principles and practices of small and medium scale fruit juiece processing pptx

FOREWORD “This bulletin presents both theoretieal and practical information on the processing of fruit and vegetable juices, thus offering the reader both the principles and practices of

Principles and practices of

small- and medium-scale

fruit juice processing 146

Principles and practices of

small- and medium-scale

fruit juice processing

146

Rome, 2001

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FOREWORD

“This bulletin presents both theoretieal and practical information on the processing of fruit and

vegetable juices, thus offering the reader both the principles and practices of small and

medium-scale fruit juice processing,

While large-scale juice processing is the subject of many textbooks and other printed or

electronic publications, small-scale operations generally receive very little atention

“The purpose of this publication is to fll the gap in information available 1 professionals as

well as private entrepreneurs, mainly in developing countries It is the medium and

small-scale agro-industries that more appropriately fill the needs and capabilities of these

‘countries considering the available volume of production and the capacity of local markets to

absorb products

‘The bulletin is divided into two parts The first gives the general principles of fruit and

vegetable juice processing, It starts with a general history and background of juice

production and continues through fruit composition, juice grades, harvesting and

post-harvest handling ofthe fruit, and on to the general principles of juice manufacturing and

presentation It also covers the processing related products such as jams, jellies pectin

‘essential oil ete

“The second part describes in detail the processing of specific juices as well as the major

by-products Citrus juice, especially orange juice, receives particular attention Specific

chapters are dedicated to grape, apple, stone fruits as well asa long lis of tropical fruits The

methods of processing of major vegetable juies are also covered

Finally, the publication presents a list of printed as well as electronic sources of information

for further reading,

FAO will be pleased to receive comments and provide any additios 1 information required,

Please address enquiries to:

‘The Chief

Agro-Industries and Post-Harvest Management Service

agricultural Services Division

FAO of the U.N

‘Via delle Terme di Caracalla

(00100 Rome

ITALY

[IIIIIIIIIIIII

rest season and m

G18 _A word of caution regarding processing systems 37

PAGE

10.2 Phytochemicals 103

(CHAPTER 11, PRACTICAL ASPECTS OF CITRUS JUICE

11.36 Beverage hases and londing agents 118 11.3.7 Health, nutraceutical citrus beverages 118

L144 Evaporation, concentration of the juice, storage und

-Lš_ Saxing money by manufacturing 72°Beix concentrate 126

115 Principle pisces of citrus extraction equipment for use at an

PAGE

1155 Small-scale citrus juice pasteurization 128 11.6 Overview of small-scale fruit processing equipment with

11-7 Sanlisten and sò4 mangfaeturin

mac

126 Processing factors that influence quality HẠ

PAGE

CHAPTER 13 TREE FRUIT: APPLE, PEAR, PEACH, APRICOT AND,

CHAPTER 16, VEGETABLE JUI

PAGE

PART 1 GENERAL PRINCIPLES

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION AND HISTORICAL BACKGROUNI

1.1 Purpose of publication

Over the past several decades there bas heen a grosing (rend toward adding value 10 raw agricultural products As populations have become more urban, this trend has accelerated The need for stable, convenient foads has increased along with the demand for exotic products for international cuisine Within the globalization of the Food industry, the demand for quality juice and juice type heverages has markedly expanded Traditionally, only

4 handiul of fruit and vegetable juices fave served this market ‘multinational

‘companies or thie aiiates, have captured the majority of national and intemational juice trade, Juices such as orange grape, pineapple, apple, tomato and blends are well established

in developed countries, Now, minor juices, wopical juices and juice prexiucs are atracting new attention,

‘Trade and technical literature available reflect these trends, These isan impressive body

ff published plus increasingly, Internet information on all aspects of the juice and juive beverage industry Juice processing technology ranges trom individuals prep

‘home for family consumption to multinational conglomerates with several intereannected high capacity plants and juice product lines serving global demands However, thete is far less alleation paid 10 minor juices, small or local manufacture of such products and the specific problems faced by praducers whe have not share inthis growth

‘major and minor fruits will be covered with emphasis ypon Timited-resource producers for local markets Unigue bigh quality juice products can secure a niche position, With attention

to quality, value, safety, health and an innovative approach t© these parameters, ä

nove beyond the niche category and become a major player This is a more task,

manafacture

đifñieult hụt

“Thee are some general principles that should be understood by anyone contemplating entering the juice processing business, Many aspects of production, postharvest handlin food safety, quality, unit operations, processing and packaging procedures, as well as regulatory control are common to practically all juice products Then there are a number of prodiet-specific detils, dependent upon the morphology, composition and character of the individual froit, This publication will provide adequate details so interested parties can either improve existing operations or develop new processing establishments Potential capabilities include adding value 10 local agricultural produets, providing employment, augmenting the quality safety, economy and diversity of the local food supply

This entails a working understanding of food science and technology In turn, it requiees attention to the knowledge resources availle though unevenly accessible globally

‘good technical library with the latest texts, supplemented by complete journal holdings, abstract services and as their electronic equivalent Internet finkages and on line search capability is an expensive undertaking for even the most affluent institations Such facilities remain a remote possibility in developing countries, Hewever equipment

dropping and the pace of information technology advances las never been faster and will have lobal implications,

