens inthe flock is the mast mponant fctr Flock size changes constantly as exes hatch

‘ad hens ae sold or eaten Usually the main cause of lock depletion s morality, particulary in chicks Disease isthe greatst cause of morality especially in the rainy season apd in the

‘weuther changeable humid periods on either se During summer and the rainy season,

‘predators in he cropped Beds also comtbate to reduced flock sizes Local birds lay an average

‘of thee t four clutches of 12 te 15 egas ina year, with mere ezgs lad at crop harvest time because more feed is avaiable, Given mow traditonal farming systems, Keeping the Hock under constant equires eight to ten eggs for reproduction, leaving an average of 35 to 40 exes

po laer for sale or consumption Because the numberof eggs needed for replacement may

‘crease wih better management, he extea eps can be sold or eaten

‘Most egg laying takes place between sunrise to mid-morning, During the months of lying, rest locaton should not be moved, a this may ups the aying routine

Invillage flocks, income derives from the sale of exes and live birds For example, a Nock of

15 local hens laying 30 egasthen year (ith one local cock) will poduce 480 egas ins year Of these 480 eggs, 120 may be incubated by boedy hens (i ten etches of 12 epgs each), of Which 100 chicks may hatch, and 30 eggs may he cracked and consumed inthe household, leaving balance of 300 es fr sie OF the 100 day-old chicks, 30 may’ each maturity (with rearing losses of 70 percent to yield 15 eockerel and 15 pulls The 15 pallets wil replace the

‘older hen, of which len remain after he sale of cll hens, an one new cockerel wil replice the

‘old cock, The annua income from the lock can therefore be sacle as fllows

300 eyes + Hold hens + fod cock + 14 cockerels * income For improved productivity, culling is important and produstive birds should be carefully seleciad For sinpiciy, he above example assumes no adule morality

General mangement (CASE STUDIES OF FAMILY POULTRY MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS

A free-range system in Ghana

In he trina fee-range system ofthe Mamprosi ibe in northern Ghana (van Veluw, 1957),

te farmer releases his 19 chickens and six guinea fowls from the space under the grain store teach momning Grains are thrown onthe ground to feed the Birds, A young boy takes eare ofthe beds during the day and protees the crops from poultry damage Occasionally the boy wil feed the birds with apiece of termite hil, and i the evening he retues withthe flock and locks them tuner the granay store

‘Chicken hers lay throughout the year, bu guinea fowls lay only in the rainy season, Chicken hens produce abot 20 to 40 eggs year and guinea fowls about 50, Most ofthe eggs are used {or hatching Chickens aso hatch guinea fowl eggs as guinea fowls are not good mothers, Hatching takes place throughout the year, although most of the hens focubate ther exes in the rainy season A reproduction cycle (laying, batching, caring fr chicks and resting takes about

20 weeks Morality is high (75 pereet) among the young chicks Out of en chick, only about

‘wo reach adulthood, doe manly to disease, predators and road accidents, Neweasle Disease in particular kills many poulty in he dry season Worms a intemal parasites are a great problem,

‘weakening the bids Predators include snakes, bids of pres ats ad dogs Mortality tp to to

‘months of age is 50 percent, vith a firler 25 percent therater upto sevvel maturity

Hatchabiiy of guinea fowl eges is very low (4S percent) corapred with chickens (72 percent) Farmers keep hens for about thee years and guinea fowls for two yeas, after which Dredvetvity decreases considerably and they are elle,

‘Table 4.6 Total annual production ofa Mampras average flock

Scavenging commercial hybrid layers in Sri Lanka

Ina study caried out by Roberts and Senaratn (1992), Sti Lankan villagers reared hybrid egg layers in sem-scavengng system Day:old hybrid chicks were brooded under the heat of 3 stall kerosene lamp, The chicks were provided wit ite mised supplement of teal eropby- products, comprising 40 perent ree polis, 50 peteent expeller coconut meal and 10 percent broken rice, The Proximate chemical analysis of this supplement was 16 percent Crude Protein,