Dramatic advances in information technology (IT) promise 1 greatly: enhance

‘echnical information transfer in all fields, including Food Seience and Technology (FST), When that time arrives, texts such as this will be on line with the key subject matter including hyperlinks to relevant references, sources of suppliers, national and international sgulatory aspects and marketing information Updating will involve periodically introducing new material and replacing obsolete information, ‘Phe FAO Website (FAO, 20004)

is an excellent example of this evolving trend, However, hard copy texts provide the necessary insights and guideline for the near term,

Elegant technology does not negate the need for a fundamental understanding and working knowledge of the science and technology behind juice manufacture, Sophisticated processing machinery, computer data acquisition and peocess control will not replace hands-on experience with specific commodities Close observation and! manipulation of & crop from breeding advances and cultivation to final juiee consumption under varying circumstances will always be necessary It is made easier by technology, but it 1s not replaced by it, In fact, the experienced juice 1

understanding of local raw material, global practices can improve the efficiency and profitability ofa juice operation,

chnologist with a comprehensive

International visitors to modern juice processing facilities are often in awe of the clegant, sophisticated, costly operations they view, unaware or forgetting the tremendous wesinient in human capital required 10 arrive at that point Guests from even the poorer regions of the world should recognize that they possess untapped human resources, potentially skilled Iubour and, most importantly, an agriculural envionment where many foods can be grown that are impractical to grow or process inthe temperate sone

Visitors may then recall vast heaps of fruits in their own country going to waste d Jack of markets oF processing outlets, The logical conclusion is to vonsider developing 4 local juice processing industry basel on the impressive operation they are viewing This is sill, puting the cart before the horse The many logistical and infrastructure hurdles, which inust be overcome before the fist fruit is processed will not he evident t9 most visitors Indeed, the rusting hulks of once modem food processing plants can be found in many’ regions of the developing world, a testament to inadequate planning by the international assistance community and thei local counterparts

Fruits are ubiquitous in most temperate and tropical zones, There may be ample ra materials available for short seasons, which mostly goes to waste due to the lack of processing facilities, There are opportunities for small and medium seale producers who are unlikely to compete directly with major international Firms Yet there are untapped national markets With a realistic attitude, attention to competitive advantages and a strong business

‘commitment, growth including export opportunites are achievable goals Challenges are great, but success has been achieved in the past and will be again in the future We hope readers of this text will be amiong the successful ones,

‘The resulting pulpy Nid, easily separated from seed and skin, is generally more Nlavourful than the more solid portion, Hunter-gatherers could either consume quasi juices directly or collect the soft fruit in reasonably leak-free containers for later use Simply transporting the fruit any distance soon guaranteed juice Except for cool temperature climates, storage life was limited t mere hours before incipient fermentation modified the character of the juice appreciably,

‘igure 1.1: 18th Century olive ofl jar from Caribbean shipwreck

Courtesy Florida State Museum

Through trial and error humans Jeamed practical ways of extracting juice fom varions Sources and, most importantly, which attractive but toxic fils to avoid, Tool making skills fostered the manula

Fos, including receptacles for Muids were also devised trom local resources, ie woven plant fibre and wood, clay soils and animal skiwinestne Such methods and equipment can sil be found in isolated pre-industrialized regions Otherwise they are seen only in muscums as prehistoric or early

+ ehilzations Uni funy recently, liquid containers were quite primitive compared

Ln, ture of devices for macerating fruits and extracting juices Containers for storing

‘The perishable nature of juices dictated immediate consumpion within less than 24 hours in

‘warm elimates and extended bt stl limited time in cooler environs, Natural chilling or freeing was {he only altematve to microbial modification ofthe juice Such fermentation was the bass for wine, Was found that he juice, alter bubbling mysteriously has a disinty ilferent characte and ft

‘on those consuming the product Also, the material red several days longer slovsly tured ashy

‘cide oF developed an even nce unpalatable surface growth an taste This early vinegur was used asa preservative for other fruits and vegetables Grape domestication followed this discovery

With the development of agriculture over the last 10 millennia, the cultivation of erops provided fil reliable source off inching fruits appropriate for juice and beverage use, Unless the juice was consumed fresh, soon aller pressing, fermentation was the likely, often desired

afmiL

consequence until preservation techniques were develope Infact the concept of maintain

<estned for juicing in ts whol, inact forty unt the juice is needed continues o be a sound principle, Even today, maintaining the Grit intact is one of the easiest ways of preserving juice quality

13 The value of juice

‘The global market for juice andl juice products was estimated be about 50 billion Ties inthe kate 19906 Inthe United States of America alone the real commercial valve ofthe almost 20 billion lites of juice and juice products exceeded USSI8 billion, roughly 3 percent of a total food sales expenditure of US$630 billion, World tae has accelerated over the last cade with developing counties achieving over 0 percent of fruit juiee expos, Brazil the largest citrus producer, aceounls for about 25 percent of world preduction Juice utilization in decreasing

‘onier is: Orange, apple, grape and pineapple (Brandon and Feri, 1998: FAO, 1999),

Despite the more perishable nature of juices, there are many’ practical reasons for theit

‘manufacture, processing and increased consumption

+ The more decate, soft fits cannot be kept intact over long periods and tend to deteriorate before or at harvesting, Juicing isthe logical aliemative,

‘© Even more durable uit may have poor size, shape or blemished potions that preclude

‘marketing them as fresh whole fai Upon trimming and careful inspection, the sound Ponton can be juiced In this text, it wil he continually: emphasized that unsound fruit

‘or those undergoing incipient spoilage are not recommended for juicing However, use

of sound culls represents a sensible, technically and economically valid utilization strategy,

© Juices can be consumed more conveniently than whole fruits a

‘motorist in speeding traffic (cell phone in hand?) oF « mother holding an active child, both _motorists attempting

Juice container “Dashboard dining” is @ way of life for many, therefore juice products and clever packaging play a key role,

(0 peel an orange vs, handling an easily opened

© The very young, elderly and infirm may’ have problems eating, let alone pe

<cetain fruits Drinking juice is an effective, nutritious alterati

{In addition wo the nutritive value of juices andthe additional health benetits from phytochemicals, recently recognized components of many fruit juices will increase the popularity of such products,

* ‘Muids promotes development of unique blends oF juices with

‘other products and practical combinations not found naturally

š s are the basis for ä rABge 0Ÿ jMlce co-products, such as sytups ie cream and confectionery Hlavours, smoothies, bakery ingredients, ete Moder processing, packaging, ingrediont technology and distribution systems insure safe, stable and appealing juice and beverage products in a convenient, {economical fort Far from

Indonesia

and enjoyment (Table 1-1) This trend has

ites of America with «traditional market in

<100% Juice beverage blends Confectioneries

Carbonated beverages Cocktail mixes

Fruit leathers ‘Yoshuriffermented dairy produots

Tee ereamn and sherbet Smoothies

‘Natural nuirientsphytochemicals Fruit flavoured waters

Nesiars and nectar bases Bake goods

“Table 1.2: Juices

Product Forms—fuice, Puree,

Concentrate, Powder, Aqueo

Extracts, I

Clarified Juice in/Seed/Peel

Blueheny Passion fruit - Yellow and purple

Blackberry Peach - Yellow, red and white

‘Grape Juice — White and ved ‘Natural fruit sweeteners

‘Guava ~ Pink, white ‘Natural lrut/vevetable colours

CHAPTER 2

DEFINING JUICES +1 me definitions

Juice is defined in the most general sense as the extractable fluid contents of cells oF tissues (Merriam-Webster, 1981) Although many fruit juices are the obvious result of

‘expressing the liguid from the whole or cut fui, there are some fruits where the distinetion is nol so apparent, For exatnple, squeezing peeled mango flesh yields bile juice, until the Nes

is comminuted, Even then a thick puree is the end result In contrast, eomminuted apples yield

a readily expressible juice Adding water to mango puree would decrease consistency, bat itis not considered juice The fluid expressed from lemons, limes and excessively acid fruits is

ut dilation with sugar and

certainly juice, but the liguid is t09 sour to consume directly wi

water 0 produce lemonade or Timea

concentrated and later reconstituted with wat

essential composition and quality factors of the juiee The addition of sugars oF 20

ppermited but must be endorsed in the individual standard” (FAO, 1992)

Tate

manufietu 2.1 lists some juice and juice-like terms and designations, Tradition ancl

procedures dictate the distinction between jue, puree and pulp Juices may be prepared from nearly all fruits f desired, but parees or pulp may serve commercial needs more economically Banana is easily pureed, but more eflo and expense is required to produce a clear juice from the pulp Even att as refractory as mamey zapote that yields very Tile free juiee ean be extracted with added water and then concentrated back to the starting Fruit soluble solids level Suategics for dealing with difficult or impossible-to-juice produce will be examined later

11 is absolutely: necessary for someone staring a juice manufacturing operation to

‘become Familiar with the regulations and requirements of their market For commercial purposes itis important to define the differences carefully and insure that specifications and labelling are correct There are circumstances where a 10 percent juice or puree product is

‘impractical while dilution with other juices and/or water and sweeteners are practical as long

acids and low cost bulk juices are

lied dilution and adulteration are common, unethicul trade practices to be rigorously avoided and condemned,

‘Table 2.1: Some common juice designations

Pare juice 100% LAN,

Fresh squeezed | Not pasiourized | Held refrigerated, Food safety concerns

ice ‘No adjustment, not trom concentrate

Tiệc blend! All ‘A mixture oF pure ise

Pur Palp-containing [ More viscous than juices, vtally Fa

Nectar Palpy or clear | Sugar, water and acid added, 25 10 50% jue

Nectar hase Requires assesses sufficient Havour, cid and sugar to FequITe

reconstitution | water dilution for consumption”

Tuice dna Tow in juice — [Conta

Tule beverage | Low in juice | Contains 1010 205% jee

Tuiee cocktail | Low in juice [Contains 1010 20% juice™

Fruit + ade Tenvonade [Contains >108¢ frat juice, Sugar and water”

Tice exteact | Water extract Frit extracted by water, then concenirated™

Fruit punch “Token juice | 1 juice, + natural Navours

For the purpose of this text, juice is the fluid expressed from plant material by

ind pressing It can be clear, cloudy or pulpy Juice is classified as puree if the resulting consistency is fluid that pours very slowly of pulp if it pours even more Slowly To complicate the matter further, juices that are concentrated for preservation,