B percent Crude Fat, 7 percent Crude Fibre and 7 percent Ash

The amount of the supplement increased from 8 10 60 pbird/day uni 12 weeks of age, and vas maintained at 60g thereafter The growth rate was 38 bird ay up to 20 weeks of ae The morality rate of the chicks was only four percent inthe peiod up to ten weeks, which compared favourably with mortality of 68 percent upto six weeks in Indonesia (Kington and (Creswell, 1982) and 25 percent up to eight weeks in Thailand Thitisak ea, 1989) 1m chicks hatched and reared by ule hens The comparative advantage of the Se Lankan performance was arributed to supplementing the competitive scavenging and to the protection against predators provided by the semi-inesve management system Its probable that chicks would sso benefit fom the use ofa simple eteep feeder foe feeding kitchen waste The morality rte,

in the Sei Lankan example, increased after reaching ight moaths of age, perhaps du to a fteaternoed for scavenger free-ranging, and almost reached a cumulated 60 percent lass by 13,

+15 percent Neweaste disease;

+15 pereent intestinal infection;

+S percent stolen;

+4 percent accidents (vehicles and falling coconuts}: and

+ 2 percent attacked by humans

‘Hens lid ther first egas when they reached 21 weeks (146 days) oF age although 40 percent

‘production (on a hen day basis) was not achieved until they were 30 weeks oF age Peak egg Production was just over 60 percent, A severe drop in production (beginning when the hens

‘Were eight months of age) coresponded with an outbreak of Newcastle Disease in local village binds and the start ofthe long dry intermonsoon period Production fell to below 30 percent when the hens were ten months of age, and slowiy rose again to over 60 percent at

13 months of age The recovery in production began during the dry period and was

‘maintained into the next season, Egg production was comparable with that of hybrid exe layers, which were introduced into the village as pullets, provided with a supplement and allowed to scavenge

“The produetion was mach bere than the 121021 percent reported in village birds ia Indonesia (Kingston and Creswell, 1982) and in Thailand (Janviriyasopaki et af, 1989) and (Creswell and Quaawane, 1982) The ege weight reported by Roberts and Senarane (1992)

‘was 60 g compared with about 40 g for village hens (Kingston and Creswell, 1982)

‘A free-range system in Senegal

Ina study caried out on farms in Senegal (Sall, 1990), Hoek sizes ranged fom under five birds to more than 15 binds, with an average flock size often bids, Seven percent of the ANocks comprised under five birds, 38 percent comprised five to ten binds, 41 percent

‘comprised 10 15 binh, and 14 percent comprised mone than 15 bird

Flocks with fewer than five birds had either recently lost hens or had hens that had

‘ot yet hatched their eggs Flock size varied considerably during the year, due to additions (atchings, purchases and gifts) and to chickens either sold or lost through disease or predators The birds were permitted to scavenge during the day and were locked into wooden

‘cages (ngownow) at night for protection The cages were made on the farm fom wvailable materials (inching bricks, galvanised iton sheets and wood) The doors were small, 0 prevent entry by thieves and predators, Stock density in the cages was abost 25 binds’, Feed and water was available to supplement kitchen waste and seavenging

‘The proportion of young chicks and growers inthe flack was about 60 percent while adults represented 40 percent, Morality in the frst month of age was 40 percent There were four to five clutches of eggs lid per year, with lo 15 eggs per chitch Egg weights ranged between 38 and 43 g with an average of 40 g Almost alleges were set for hatching and of

‘these hatchabilty was about 80 percent The production cycle was eight © ten weeks (10 10

15 days for egg laying, 21 days for incubation, and only 34 days for rearing), The chicks remained close tothe hens for up to two weeks, during which time there was a relatively low mortality rate of [4 percent On leaving the immediate protection of the hens, mortality increased sharply to 40 percent between three and four weeks, and up to 66 percet by tree

‘months of age Similarly, the average daily Tive-weight gain of birds under this extensive system decreased from 10 g at eight weeks 1 6 g at 12 weeks,

‘Table 4.7 Village flock structure in Senegal Source (Sa, 1990)

Source Sal, 1950