‘handling and storage and reconstituted for consumption (labelled “juice from concentrate") should be diluted back to approximately the same solids level (designated as *Brix oF peroent soluble solids) ofthe inital juice The amount of add-back water ean vary substantially even within a given fruit, so reasonable commercial standards are set (FDA, 1999) Table 22 illustrates some juice solids standards,

Codex Alimentarius reconstitution levels ate slightly different and in all eases lower Brix than FDA (FAO, 20008), For example, single strength apple juice can be 10.2

reconstituted concentrate must attain 11.2°Brix, unless the original juice was lower In

‘Codex specifies the minimum juice and/or puree content fo uit nectar, between 25

ring upon the given (rut

Cashew (Caiu) 120 | Pineapple

Cherry dark, sweet | 20.0 | Pomegranate

Cherry Red, Sour 140 | Prune

Cranberry 75_| Raspberry (Black)

Currant (Black) 110 | Raspberry Rew)

‘Currant Red 105 | Rhubvb

In the ease ofa juice not listed in Table 2.2: "If there is no Brix level specified (Section 1.3) te labelled percentage of that juice from concentrate ina juice or juice beverage will be calculated on the basis of the single-strength (as originally expressed) juice used to produce stich concentrated juice.” (FDA, 1999) Thus the original juice soluble solids or degree Brix defines reconstitution limits This is not simply generic, since within a species Brix may vary ver two-fold, ie, depending on the species and cultivar, grape juice soluble solids at maturity can range from about 1210 26°Bris

% HIỆP

line: AOA TS

Sometimes the common name for a juice varies contingent on culture For example Cider in the United States is usually understood to mean cloudy, unfermente

apple juice 1 the juice is provessed or clarified, itis then called apple

indicates the presence of alvobot by natural fermentation, Sweet cider also distinguishes

‘non-fermented apple juice trom hard cider Other cloudy juices such as pear and grape are Similarly designated pear eider (ar petty) or grape cider and certainly contain no aleohol However in the United Kingdom and elsewhere, cider and petry are partially: or tully

tral

Fermented apple and peur juice On the other hand, orange juice, also possessing a

cloud, ould in no instance be termed orange cider, Clarified it is referred to by the lunappetizing term, “orange serum” Tomato juice and derivatives are another example of

mies for similar tems (Table 16.1)

dive

Fruit types dictate the mechanics and ease of juice extraction (Arthey and Ashute, 1996), There are about nine categories of fruitegetable types (Kader, 1992; Kader and Barret, Somogyi, eral, 1996a

© Pome traits ~ Appl c, pear and quince, 1 classic examples,

© Citrus ~ A range of well and lesser know species make up this category Orange, grapefruit, tangerine, lemon and lime are in wide use, but other citrus suck as

‘pummel, tangerine and uglifruit, have unique characeristies worth exploring,

© Stone fruity — These have a well-lisinguished pit and include peach, plum, apricot, cherry and mango,

© Soft Fruits ~ Although morphology varies greatly, these frit have flesh dha has 3

ore, but can be easity deformed Grape, strawberry, pineapple Demy fits, kiwi, papaya and lychee, are some examples,

‘© Fruit vegetables — Watermelo

‘Tomato and sotanaceous vey ales are also inthis category, cantaloupe and various melons are fruits by wse

© Leafy, flower and st

utilized from among th n vegetables ~ Only rhubarb bas lui ke character and is

iny vegetables ofthis type,

‘© Tree nuts — Although the seed isthe desired crop, cashew uit has value and there fare undoubtedly other (ruts in this category where the outer flesh has juice potential The ripe coffee berry s remote example,

‘© Tropical and subteopieal - Generally treated as a separate category, although the previous categories cover most species

‘There are fruits that do not ft clearly into these definitions, or differ so múch

‘according to cultivar and maturity state that they are intermediate, For example, a soft mature mangosteen falls apart upon pecling, whereas Tess ripe, firmer one can he pecled and

As with juice definitions, there is some disagreement over what constitutes a fruit Custom dictates the distinction that a tomato is a fruit, but it i$ normally regarded and

‘consumed as a vegetable, Similarly, peppers and cucumbers are vegetables: yet watermelon, ã member of the cucurbitaceae family along with cucumber, is & vegetable but used as a fruit Pepper juice is viewed as a strange concoction, although perhaps with some merit (Chapter 16) In contrast, the plant stalk or petiole portion of the ebubarb is consumed as a frit while

‘the swollen inflorescence of broecol is the epitome of a vegetable

A rough, arbitrary, but recognizable distin

acid or sweetened with oF without added acid for consumption,

enhance the juice favour it a vegetable

jon is if the juice is sweet and somewhat

isa fruit I salt andor spices

For the purpose of this text, most

yielding a sweet (usually aeidic) juice oF puree front any portion of the plant customarily consumed and considered a (rut will be covered, along with some major vegetables Leat stem and root exacts are presently gaining gre

phytochemicals and have relevance in the context of juice by-products and autraceuticals {Section 3.3)

sor and some minor horticultural crops eapable of

attention as “teas”, herbal medicines oF

3.2 Fruit/juice general composition

‘The stracture and functional axpeets of fuits detate their composition, Table 3.1 shows some typieal constituents of fruit (and subsequently juices) and the range of values dependent upon fit, cultivar, cuktvation, maturity an other factors to be presente Hater

‘Table 3.1: Fruit edible partion composition ranges® (Fresh weight bas

Component | Range Comments

Water 97-10 | Inftuenced by eutvation and post-harvest conditions Carbohydrates 2573] Sugars and polymers - pectin, hemicellulose

cellulose Prot Stace | Mowe in oily fait and seeds

Lipids 25-trace_| “Traces in cell membrane n sees, bigh in avocado

‘Acids S-wave | Citric, atari mali, lace, acetic, ascorbic + minor Phenolies 05 -taes | Tannins and complex phenols

Vitamins (0.2 -teace | Water soluble > fat soluble

Minerals (0.2 trace | Soil and species dependent

Dietary fibre | <lto>IS | Peel and cove dependent

Pigments ‘0.1 rave | Carotenoids, anthooyanins, chlorophyll

© For more specific generalized values see USDA, 2000a,

‘© The major component is of course, water derived from the extra and intracellular Huid necessary for metabolic processes and maintenance of cell turgor Water

‘content can range from 97 perent in some wild berries to 70 percent in over ripe _prapes and less than 50 percent in fruits drying naturally on the plants

© The nonaqueous portion contains lerally hundreds of idenstied compounds with + range of natural sugars andor suzar polymers namely gucose, fructose, starch, cellulose, hemicellulose, pectin, usually representing the majority ofsoids, These solids

a categorized as (1) soluble, whieh is eadly expressed inthe julie ard (2) insoluble,

‘consisting primarily ofthe press residue Other soli such as stem al sometimes skin, core and seeds, are the inedible components, but may have by-product value

© Other macro components are fruit acids, responsible forthe fart taste and Low pH,

of many but not all fruits These are water-soluble with specific acids contributing importantly to the ter of fruits and juice Principal organic acids are citric, tartaric, malic, lactic acetic and ascorbic and range from trace amounts to over 3 percent Trace amounts of phenolic ac

anthocyanin or carotenoid pigments te tannins which provide astringency’ er phenolic compounds ranging from Nutrients suck as protein, lipids, amino acids, vitamins and minerals, ace present

to varying degrees, as are Mavour and aroma substances

Lipids deserve special mention, With the exception of olive, avocado, aekee and il palh fruits, Fruit lipid content i very lows less than 0.5 percent, except in seeds The absence of lipids is reflected in the reasonably low calorie value of Tri juiees and their important role in fat avoidance diets Nevertheless, the fatty acid profile of Fruit lipids and the accompanying ta-soluble vitamin level are quite good, actually

“heatt healthy”, High Tipid fruits are incompatible with juices, although avocado puree merits consideration

Despite the small amounts of some compounds, they can influence dramatically the spe ‘or health value of the fruit Many ntimic (frultspesjle) and extrinsic {etraction- dependent factors inhuence juice composition, as will be emphasized, Food composition Tables provide a reasoaable First approximation to fit and jdlee make up (USDA, 200d) [Nevertheless there a be substantial differences inthe sane species anl analytical experience with

«given cultivar under controlled prediction and proeessing colons is very importa

delay the onset or continuation of ebeonie diseases in hms and animals" (Gul and LaChanee, 1997)

* “Any food ingredient that may proxide a health be efit beyond the traditional hutvients it contains” (Hasler, 1998)

Fruits and their juices are an especially ood source of phytochemicals (Table 32) Close to one thousand lfferent phytochemicals have been found in plants and the identification and promotion of hitherto unrecognized compounds with eal of imputed health value comes unabated, Infact, the seien i Dhytochemicals, mechanism of action and beneficial effects (oxic properties alson, will hecome apparent and ateibuted wo trational and exotic juices

e isin its infney and ati

Given the propensity of some consumers to place the therapeutic value of medicines

‘over foods one company even incorporates the active ingredients from 17 different tits, tables grains, fibres and probiotics, into capsules ana chewable pills, Their iralemark,

‘Juice PLUS” acknowledges the phytochemica? value of juices OF course juices and blends are a Less cosily and more appetizing alternative albeit requien

mote attention and awareness fom the consumers port

(One unique and faseinati

are symihesized in plant pars i

"`

siilbene type compound has be

dass of phytochemicals is phytoalevins, These compounds

response to external sess, i.e, dro

chemopreventive effects against cardiovascular disease and cancer Red apes juice and

‘wines have significant amounts of such compounds, believed to be in part responsible forthe death benelits of eed wine and atebued to thee antiosidaan properties (Aaa, ea, 2000,

Needless to asthe tt

‘composition of frat health atibutes that can be optimized by the juice processor, even 40 and the expressed juice provide a range cof pleasing sensory an

the estent of imprsin hon the raw’ material

‘Table 3.2: Some phytochemicals in fruit and vegetable processing protective properties

‘against cancer and cardiovascular disease,

[Antioxidant Vitamins Ascorbic | Many fits and vegetables ‘Acid (Vitamin CY

FTocopheras Vitamia E)

Selenium a soil mineral) Incorporate from s

Carotenoids (Some have ‘Most yellow/reorange Fruits and vegetables, dark green [Carotenes provitamin A Tay vegetables

Aathyanins coloutless, highly stings or Navourles

[Favonevisofavones Apigenia | Some ve

[GiucosinotaevTadotes ‘Gracferous vegetables possessing pungent Favour

Dithilthiones| [Brussels speous, cabbage, hracol, cauliflower, oe

Phytosterois and Stanols

Sulphur (Ai) “ln Vogsiables posses pungent avout

Sulphides ‘onion, gai, chive, shall, ete

CHAPTER 4

JUICE SAFETY, GRADES AND STANDARDS

4.1 Safety, safety and safety

1 there is any theme worthy of emphasis to the estreme in this text, it must be safety Lapses in food safety do not only adversely impact the b s Flagrant safely errors have and will ruin the reputation and financial health of the offending food company Food safety violations have caused the demise of companies and prison sentences for culpable executives Worse yet, highly publicized safety lapses indict an entire industry implicating the innocent majo whee

availability of many natural snd manufactured juice constituents offer a blending opportunity

‘ot available to formulators working with solid foods The versatility of juiees plus the many mixing options are also 4 temptation to cut comers by economie adulteration

“The ease with which juiees can be altered with sugar water or inferior juices has and continues to atvael unehiedl suppliers, Fortunately, advancements in analytical chemistry and instrumentation together with fruit and juice composition data banks make aadaleration easier vo detect (Nagy’ and Wade, 1995}, Deleetion methods have more than ep

úp with adulteration schemes Detection of doctored juices is expensive but fairly Slesightlorward (Fry, Martin and Lees in Avlurst 1995) Thus k ational movements fof juice are reasonably well monitored, although local, marginal producers continue 10 slip though the net

Such unethical practices can also be dangerous, as there have been many’ sage incidences of poisonous ingredients being added 10 juices Fortunately, most counties now have food regufations an enforcement mechanisms that pre

elfons, another serious safety” problem associated with juice consumption has arisen Contamination of juices with pathogenic mictoorganisms’ such as E-colt O1S7 H7 and salmonella hive caused sumerous illnesses and some fataliies (Table 4.1) Although it

ality, surveillance andl detection methos! are becoming much moge sensitive AL the same time, outbreaks are becominy

newsworthy All reported cases of contamination by pathogenic microorganisms were duc 10

nals popula segment of the juice i ations,

fresh, unpasteurized juices This is an inc

Ter isa curious irony in juice-induced food! bore iinesses Many common foods of plant and animal origin are much more hazardous and contain higher levels of more dangerous microbes than do fruits, However, if these fools are normally cooked before

Table 4.1: Fruit-associated food poisoning outbreaks*,

‘Orange juice 1962) Hepatitis 8

‘Grange juice (1966) Gastroenteritis agent

Apple cider 1980) -Enverotoxigenic Ecol

Gzange juice 1992) Enyerotoxigenie Ecol

‘Apple cider (1993) Cryprosporidin ịp

Waneemelon juice 993) Salmonella sp

Oxange juice (1994 Gastoeneritis agent

[Orange juice 1995) S hartford S gainers, S nikita

Apple vice 1990) Coxprosporndinn parvum

Orange ice 19991 Salmonella enterica

Grange juice (19991 Salmonella renchen

tOimge, síapefnui, lenonads (2001 Salome enterica

Adapted trom Parish, 1997; Beuchat, 1998; Powell and Luedike 2000 and expanded

Acid fit juices below pl 4.6 were once deemed a minor bealth threat due to the high

‘aid, Furthermore, refrigeration temperatures (helow SC) represented an additional hurlle tờ pathogen grovth, until the discovery that Lisveria monoesiogenes can grow down to 2C,

‘When juice spoilage did occur it was usually a refleetion of the indigenous microtlors,

1 mould and lactic acd bacteria, Nonetheless the emergence oF hitherto wasuspected food pathogens with acid resistance combined with increase in susceptible individuals immunocompromised, chronically il, the very young and very elderly, has dramatically changed this picture More stringent regulatory safeguands are now called tor at all levels, i.e, provincia ational and international, Thus for safety

Fruit juices are subject seit regulatory contol, Safely must always take precedent and sti limits on production, harvest, transportation, stor

labelling and distribution now exist, These are ineomporated nto Good Ag

(GAPS) and Good Manuiaetwring Practices (GMPS) with Hazard Analysis and Ceitical Control Poin (HACCP) procedures beit

emphasized as appropriate

——+

ieulural Đnietiees

‘plied throughout the Food chain, These will be

4.2 Quality

Alter safely concerns comes economic and quality considerations, A produet ean be perfectly sate and completely fraudulent, As the sale of & proxiut labelled fruit juices may in fact consist of no or Title setual fruit components Thus the development of standards for fruit juices is incarporated into most courtey’s regulatory codes, These repulations include the

‘employed the amount of fruit content required for various juice designations (Table 2.1) the soluble solids

waKional trade (FAO, 2000D) In the matter of a trade, specitic standards are negotiated between major suppliers and users Far example, the Florida Department of Citrus the stae's industry controlling agency, has standatds that exceed other norms and prohibit citrus juice manufacturing practices common in other regions (Plorida Dept Citrus 2000),

In addition co existing intemationsl national and local faifaice standards detailed, industey-specitic written quality specifications should be developed Along ith the safety and alory aspects, clear raw material specifications facilitate elficiet processin

‘on the preduetion floor and uniform, consistent quality 10 the wholesale and retail purchasers, Reliability and wast throughout the food chain is essential, These standards should consist of physical compositional

‘sontaminants, Table 4.2 indicates some appropriate general specifications worth developing, if enforeeable naiomal

‘vanishing low numbers of pathogens, some with "zero tolerance levels, ‘Thus there fis beet

8 substantial increase in import denials and product recalls hased om levels of contaminants,

“The economic

‘microbial and chemical, that were undetectable and unimportant a decale

floss, not to mention the liability è

4.3 Regulatory concerns

In industrialized nations and international trade, every step of juice manufacture fron

ial cultivation through marketing is subjected 10 some type of reg

story contol Although some regulations ean be onerous, burdensome, even unnecessary there isa defi te need 10 control food comme sms The history of food control and the situations

existing prior to development and enforcement of food laws surely justifies governmental

‘oversight (Hui, Somogyi, etal, 1996a: FAO, 2000b and c), The to prineipal needs are

Insure the safety of all foou materials, ingredients, processes and packaging Safety is of paramount importance In high throughput manufacture, if a safety hazard is not detected and corrected somewhere in the production/supply chain many consumers can be adversely affected We have seen how microbial or chemical contaminants (defects in a small amount of rav material) can be blended into a large batch to be rapidly and efficiently Ast

‘correspondingly greater consequences Errors ean affect large numbers of, in the ease of undeclared allergens or low level hazards, only susceptible individuals, usually with more serious results, Neither is acceptable

Here human health is not compromised, hut the consumer or parties in the supply chain are cheated, Furthermore, such cheaters have an economic advantage over honest merchants and, if not discovered and eliminated, thrive

‘al the expense of others, In view of the complexity of juice and beverage labelling las, there i a grey area between outright fraud and misstatements A clever blend of high fractose com, organic acids, Mavours, colours, mutriens,

‘and phytochemicals ean possibly atch any natural beverage in appeal and health benefit, bụi te chùm it as such is clearly dishonest, Declaring the

seeurate juice percentage (if any) on 2 label implying fruit juice content is legal (Figure 2.1),

“Ttratable acidity and pF fines acid balance

11 Fruit cultivar

Human selection of plants for their more dejtsbie Features has heen practiced for thousands of years initially by trial and error, more recently by scientific Knowledge applied

to plant genetics and molecular biology, Thus &

varieties available including some derived from the wild, others specifially developed by brseders and combinations of hoth, Recent advances in understanding the molecule basis of plant genetics and how the genes and growing envizonment influence traits, promises 10 Fevolutionize agriculture, once the polities snd emotions are resolved

en within @ given fruit there are numerous

Frais originating inthe wild have evolved to he reasonably robust and eesistant to natural

‘environmental slesses, diseases, insects and other predators These waits, however, do not hnscessuily favour concentrated production systems or edibility, The exception is i consumption

by wildlife promotes pollination or seed dispersal, Human population pressures furher impact

"upon native phan species, therefore except for exotic plants remote from civilization, most fuis

ăn in te geneies an locaion,

are substantially removed from tie or

Special cultivars, developed with criteria such as yield, location adaptability resistance

to disease, insects, drought tolerance harvest period, case of cultivation and harve handling and storage durability, processing characteristics and sensory appeal (colour, taste, aroma, texture) are characteristics now determined by commercial breeding practices (Table

5.11, live quality considerations are also important in many fruits such as citrus, geape apple pineapple and others Spec

preferred forthe fresh market Some cultivar end uses are dictated by Fruit supply, condition

nl evonornies and saris by season, loction and market depending upon fruit quality:

ie cultivars dominate the juice trade, while others are

Nevertheless all species include eulivars that are bighly inappropriate for juice (or consumption for that mater) such as bitter, intensely sour orange rootstock Bitter wateimelon contains eucurbitacum, a very bitter compound (The selective planting of Dviter melons that have no different sppearane to normal mefons in a commercial Field ean

Irom those with deliciously sweet, smooth textured flesh o fibrous bash tespeney fruit, Some True species awe even toxic and avoided by experience 1 is conceivable, even

jeu! nutraceutical vale, but

mm

probable, that such inedible ar toxie Fruits may possess unree

safety and palatability are the present criteria,

Fruit breeding criteria,

Plant hardiness Survival, resistance to drought, cold, heat, ete

Disease resistance Plantifrit survival, reduced pesticide use

Plant morphology Ease of cultivationfharvest

Fruit morphology Ease of harvest/processing, high yield

(Composition Quality, economie/autitive value

Seasonality Availability, market demandiprice

Fruit durability Marketing/handling/provessing

Coleur Appeal value by-product potential

8.1.2 Cultivation practices

The condition of a fruit tee oF plant throughout the season from Flowering to fruit

ically influence juice quality Practically all cultivation parameters ean influence quality and composition (Table 5.2) Season, location, fentilzer application, form and timing, irrigation, amount of precipitation, temperaure, sun exposure, plant spacing and pruning, disease, insect and predator stress influence fruit quality and yield In the interest of quality, uniformity and yield, horticulturists constantly: strive to overcome unfavourable conditions that may be a Tresh, unexpected challenge each year For the commercial grower there is never an “average” season or erop: quality prices and supply vary accordingly

‘maturation can dan

Unforeseen, variations in weather can have a significant effect upon fruit quality

‘quantity and juice characteristics Unseasonable freezes or hail can decimate a erop oF send Suit destined for the fresh market immediately to the juice processor Inscet and disease damage also affects the fresh marketability of fruits and excess or inadequate rainfall Influence juice solids, favour and composition, in contrast to whole fruit quality, juice

\ariability can be somewhat overcome by blending of juice stocks or amelioration, if permite

x0

Tuble 5.2: Cultivation factors influencing quality,

Ti Hares period: plant survival, market

Cultivar ‘Yield, desirable juice Waits harvest peviod

Plant spacing Yield, ease of cltivationiharvest

Plant care Yield, ease of harvest quality

Pru ‘Yield, maturation, ease of harvew

Tniga0on Fruitjuice yield quality

Fenilzaion Growth, designation (ie ONTO)

Pesticide use Fruit quality, designation, regulations

Field protection ‘Yield quality (Bird, varmion damagey

Field sanitation Tuice safer, quality

Tabour taining Fruit quality eulivationtharvest elfeiency

Cultivation also influences food safety a topie for ongoing

fruit production, organic or otherwise an additional concern is the use of manure as Fentlizer, Foot poisoning outbreaks involving jwices have been «raced back to the use of manure Frit that has fallen on the ground, becomes contaminated and is later collected ana uiilized Even where manure is not used or is properly: treated before application, the potential for frait contamination by insects, wild life oF field workers dictates cautious handling and sanitary practices Good Agricultural Practices (GAPs) are the fist line of defense against such dangers (FDA, 1998; FAO, 2000 and c: Rangarajan, era, 2000),

iphasis, In the ease of

[A further concern may be pesticide residues A erop ca

be over tolerance far permitted pesticides,

© vated with permitted pesticide but foo close to the barvest date,

possess trace amounts of pesticides permitted in country of origin but hanned by imposing countries,

cen trivial Wwind-blown amounts of any pesticide from adjacent Fields can negate the organic label

* for organically grows produee the situation i etitical, since

Table 5.3 lists some potential salety hazards assoeiated with crop cuttivation, ‘There have been food poisoning cases attributed to al, Increasingly fruit producers who eannot demonstrate GAPS to heir buyers will be at a competitive disadvantage nationally: and xernationslly Some governments certify only certain growers to produce erops for export Iinplict throughout the production chain is the importance of u quality labour force, Without trained, adaptable, motivated workers, commercial success is unlikely

ety hazards from farm to factory

Toseetabondance | Di damasveomamisaion Minimize by mteproted pest management Mould growin [Afatoxin production ‘Carel Feld and Factory senting

Walee quay | Spray or iigation contamination | Monit/veat water source

Manere ‘Contaninates crop Discardveat manure

Postcides Unauthorized or over we “Train applicators, minimizelionior use Harvest Poor worker tation “Tisininoiata/monitoe workers

Handling Unelean contanersequipment | Sanitation programnme

Transport Unsanitary contanersiansporten_| Sanitation programme

‘All of above | Unsafe frat Rigorous GAPS

Rec ‘Contamination at factory Enforce GMPS

S13 Harvest season and maturity

The seasonal availabilty oŸ lui is the major determinate for juice manutactoring, Ideally, the maturation of desirable cultivars is either spread over a long period or different Fruits can be harvested consecutively so that a juive operation cam process for an extended season if nol most of the yea Figure 5.1 indicates the Nontiem Hemisphere seasons for some :majoe juice crops OF course, variations in alte and miceoctimates ean modify or extend the

‘season to some extent, Furthermore, unseasonable andlor variable weatter ean play havo with {uit availability and processing schedules Although the northern and southern hemisphere seasons complement each other (and thus serve global fresh produce demands) the economies

ff producing juice from ripe frit precludes such long distance hauling The operations are best performed ressonably close to production areas, The globalization of the juice trade refleots regional availability

There is an important distinetion between plant maturation andl fruit ripening (Kader, 1992), Maturity velates to the full natural development of the plant whereas ripeness is the

\desiced stage for consumption or processing Thus a trut such as avocado or peuch may he

‘mau, fully developed and ready tobe harvested, but far ftom ripe, requiting earetul ripening sondifons to achieve optimum guaity

Fruit ae living structures and undergo complex changes during maturation, ripening and into senescence that influence quality As fruits mature on the plant or after harvest the

‘composition may change dramatically Fruits are classified as (1) Climac ming they hhave a definite peak in respiratory rate for production of carbon dioxide and ethylene, (2) Nonclimcteric where there isa gradual decrease in respiration and CO, release (Wills, eta 1908), Table $.4 indicates the parameters alfecting fruit ripenin

istinguishing features of ripening

Harvesting Seasons

of Various Fruits